GENERAL PHYSICS

UNIT-1 Vectors and Newton`s laws

Vectors, Vector Addition and Subtraction, Components of Vectors, Unit vectors, Scalar
Product and Vector Product.
Applications of Newton`s laws, Kinetic energy and the Work–energy theorem,
Conservative and Non- non-conservative forces, Momentum conservation and
collisions, Angular velocity and Angular acceleration, and Energy in rotational Motion.
Torque, Angular momentum
UNIT-2 Mechanics, Fluid Mechanics and Gravitation
Stress, Strain, Elastic moduli, Elasticity, and Plasticity
Gases, Liquids, Density, Pressure in a fluid, Pressure, Depth, and Pascal’s Law
Surface tension, Fluid flow, The Continuity equation, Deriving Bernoulli’s equation
Viscosity, Turbulence.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, Gravitational Potential Energy, Black holes, The escape
speed from a star
 GENERAL PHYSICS

UNIT-3 Heat and Thermodynamics

The Kelvin scale and Absolute Temperature, Quantity of Heat, Specific Heat, Molar
Heat Capacity, The ideal-gas equation, PV Diagrams, Kinetic-Molecular Model of an
Ideal Gas, Heat Capacities of gases, Work Done During Volume Changes, Work done
in a Thermodynamic process, Internal Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics,
Different thermodynamic process, Relating Cp and CV for an Ideal Gas, Adiabatic and
Isothermal Processes for an Ideal Gas, Heat Engines, The Second Law of
Thermodynamics, The Carnot Cycle and Efficiency, Entropy, Microscopic
Interpretation of Entropy
UNIT-4 Acoustics and Optics
Types of Waves, Periodic Waves, Mathematical Description of a Wave
Sound Waves, Speed of Sound Waves, Sound Intensity, Beats, Doppler Effect
Interference and Coherent Sources, Interference in Thin Films
Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction, Diffraction from a Single Slit, Multiple Slits, The
Diffraction Grating, X-Ray Diffraction
 GENERAL PHYSICS

UNIT-5 Relativity and photonics

The Lorentz Transformations, Time Dilation, Length Contraction, Relativistic
Momentum, Work and Energy, Newtonian Mechanics, and Relativity.
The Photoelectric Effect, X-Ray Production, Compton Scattering and Pair Production,
Laser: Absorption, Spontaneous and Stimulated emission, Einstein’s Quantum Theory
of radiation, Population inversion and lasing action, Properties and types of lasers, He-
Ne, Nd-YAG, CO2, Semiconductor Lasers. Applications of Laser
GENERAL PHYSICS

Textbooks
1. Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman, University Physics, Addison
Wesley, 12th Edition, (2008)

Reference Books
1. D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J Walker 9th Edition, John Wiley and Sons
(2012)
2. M N Avadhanlu, Engineering Physics, S. Chand & Co (2007)
 SCALAR VS VECTOR QUANTITIES

Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities

1. Magnitude (numerical values) only 1. Magnitude (numerical values)
2. Added according to ordinary rule 2. Obey the vector law of addition
(necessary condition to be vector) (angle)
Added according to the vector law of
addition
3. Example : Mass, distance , speed, 3. Example: Displacement, force,
temperature , Energy velocity, acceleration
 UNIT VECTOR/NULL VECTOR

❑ Null/Unit vector: A unit vector is a vector that has unit magnitude

and points in a particular direction, it has no unit.
❑ The unit vectors in the positive directions of the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 axes are
labelled 𝑖,Ƹ 𝑗෡, 𝑘෠ where the hat is used instead of an overhead arrow.
𝑨
ෝ=
𝒂 ෝ𝑨
⇒𝑨=𝒂
𝑨

ෝ𝑨
𝑨=𝒂

direction magnitude
 COMPONENT OF VECTORS

❑ A vector can be expressed as a product of its magnitude and direction. Therefore,

𝑎Ԧ 𝑥ො = 𝑎Ԧ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ
The magnitude of 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥,ො which is 𝑎Ԧ , is multiplied to the direction in which 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥ො lies,
which is the direction of x-axis, represented by the unit vector 𝑖Ƹ
𝑎Ԧ 𝑦ො = 𝑎Ԧ si𝑛 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
The magnitude of 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦,ො which is 𝑎Ԧ , is multiplied to the direction in which 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦ො lies,
which is the direction of y-axis, represented by the unit vector 𝑗.Ƹ
The quantities 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥ො and 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦ො are vectors, called the vector components of 𝑎Ԧ

Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ 𝑥ො + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑦ො
❑ Now we know that 𝑎=
❑ Therefore, 𝑎=
Ԧ 𝑎Ԧ cos 𝜃 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑎Ԧ si𝑛 𝜃 𝑗Ƹ
 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The order of terms in a vector sum doesn’t matter. In other

words, vector addition obeys the commutative law. 𝐵 + 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵
 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

❑ 𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 , then what magnitude 𝑪 should have?

𝑩
𝑨
❑ The magnitude 𝑪 should equal the magnitude 𝑨 plus the
magnitude 𝑩 . In general, this conclusion is wrong; for the
vectors shown in Fig. it can be seen that 𝑪 < 𝑨 + 𝑩 𝑪=𝑨+𝑩

❑ The magnitude of depends on the magnitudes of 𝑨 and 𝑩

and on the angle between them

❑ Only in the special case the magnitude of 𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 to

the sum of the magnitudes of 𝑨 and 𝑩 If the two vectors
are parallel

❑ When the vectors are antiparallel the magnitude of C

equals the difference of the magnitudes of 𝑨 and 𝑩.

❑ But for scalar Addition and Subtraction always 𝑪 = 𝑨 +

𝑩 and 𝑪 = 𝑨 − 𝑩
 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

A + B = ( Ax , Ay , Az ) + (Bx , B y , Bz )
= (( Ax + Bx ), ( Ay + B y ), ( Az + Bz ))

A − B = A + ( −B )
= (( Ax − Bx ), ( Ay − B y ), ( Az − Bz ))
-B B

A
A-B
A+B
VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

A + B = (Ax , Ay , Az ) + (Bx , B y , Bz )
= (( Ax + Bx ), (Ay + B y ), ( Az + Bz ))

A − B = A + ( −B )
= (( Ax − Bx ), (Ay − B y ), ( Az − Bz ))
 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ = (Ax , Ay , Az )
A = A +A +A 2
x
2
y
2
z

Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ
aˆ =
A +A +A
2
x
2
y
2
z
 VECTOR EQUALITY

A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ B = Bx xˆ + B y yˆ + Bz zˆ

A=B

A=B and aˆ = bˆ

Ax = Bx , Ay = B y , Az = Bz
 PROBLEM

1. A cross-country skier skis 1.00 km north and then 2.00 km east on a

horizontal snowfield. How far and in what direction is she from the
starting point?

2. Find the vector 𝐝Ԧ from the following vectors where 𝐝 = Ԧ𝐛 + 𝐚 −

Ԧ following displacements in any order:
𝐜,
(i) 𝐚, 2.0 km due east (directly toward the east);
(ii) Ԧ𝐛 ,2.0 km 30° north of east (at an angle of 30° toward the north from
due east);
Ԧ 1.0 km due west.
(ii) 𝐜,
 PROBLEM

A cross-country skier skis 1.00 km north and then 2.00 km east on a horizontal snowfield. How far and in what
direction is she from the starting point?

SOLUTION The problem involves combining two displacements at right angles

to each other. 1 km north , 2 km east

2 km Magnitude = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐 = 2.24 km
𝟐
Direction 𝐭𝐚𝐧∅ = , ∅ = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝟐 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟒°
𝟏
∅
𝟏𝒌𝒎 2.24 km 63.4° east of north or 26.6° north of east (90° - 63.4° = 26.6°)

Find the vector 𝐝Ԧ from the following vectors where 𝐝 = Ԧ𝐛 + 𝐚 − 𝐜, Ԧ following displacements in any order: (i)
𝐚, 2.0 km due east (directly toward the east); (ii) Ԧ𝐛 ,2.0 km 30° north of east (at an angle of 30° toward the
Ԧ 1.0 km due west.
north from due east); (ii) 𝐜,

𝒅=𝒃+𝒂−𝒄
SOLUTION 𝒂 =2 km − 𝒄 =1 km

𝒂 =2 km 𝒄 =1 km 𝟑𝟎° 𝟑𝟎°
PROBLEM
 PROBLEM

෡ 𝒎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑬 = 𝟒𝒊Ƹ − 𝟓𝒋Ƹ + 𝟖𝒌

❑ Given the two displacements 𝑫 = 𝟔𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ − 𝒌 ෡ 𝒎.
𝐟ind the magnitude of 𝟐𝑫 − 𝑬.

𝑭 = 𝟐𝑫 − 𝑬
 PROBLEM & SOLUTION

෡ 𝒎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑬 = 𝟒𝒊Ƹ − 𝟓𝒋Ƹ + 𝟖𝒌

❑ Given the two displacements 𝑫 = 𝟔𝒊Ƹ + 𝟑𝒋Ƹ − 𝒌 ෡ 𝒎. 𝐟ind
the magnitude of 𝟐𝑫 − 𝑬.

𝑭 = 𝟐𝑫 − 𝑬
 VECTOR COMPONENTS

The components form the legs of a right

a= a +a
2
x
2
y triangle whose hypotenuse is the magnitude
of the vector.

Direction of a vector from its components

ay
θ measured from the +x-axis, rotating toward the +y-axis tan  =
ax
Multiplying a vector by scalar
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
 SCALAR/DOT PRODUCT

❑ Scalar (or dot) product of two vectors is product of magnitude of two

vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. If 𝒂 and 𝒃 are two
vectors and 𝜽 is the angle between the two vectors then scalar product
is:
𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 . 𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = a. b 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
 SCALAR/DOT PRODUCT

❑ A.B = B.A (commutative)

❑ A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C (distributive)
❑ A.A = A2
CALCULATE SCALAR PRODUCT USING COMPONENTS
CALCULATE SCALAR PRODUCT USING COMPONENTS
26

PROBLEM
27

PROBLEM
 VECTOR/CROSS PRODUCT

B
xˆ yˆ zˆ Area = AB sin AB
= n̂ AB sin  AB
A x B = Ax Ay Az n̂
Bx By Bz A
A
A  B = (( Ay Bz − B y Az ), ( Az Bx − Bz Ax ), ( Ax B y − Bx Ay ))
B
 VECTOR/CROSS PRODUCT

❑ A x B = -B x A (anti-commutative)
❑ A x (B+C) = A x B + A x C (distributive)
❑AxA=0
30

PROBLEM
SUMMARY
PROBLEM
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

❑ A body remains in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
and until an external force acts on it. A body acted on by no net force and
moves with constant velocity and zero acceleration.
෍𝑭 = 𝟎

⇒ σ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎, σ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎, σ 𝑭𝒛 = 𝟎

❑ Newton’s First Law of Motion Examples in Daily Life:

Wearing a seat belt in a car body from moving forward in inertia
avoiding danger.
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

❑ If a net external force acts on a body, the body accelerates and the acceleration produced is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the net external force.
𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕 ∝ 𝒂
❑ The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force. The net force vector
is equal to the mass of the body times the acceleration of the body

෍ 𝑭 = 𝒎. 𝒂

෍ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎. 𝒂𝒙 ; ෍ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎. 𝒂𝒚 ; ෍ 𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎. 𝒂𝒁

(Valid only when the mass is a constant.)

❑ Application of Second Law:
1. Kicking a ball When we kick a ball we exert force in a specific direction, which is the direction in which it
will travel. In addition, the stronger the ball is kicked, the stronger the force we put on it and the further
away it will travel.
2. Pushing a cart It is easier to push an empty cart in a supermarket than it is to push a loaded one. More mass
requires more force to accelerate.
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

❑ When two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are always equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. If object A exerts a force (𝐅𝐀𝐁 ) on object B,
then object B must exert a force (𝑭𝑩𝑨 ) of equal magnitude and opposite direction
back on object A
FAB = −FAB
❑ A variety of action-reaction pairs are evident in nature
❖ The flight of the bird is an example of an action-reaction pair. The wings of the bird push
the air downwards. The air pushes the air upwards.
❖ A swimmer pushes against the water, while the water pushes back on the swimmer.
❖ Lift is created by helicopters by pushing the air down, thereby creating an upward
reaction force.
❖ Rock climbers pull their vertical rope downwards to push themselves upwards.
 FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS

❑ A diagram showing the chosen body itself, ‘free’ of its surroundings, with
vectors drawn to show the magnitudes and direction of all the forces applied to
the body by various bodies that interact with it
 APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS

❑ A gymnast with mass 𝒎𝑮 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 suspends herself from the lower end of a

hanging rope of negligible mass. The upper end of the rope is attached to the
gymnasium ceiling.
1. What is the gymnast’s weight?
2. What force (magnitude and direction) does the rope exert on her?
3. What is the tension at the top of the rope?
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS
SOLUTION
PROBLEM & SOLUTION
PROBLEM & SOLUTION
PROBLEM & SOLUTION
 PROBLEM

Problem: In given figure a car engine with weight w hangs from a chain that is
linked at ring 0 to two other chains, one fastened to the ceiling and the other to
the wall. Find the tension in each of the three chains in terms of w. The weights
of the ring and chains are negligible.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
 PROBLEM

An inclined plane
A car of weight w rests on a slanted ramp attached to a trailer. Only a
cable running from the trailer to the car prevents the car from rolling off
the ramp. (The car’s brakes are off and its transmission is neutral.) Find
the tension in the cable and the force that the ramp exerts on the car’s
tires.
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
 PROBLEM

Equilibrium of bodies connected by cable and pulley

A granite blocks hauls up by a 15° slope on a cart with steel wheels (weight 𝒘𝟏 , including
block and cart) is pulled uphill by a dirt-filled bucket (weight 𝒘𝟐 , including dirt and bucket)
that descends vertically into the quarry . How must the weights 𝒘𝟏 and 𝒘𝟐 be related in order
for the system to move with constant speed? Ignore friction in the pulley and wheels and
ignore the weight of the cable.
SOLUTION
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
Problem & Solution
 WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

❑ Work-energy theorem: The change in Kinetic energy of a system is equal to the

work done on the system by the net force.
Or
The network on a system equals the change in the Kinetic Energy of the
system.
❑ Expression for the energy of motion
❑ Network (𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) is defined to be the sum of all the work done on an object. The net
work (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) on an object.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 . 𝑑
⇒ 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑 cos 𝜃
where θ is the angle between the force vector and the displacement vector.
❑ The net force (𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) is parallel to the displacement,
so, θ=0º and cosθ =1
 WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

❑ And the net work is given by

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑
❑ According to the Newton’s 2nd Law we have
F = 𝑚𝑎
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑚𝑎)𝑑
❑ According to the third equation of motion we have
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒅
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝑎=
𝟐𝒅
When a is substituted into the preceding expression for 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 we obtain
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝒎 𝒅
𝟐𝒅
𝟏 𝟏
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
 WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

𝟏 𝟏
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
Kinetic Energy (K) = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝐹 − 𝐾𝑖
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾 (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
This expression is called the work-energy theorem
 PROBLEM & SOLUTION

❑ A 6kg object has a speed of 2 m/s at point A and 4 m/s later at point B. Find
the total work done on the object as it moves from point A to B.
CONSERVATIVE VS NON‐CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Conservative Force Non-Conservative Force

The work done by a conservative force If the work done by a force depends not only
depends only on the beginning (initial) on initial and final positions, but also on the
and ending (final) positions of the path between them, the force is called a
object non-conservative force.
Path independent Path dependent
Can be expressed as the difference Also called dissipative forces, as they
between the initial and final values of dissipate mechanical energy into other
a potential-energy function. forms

Examples : Example:
Gravitational force Friction force (friction can dissipate
Elastic spring restoring force energy as heat and as sound), Tension,
Electrostatic force normal force, and force applied by a
person.
 COLLISION

Elastic collision Inelastic collision

Total momentum (p) is conserved, Momentum (p) is conserved, some
and kinetic energy is conserved kinetic energy is converted to another
form of energy
In elastic collisions all the energy In fully inelastic collisions, the
remains as kinetic energy, no energy maximum possible kinetic energy is
is lost to other forms. lost, and the objects stick together.

Both kinetic energy and momentum Kinetic Energy before collision =

are conserved. Kinetic Energy after collision +
Energy converted into other forms
 MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
Principle of conservation of momentum
 TORQUE
❑ Torque being a vector quantity is the tendency of a force to cause or change the
rotational motion of an object and is also known as moment, or moment of
force.
❑ Torque measures how much a force acting on an object causes it to rotate. It is
the ‘twisting force’ that causes a body to rotate.

❑ The point or line about which a body rotates is called the axis of rotation. Thus,
torque can be defined as the tendency of a force to turn or twist.
It is represented by the letter τԦ.
τԦ =rԦ ×FԦ
RELATING LINEAR AND ANGULAR KINEMATICS
 ANGULAR VELOCITY (𝝎)
❑ For an object rotating about an axis every point on the object has the
same angular velocity. The tangential velocity of any point is proportional
to its distance from the axis of rotation.
𝒗
𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎 , 𝝎 =
𝒓

❑ Angular velocity (vector quantity) is the rate of change of angular

displacement and can be described by
𝚫𝜽
𝝎𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 =
𝚫𝒕

❑ There are two types of angular velocity

❑ Spin angular velocity, and
❑ Orbital angular velocity.
ANGULAR VELOCITY (𝝎)
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM
❑ Angular momentum (vector quantity) of a rigid object is defined as the product
of the moment of inertia and the angular velocity. Angular momentum (L) is
proportional to the moment of inertia (I) and angular speed (ω) measured in
radians per second.
𝒗
𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎, where I = mr2 and 𝝎 = 𝒓 for circular motion
𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗 × 𝒓 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓
 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The rate of change of angular momentum of a particle equals to the torque of the net force
acting on it.
 MOMENT OF INERTIA
❑Moment of inertia (I) : It is the property of the body due to which it resists angular
acceleration and is the sum of the products of the mass of each particle in the body
with the square of its distance from the axis of rotation.
𝑰 = σ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊

where, m = Sum of the product of the mass

r = Distance from the axis of the rotation
MOMENT OF INERTIA
 KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION

❑ Things that roll without slipping have some fraction of their energy as translational
kinetic and the remainder as rotational kinetic. The ratio depends on the moment of
inertia of the object that’s rolling.
1 2
𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝜔
2
where, ω is the angular velocity and I is the moment of inertia around the axis of rotation.

❑ The mechanical work applied during rotation is the torque (τ) times the rotation angle (θ):
𝝎 = 𝝉𝜽
❑ The instantaneous power (P) of an angularly accelerating body is the torque times the
angular velocity
𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
 KINETIC ENERGY OF RIGID BODY IN
ROTATIONAL MOTION
❑ Rigid body: A body which has a perfectly definite and unchanging shape and
size.
❑ A rotating rigid body consists of mass in motion, so it has kinetic energy is
equal to

Rotational Kinetic Energy

(∵ 𝐼 = σ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 )
 KINETIC ENERGY OF RIGID BODY IN
ROTATIONAL MOTION

The rigid body total kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic energies of all
the particles
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝝎𝟐 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝝎𝟐 + ⋯ … … … . = ෍ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊 𝝎𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒊
𝝎𝟐
Taking common in the above equation we get
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑲 = 𝟐 (𝒎𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ … … … . )𝝎𝟐 = 𝟐 σ𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝟐𝒊 𝝎𝟐
The greater the moment of inertia, the greater the kinetic energy of a rigid body
rotating with a given angular speed w.
KINETIC ENERGY OF RIGID BODY IN
ROTATIONAL MOTION