ELECTRICAL TRAINING MODULE 1

Electrical voltage
The same goes for electricity: For current to flow, there must be a "difference in electrical pressure" between the
two ends of a circuit, which are the terminals of a source.
This difference in pressure is called the "potential difference" or "p.d." or VOLTAGE and is what causes the
movement of electrons within an electrical circuit.
The source (battery, alternator, mains plug etc.) is the element which imposes a potential difference on all
receptors fed by the source.
The unit of measurement of this voltage is the VOLT (V).
Potential difference in this case: 12 – 0 = 12V

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

The measuring device used to measure voltage is the voltmeter.

Most often, a multimeter in voltmeter mode is used.
Since a voltage measurement is a difference, the voltage at a given point in a circuit can only be defined by
comparison with another point in the circuit. For that reason one must ALWAYS CONNECT the voltmeter between
two different points of a circuit. The voltmeter is said to be connected in parallel.
In the circuit shown opposite, battery terminal B has a potential of 12 volts. Comparing the potential of terminal A
and that of terminal B with a voltmeter, we find a value of 12 volts. Since terminal A is regarded as having a
potential of 0 volts, we conclude that terminal B has a potential of 12 volts.
In practice, terminal A is the negative terminal.
Vocabulary:
- Referring to a voltage of "8 volts at a point in the circuit" means that the potential difference between the point
in question and the negative battery terminal is 8 volts.
Referring to a voltage of "4 volts at the terminals of a lamp" means that the potential difference before and after
the lamp is 4 volts.
The values shown in the diagram opposite are typical of a circuit with two lamps mounted in series.

Procedure for measuring voltage

1. Disconnect the power supply from the circuit.
2. Find the location in the diagram and the circuit where the voltmeter is to be placed.
3. Connect the voltmeter while observing the polarity (connect + test lead to the + terminal of the source) and
choosing the correct + terminal (depending on the value to be measured).
4. Choose the range (a.c. or d.c. voltage depending on the type of source). If the order of magnitude of the voltage
to be measured is not known, choose the largest value for the range (likewise paying attention to the choice of +
terminal).
5. Switch on the source (power supply).
6. Alter the range to obtain a value containing as many digits as possible (for a more accurate reading).
7. Read the value.
Measuring current
The measuring device used to measure current is the ammeter.
Most often, a multimeter in ammeter mode is used.
An ammeter always has to be connected in series in an electric circuit in order to measure the current passing
through it (like a water meter in a hydraulic circuit).
Therefore it is necessary to break the circuit at a certain point in order to incorporate the ammeter into the circuit.
The currents present in an electrical circuit often quickly reach the maximum performance of an ammeter (10 or
20A maximum). For that reason, these devices are protected by a fuse (but not necessarily for all ranges).
To measure large currents (not measurable with a conventional ammeter), an ampermetric clamp is generally
used.
This device has the advantage that the electrical circuit does not have to be disconnected in order to take
measurements.
The ampermetric clamp measures the size of the magnetic field around the electrical conductor in order to
determine the current.

Procedure for measuring current

1. Disconnect the power supply from the circuit.
2. Find the location in the diagram and the circuit where the ammeter is to be placed.
3. Cut (or remove) the link in the circuit where you want to insert the ammeter.
4. Connect the ammeter while observing the polarity (connect + test lead to the + terminal of the source) and
choosing the correct + terminal (depending on the value to be measured).
5. Choose the range (direct or alternating current depending on the type of source). If the order of magnitude of
the current to be measured is not known, choose the largest value for the range (likewise paying attention to the
choice of + terminal).
6. Switch on the source (power supply).
7. Alter the range (if range adjustment is manual) to obtain a value containing as many digits as possible (for the
most accurate possible reading).
8. Read the current value.

You must isolate the component whose resistance you want to measure (or at least one of its connections),
without touching the connections with the fingers.
If you do not take this precaution there is a danger that you will measure the total resistance of the electrical
circuit.
A multimeter used in tester mode provides a quick way of checking a wire for continuity or open circuit (a beep
sounds in case of continuity).
Ohm's law
When it comes to electricity, voltage, current and resistance are likewise linked. A change in voltage means a
change in the current, just as a change in resistance within a circuit alters the intensity of the current flowing
through it.
Where the electrical consumer is a PURE resistor, in other words it converts all the electrical energy received into
heat, there is a simple formula which links voltage (U) to current (I) and resistance (R).
This formula is called OHM's LAW and is expressed in the form:
U=RxI
Therefore this formula can also be represented in the following ways:
R = U/I Or I = U/R
If we know two of the variables in the formula, it is an easy matter to find the third by calculation.
Here are 2 examples
To perform the exercise you will have:
• The patchboard with its wires and resistors.
• A multimeter
• A calculator
1. Measure and note down the total voltage of circuit "U".
2. Fill in all the boxes in the "measured" columns, starting from the box at top left (the TOTAL voltage of circuit U).
3. Calculate the resistances using Ohm's law, based on the measured voltage and current values.
4. Check the resistance values with the multimeter.
Perform the same operations for the series and parallel circuits (next page).

The exercise for the parallel circuit follows the same principle as for the series circuit.
1. Open the series circuit
2. Close the parallel circuit
3. Check the total power supply voltage (U)
4. Perform the operations necessary to fill in the table in sequence
5. Observe the differences compared with the series circuit.
Electrical circuit with 3 resistors mounted in parallel
Example: U = 12 V
R1 = 5 ohms ; R2 = 10 ohms ; R3 = 15 ohms
Complete the diagram, indicating the value measured by each device.
Enter comments on the results obtained
The voltage at the terminals of each resistor is identical and is equal to the power supply voltage of the circuit.
The current (= intensity) is shared between the 3 branches of the circuit and the sum of the currents at the
terminals of each of the resistors is equal to the current supplied by the source.
The higher the value of the resistors, the lower the current.
Replacing the 3 resistors with an equivalent one delivering the same current means that this resistance (Re) is
smaller than the smallest of the 3 values already present.
By calculation we can see that:
If: 1/Re = 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/15 = 0.3667
Then: Re = 2.73 ohms
Electrical power
As you did with Ohm's law earlier, fill in the empty boxes of the table, this time using the power formula.
The electrical power depends on the voltage and current that are present.
Power (P) = Voltage (U) x Current (I)
The unit of power used (and not only for electricity) is the Watt (W).
As with the hydraulic circuit, the power received is not always equal to the power supplied. This depends on the
resistance of the conductors in the circuit (losses in the conductors).
For example, a corroded battery clip may be enough to generate an increase in resistance, therefore a reduction
of current and hence a reduction (loss) of power in the circuit fed by it.
Power received by a resistive receptor P = U x I = R x I2 = U2/ R
A 10% loss of voltage means 10% less current, therefore 9/10 (U) X 9/10 (I) = 91/100 (P)
10% drop in voltage means nearly a 20% loss of power!
A blown fuse should not be replaced until the short circuit has been traced and rectified.
You can replace it with a high-powered light bulb (e.g. H3, 24V 70W) connected by two long wires ( +/- 1.5 m )
soldered to an old blown fuse: see diagram.
The short circuit is present as long as this light bulb remains brightly lit.
Make a quick calculation of the amperage: 70W / 24 V = …… A
Make sure you do not have as much current or more current than flows with short circuit repaired and consumers
lit!

A common cause of malfunction.

A short circuit to earth.
There is no longer any consumer on the line and the fuse has the maximum current passing through it.
The fuse blows.

If you get an incorrect result: you made a mistake during the measurement. Voltage cannot simply disappear - it
should be traceable!
A small difference is acceptable due to the accuracy of the measuring apparatus.
CHECK:
V1 = (battery) = V2 + V3 + V4
V2 = voltage at consumer (ideally would be V1, but this is impossible!)
V3 = loss to earth (circuit): bad earth connection, presence of corrosion, insulating layer of paint etc.
V4 = loss on the positive side, resistance to current flow: switch, relay, connector, wire with too small cross-
section etc.
As we know from the calculation, the sum of the partial voltages is equal to the total voltage.
 Magnetism/electromagnetism

Let us take the same conductor as before and wind it into a loop.
When current flows, a magnetic field is created around the wire. The lines of flux are all oriented in the same
direction and all enter from the same side of the loop. We find that the lines of flux are heavily concentrated in
the centre of the loop. Their effects are combined and the centre of the loop is subject to a strong magnetic field.
This is the place where the field is most intense, or most concentrated.
If a conductive loop with a current flowing through it generates a magnetic field, what happens if we create a long
coil made up of a lot of loops?
Note: A long coil is called a solenoid.
We find that the magnetic effect of each loop is combined to create a more intense magnetic field. The power of
attraction becomes greater and can be exploited.
Looking at the lines of flux, we notice that the field is more intense at the centre of the solenoid and at its two
ends.
Applying the rule presented above, we can identify the north and south poles of the electromagnet.
If we add an iron core to the solenoid we find that the magnetic effect is stronger and the ability to attract
ferromagnetic materials is greater.
This is because iron has greater magnetic permeability than air.

The type of relay most commonly used on Scania vehicles is the mini-relay.
The assembly consisting of solenoid, core, switch and return spring is fixed on a plate and protected by a plastic
cover.
Displayed on the cover is an electrical diagram of the component (details on next page) showing the numbers of
each of the terminals of the component. The numbers of each of the terminals are moulded on the base plate.
This makes the terminals very easy to identify.
These relays are designed for a maximum current of 15 amps. The resistance of the coil is approximately 300 ohms.
Identification of terminals:
85: Solenoid earth
86: Control of relay (by a +)
30: Input
87A: Relay output at rest
87: Relay output activated
Note: on many relays, the connections of terminals 85 and 86 can be reversed.

The relay can be used to control a consumer.

As an example, let us take a simple circuit and analyse the sequence of actions.
1_ What happens when the switch is operated?
The coil of the relay is excited. The power supply voltage of the circuit can be measured between
terminals 85 and 86.
2_ When the coil of the relay is excited, it attracts the contact to position 87.
The contact closes, allowing current to flow.
3_ The contact is closed, current flows.
The lamp lights up.
Electromagnetism is also used in a solenoid valve.
The diagrams on the right represent a solenoid valve currently used on Scania vehicles.
How it works:
A ferromagnetic core is placed inside a coil. It is held in the open position by a return spring. Being equipped with
a seal in its upper part, it blocks a passage and prevents the circulation of air coming from the associated reservoir.
When the coil is energised it generates a magnetic field, thereby pulling the core downwards (towards the centre
of the coil which, if reached, represents the neutral position of the core). The orifice at the top is then opened and
air flows from the reservoir towards the outlet of the valve.
This example illustrates just one of the many types of solenoid valves available on the market.
Two things allow us to simplify matters in this way:
- Heavy goods vehicles have a 24 volt power supply, which is below the human danger threshold of 60 volts.
- The vehicle body is made of steel. This, like all metals, is a conductor.
The advantage of this set-up is that less wire is needed for the circuit, which helps reduce production costs.
The circuit is said to be earthed.

We conventionally distinguish between electrical wires which are powered when the vehicle ignition is switched
on from those which are powered permanently.
In vehicle wiring diagrams these distinct lines are identified by a number.
- The "+ before key on" is identified by the number 30.
- The "+ after key on" is identified by the number 15.
Note:
- The term "key" refers to the switch incorporated into the "Neiman" starter switch.
- The wires connected to the – battery terminal or the chassis earth are identified by the number 31.
 Alternator

Double alternating rectifier.

By using 4 diodes mounted in a bridge configuration it is possible to rectify the "negative" current and achieve a
situation where, no matter which direction the electrons are moving in, they are always directed towards the
same terminal of the circuit.
With this circuit, we utilise a greater part of the current induced by the rotation of the magnet. This current
remains constantly positive, but it cannot yet be used to power a vehicle's electrical system. The voltage and
current are not constant, but vary all the time. It is necessary to "smooth" the current for it to be truly continuous.
Note: The two circuits shown here are equivalent.
To keep the voltage below a certain threshold, a "voltmeter" measures the voltage (terminal D+) at the alternator
output.
Once the maximum value is reached, it operates a switch (between terminals DF and D-) which cuts the earth
connection of the rotor.
The coil circuit is now open and can no longer generate a magnetic field.
The stator no longer supplies current and the voltage drops below the regulation threshold at the alternator
output and at the terminals of the "voltmeter". The rotor is then reconnected to earth.
This cycle operates constantly as soon as the alternator generates electricity, and this allows the voltage to be
regulated.
Nowadays the regulator – comprising the "voltmeter" + switch – is an electronic system. It contains no moving
parts.
The regulator does not control the intensity of the conductor field in a gradual way.
It can only cut it or reinstate it (= all-or-nothing system).
That is why it is permanently in operation, at the rate of several regulations per second, in order to maintain a
correct voltage.
The regulation threshold for a Scania is 28.8 volts. This is the optimum threshold for recharging the batteries.
However, this value can vary depending on the outside temperature. It varies from 27.6 volts at +50°C to 30 volts
at -18°C.
W : Speed signal.
Connected to one phase of the alternator.
L : Charge confirmation signal.
Used for operation of the charging indicator lamp and line relay 61.
15 : Charge control terminal.
Equivalent to terminal 61
Earthing of this terminal stops the alternator from charging.
If this wire is disconnected and is not earthed, the alternator switches to emergency regulation mode (reduced
voltage) and the charging indicator lamp should come on.
BS : Battery sensor.
Not used on Scania vehicles. By using a sensor mounted on one of the batteries and connected to this terminal,
the alternator would be able to raise or lower the voltage at its output terminal B+ sent to the consumers.
DFM : Charge capacity
PWM signal proportional to the current output by the alternator (in relation to its nominal capacity at the speed
in question).
Components
1 Control solenoid
2 Coupling arm
3 Inductors with terminals
4 Rotor with commutator
5 Starter pinion
6 Brush-holder with four brushes
See 16:06-31 on Multi for all additional information.

The starter motor is activated on the one hand via the control voltage (voltage 50) and on the other hand via the
power supply from the battery (voltage 30).
Voltage 50 is activated via a relay. The precise activation of the relay varies depending on the vehicles and
equipment.
When voltage 50 is activated, the control solenoid of the starter motor is energised. When voltage 50 is cut, the
control solenoid is deenergised. Voltage 30 is supplied directly by the battery and the alternator.
Position with forced return of starter 50. 2 variants: identify them in the diagram.
Also look for the path taken by the starter control before the starter engages.
Study this for the 2 variants.
Diagram corresponding to the previous slide. Thanks to the new M1 generation of starters, a conductor cross-
section of 1 mm² going to the starter
is sufficient.

 The acid level should be approx. 10 to 12 mm above the plates.

A level below the upper edge of the plates can lead to immediate battery damage
The specific gravity should be measured in all cells. The difference between the cell with the highest value and the
cell with the lowest value should not exceed 0.03 kg/dm3. Greater differences indicate the presence of cell
damage which means that both batteries must be renewed. The table below is intended for measurements at
approximately 15°C or above. If measurements must be carried out at temperatures of around -10°C and below,
remember that the gauge will indicate a somewhat higher value in cold weather.

The condition of a battery can be reliably checked by subjecting it to high current discharging. The battery
is subjected to a high current load (up to 600 A) for a predetermined period. The method provides good,
clear results, but requires special equipment.
The advantage of CAN communication comes from the centralisation in one place of different pieces of
information which are then shared, via a network consisting of 2 wires, with other control units distributed all
over the vehicle.
This reduces the number of electric wires needed in the vehicle. The CAN network also makes it easier to share
one and the same piece of information between different electronic control units. One and the same sensor can
be used for different functions.
The cabling can be reduced by as much as 2 km in length and 100kg in weight.

In our vehicles we have three CAN networks distributed according to the importance of the systems which they
cover.
Explain the protective function of the COO.
1 Air processing system APS
2 Instrument cluster ICL
3 Visibility system VIS
4 Lock and alarm system LAS
5 Bodywork system BWS
6 Tachograph TCO
7 Crash safety system CSS
8 Automatic climate control ACC
9 Audio system AUS
10 PC RTI
11 Gateway vehicle data RTG
12 Water heater system WTA
13 Clock and timer system CTS
14 Air heater system ATA
15 Engine management system EMS
16 Brake management system BMS
17 Suspension management system SMS
18 Gearbox management system GMS
19 Coordinator system COO
20 Connector for diagnostics

Use of twisted wires limits external influences. Each wire is exposed to the same influence and any signal
deformation will be the same on CAN-high as on CAN-low. The control unit therefore accepts the message.

Each CAN network must have two final resistors. These resistors have a value of 120 Ω. They can be incorporated
into an electronic control unit or fitted to a connector (C479). This is the case for a vehicle not equipped with a
CTS.

Basic diagnosis of a CAN

• Short circuit between the CAN High and CAN Low networks.
• Open circuit
• Earth connection
• External power supply