CAPS


CIVIL
LEARNER’S

TECHNOLOGY
GUIDE

GRADE 12
Trevor Haas
Neil Simons
John Ellis
 Civil Technology
Grade 12 Learner’s Guide

SAMPLE COPY
© Future Managers 2013

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ISBN 978-1-77581-016-2

First published 2013

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Acknowledgement:
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Contents

Chapter 1 – Practical Assessment Task........................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 – Safety....................................................................................................51
Chapter 3 – Graphics and Communication...........................................................61
Chapter 4 – Materials............................................................................................115
Chapter 5 – Equipment.........................................................................................125
Chapter 6 – Applied Mechanics...........................................................................163
Chapter 7 – Construction.....................................................................................225
Chapter 8 – Civil Services.....................................................................................355
Chapter 9 – Quantities..........................................................................................395
Chapter 10 – Joining..............................................................................................425

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Activity

Example
 Chapter 1
Practical Assessment Task

Investigate real Generate possible Make or improve

problems solutions product

Evaluate the design Present the assignment

 1 Civil Technology

The Practical Assessment Task

What is a Practical Assessment Task?
The Practical Assessment Task (PAT) involves the development of a design project
that leads to the design and making of a product or model. This task must be in the
form of a problem solution.

The PAT consists of a design portfolio, working drawings and a product/model,

which must be completed over three terms. The PAT consists of the application and
execution of the knowledge, skills and values in the Civil Technology curriculum.

The PAT is implemented during the first three terms of the school year and must be
undertaken as one extended task broken up into different phases or series of smaller
activities making up the PAT.

What is a design portfolio?

A design portfolio is a document containing all information on a particular
practical project. It is compiled in a particular sequence and tells the reader
everything about that practical project. It is neatly bound and must be completed
before the practical project may be constructed. It must contain all information so
that any person can make it.

What are working drawings?

These are the drawing instructions needed for making the product or model. They
consist of orthographic drawings and section drawings of the product to be made.

The final working drawings as indicated in the marking memorandum will be

assessed as part of the final product or model. These marks therefore form part of
the product or model and count for 75 marks.

Computer-aided drawings must be done under the supervision of the educator.

What is a product or model?

This is the end product that is produced as a solution to the technological process.
It can either be a full-scale product or a scale model of a product.

The technological process

The technological process encompasses all aspects of the design process, namely
the identification of problems, needs and opportunities and generating possible
solutions. It includes all the steps that need to be followed while generating and
designing the solutions. The technological process is an interaction between that
which is observed and a message that is sent to the brain; the brain finds a solution
and the hands perform the task.

What is design?
Design is the art of creating something new out of an existing product, so that its
looks and functionality are improved. The designer’s ideas are conceived through
experiences in his or her own environment. Many new product ideas are generated
through reading magazines or newspapers.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
The technological process can be either linear or cyclical. This describe the various
stages that the design process goes through. The stages don’t always follow a specific
order during this process. However, when compiling a design portfolio, it is easier
to follow the stages as set out in this chapter.

Layout of a design portfolio

You can use the following contents list to organise your design portfolio in such a
way that it forms an effective, neat and accurate communication piece. All pages
should be clearly numbered. The headings and sub-headings should be clearly
indicated. The technical maintenance and presentation of the design portfolio is
very important.

1. Compiling a design portfolio

1.1 All pages should numbered.
1.2 Every section should have clear headings and sub-headings.
1.3 Sketches can be done by hand, with instruments or by computer.
1.4 Letters, questionnaires and Internet downloads should all be included if
they have been used.
1.5 Photos of every step of the manufacturing process could be included.

Stages in the compilation of a design portfolio

Assessment criteria Design process Description

Researching Situation • Can be a description or photo of a real-life problem
and collecting • Is a brief description, clear and factual
information • Is open to interpretation
• Indicates if it is a problem, need or opportunity.
Analysis of the • Analyse the situation by asking questions so as to develop a better
situation understanding of the situation.
• Identify key words and ideas.
• Analyse the situation to determine if it is a problem, need or opportunity.
• Establish what the real problem is.
• Determine whether the situation has any limitations.
• Who will use the facility?
• Do special concessions need to be made, for example, for the disabled.
• What will the impact be on the environment?
• What safety measures does the design have to comply?
Design proposal • Describe the design proposal without limiting creativity.
• Write a simple statement that provides a solution to a problem or opportunity.
• It is brief and to the point.
• It reflects the actual problem, need or opportunity.
• It indicates at whom the solution is aimed.
• It indicates what the solution should be able to do.
• Suggest possible solutions.
• Be clear and unambiguous.
• Do not describe the solution in any detail.

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 1 Civil Technology

Assessment criteria Design process Description

Researching Specifications • Is a detailed description of the criteria with which the product needs to
and collecting comply with.
information • Limitations in certain situations are depicted or indicated by the client – if it is
not indicated, it does not necessarily mean it is not a limitation.
• The limitations serve as part of the specifications.
• List all the criteria with which the design has to comply.
• Number specifications – it will help with the evaluation of the solution.
• Specifications serve as criteria during the development of the design, as well as
for the evaluation and testing of the final product.
• Specifications can include:
– aesthetic appearance
– environmental aspects (considerations)
– disabled-friendly
– costs
– Is the product safe to use?
– How suitable is it for use?
Investigations • Collect photos of the design from books and magazines (these photos form
part of the design portfolio).
• Do some research by gathering new knowledge and information about the
problem.
• Use a variety of research methods to expand your understanding and
knowledge of the subject and ultimately to gain knowledge on how to solve
the problem.
• Primary research is information that is derived from the opinions of others –
obtained through interviews, questionnaires, correspondence, telephone calls,
e-mails, text messages, etc.
• Secondary research is information about the subject that already exists –
obtained through consulting books, reference books, encyclopaedias, the
Internet, etc.
• Compile a list for the bibliography of all the people and books you consulted.
Generating and/or Generation of ideas • Sketch several different solutions for the problem, need or opportunity.
designing possible • Sketch possible ideas and annotate they sketches (dimensions and notes).
solutions • Add explanatory notes to the sketches.
• Evaluate every possible solution to see if it meets the specifications, by listing
all the advantages and disadvantages.
• A grading scale can be used on the specifications and other criteria in order to
determine the best option.
Development of • Decide (and give reasons for) which solution or combination of solutions
the best idea should be developed as a final idea.
• Develop the preferred solution by listing the following details that are needed
to produce the solution:
– main dimensions and other important dimensions
– construction details
– materials and where they will be used
– what type of finish will be used
– safety measures that should be followed to ensure the safety of workers.
• After this step, the orthographic drawings can be produced.
Working drawings • Working drawings are the instructions from the draughtsman to the artisan
and should contain all the information necessary to make the product.
• Working drawings are usually done orthographically.
• They are not marked as part of the design portfolio.
• The standard of the learners’ orthographic drawings should be such that they
can be handed in to the municipality for approval.
• The following orthographic drawings should be drawn:
– floor plan
– three views: north, south, west or east view (front, top, left or right view)
– vertical sectional view that shows the detail of the foundation.
These orthographic drawings are marked using the marking memorandum.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Assessment criteria Design process Description
Developing best/ Materials list and • Identify the materials that should be used.
preferred solution bill of quantities • Use working drawings to compile a bill of quantities.
Work procedure • Specify the tools and equipment needed to create the structure in a real-life
and time schedules situation.
• Pay attention to the construction and safety processes that need to be followed
during manufacturing.
• Briefly describe the steps that should be followed to make the scale model. The
steps should follow a logical sequence and should be clearly set out.
• Use the correct terminology.
• Compile a time schedule per quarter.
Product • Convert the final idea into a product.
manufacture • Sometimes the processes and constructions don’t go according to plan. Record
these changes and the reasons for them and apply these changes to the product.
• Use core tasks (short, practical, focused activities) to acquire the necessary
knowledge and skills needed to make the product.

Evaluating product Evaluation • Apply the formative evaluation to every step in the development of the
or model solution.
• Apply summative assessment of the final product by evaluating each design
specification.
• Evaluate the final product against the needs and specifications by asking
questions. The questions and answers must be meaningful so that they can be
used in future evaluations.
• Identify deficiencies in the process, strengths and weaknesses in the design,
which problems were experienced and how they were resolved.
• Is the product effective for use as well as cost-effective?
• Evaluate how appropriate the materials, procedures, techniques and processes
were that were used to build the scale model.
• Was the planning effective?
• Was time used efficiently?
• What lessons were learnt and how can they be applied to improve the product
if it should be made again?
Testing • Apply summative assessment of the end product by testing the product to
determine whether it does what it is supposed to do.

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 1 Civil Technology

Assessment criteria Design process Description

Presenting design Communication • Communicate the problem-solving process in text form by writing it out by
portfolio media hand or typing it up on a computer.
• Communicate the problem-solving process graphically through sketches,
instrument drawings, photos, photocopies and stencils.
• Communicate the problem-solving process through a scale model of the
product.
Title page Is usually completed last.
Should indicate the following:
• Name of school
• Name of learner
• Grade
• Year
• Suitable title
• Suitable title page illustration
Contents page Is completed second-last.
• Is done on a separate page
• Shows all sections
• Shows all subsections
• Shows all page numbers
• Ensure that the page numbers on the contents page correspond with those in
the document
Source list/ • Also needs to be completed on a separate page.
bibliography • Reference/source lists should be done completely and correctly.

At least three of the following sources, recorded correctly, should be listed:

• At least four reference books
• At least two personal interviews with, for example, a teacher, client, architect,
quantity surveyor, etc.
• Websites
• Magazines
• Newspaper articles
• Video recordings
• Television
• Radio programmes

Researching and collecting information

You will achieve this when you are able to:
• identify a need or problem in a real-life situation
• describe a situation
• analyse a situation
• give a brief description of what the best solution is to the problem (design
proposal)
• gather information through research
• analyse the problem and compile specifications and limitations.

Every product that exists today is a result of a need or problem that had to be
solved. When compiling a design portfolio, you first need to identify the problem
or need. Then you need to describe the problem (situation), which is followed by
the design proposal. The design proposal is a brief description of what needs to be
designed with no limitations on creativity or ideas, for example, designing an object
that can be used as storage for certain items. The problem is then analysed using
various research methods to gather information.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Research methods could include:
• Information obtained from books, magazines, the Internet, television, etc.
• Questionnaires
• An interview with your teacher or any other knowledgeable person
• Observation and experimentation
• Correspondence with companies where you ask for free brochures and other
relevant information
• Market research.

After the problem has been analysed, you need to determine the specifications for
the product design, taking into consideration any limitations on the design. The
specifications and limitations are detailed descriptions of the criteria that product
needs to conform to and can be used later to test and evaluate the product.

Example of a letter

Construction School
12 Plaster Street
CEMENT TOWN
4935
1 January 2012

Free House Plans

P.O. Box 345
HOME TOWN
3589

Dear Sir/Madam

BROCHURE: PLANS

I receive weekly e-mails from you, allowing access to your

website where building plans for different types of houses
are available free of charge.

As a Civil Technology learner, I find the articles about

the building industry and the building plans which you
provide most informative. We, as Grade 12 learners, have to
design and make a structure up to wall plate height as our
Practical Assessment Task.

I would like to inquire whether you have examples of such

building plans on your web pages, in books or on CD. Should
you have such examples, I would like to request that you
make them available to our school, free of charge, to be
used as a research source.

Your kind consideration of this request would mean the

world to us as learners.

Thanking you in anticipation.

Yours sincerely

Gabrielle Fransman

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 1 Civil Technology

The technological process

The technological process involves all the steps to be taken in designing and
manufacturing or completing a product or project. In this Learning Outcome you
will expand the knowledge and skills you have already gained in previous grades.

This year you are going to identify and investigate, design, manufacture
and evaluate relevant Civil Technology products and/or projects and then
communicate your results using various media and appropriate terminology.

Example:
The drawing shows a bedroom. Study the drawing and:
• describe the situation that exists here
• write a suitable design brief
• indicate some basic specifications and limitations
• write to a firm for information.

Wall
Wall

Pillow

Duvet/blankets
Bedside lamp

Bed
Coffee
mug
Book Alarm
clock

Solution:
What did you see in the bedroom? The bedside lamp, alarm clock, mug and book
are all on the ground next to the bed. These items are difficult to reach and
make the floor look untidy.

Now design and make an object that can house the bedside lamp, alarm clock, mug
and book. Base your design on information obtained by letter for instance.

Example of a letter:

Your address
Company’s address

Dear Sir/Madam

FREE FURNITURE BROCHURE

Your address

As part of my Grade 12 Civil Technology curriculum, I plan

to make a bedside cabinet. I believe you have published
a free booklet “Make your own furniture” with useful
information. Could you please send me a copy?

Thanking you in anticipation.

Keanu Gelderblom

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Specifications and limitations
Now compile a list of specifications and limitations that describe the bedside
cabinet more clearly. What should the cabinet look like?
• It should be about as high as the bed.
• There must be sufficient space on top for a lamp, alarm clock and mug.
• It must have a drawer to hold books.
• The type of timber and finish must match the bedroom cupboard.
• The maximum dimensions are to be: 500 mm tall, 450 mm wide and 400 mm
deep.
• It must be able to be finished in five days.
• Material and fittings must not cost more than R300,00.

Activity 1
1. Name all the types of research you can do.
2. As a draughtsperson, you have to design a house for a client. Compile a
questionnaire that you would use to gather the necessary information.
3. Collect pictures from books and magazines of a house you would like to
build for yourself one day and arrange them in order of preference.
4. The drawings below show various situations. Study them and:
4.1 describe the needs depicted there
4.2 write a suitable design brief – indicate some specifications and
limitations only.
5. Identify a problem or need at your home or school and write a design brief
for solving it.

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

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 1 Civil Technology

Generating design ideas

You will achieve this when you are able to:
• develop innovative and original solutions based on the specifications
• generate alternative solutions/designs for solving a problem
• convey your solutions graphically
• critically analyse proposed solutions by naming their advantages and
disadvantages
• identify and motivate the best solution in relation to the design brief
• develop the preferred solution in detail.

Keep the following aspects in mind when you generate and/or design solutions:
• Find ideas in photos, drawings and reference books.
• Hold group discussions and brainstorming sessions for discussing ideas.
• Make sure that the ideas meet the design brief.
• See if the ideas meet the predetermined specifications.
• See if the ideas are feasible in practice.
• Are the ideas financially viable?
• Evaluate ideas by listing the advantages and disadvantages of each.
• Decide which idea will best meet the design brief and motivate the final choice.
• Develop the preferred solution in more detail.
• Draw a sketch showing the final dimensions, appearance, materials, etc.

During this process, you must put down any idea that occurs to you. An apparently
simple or impossible idea may lead to a useful design. The more possible solutions
you can put down, the bigger the chance of a good final solution. Remember to
insert notes explaining all the ideas. Dimensions for the ideas are also indispensable
as they will determine whether the design is both viable and attractive.

The sketch may be in two or three dimensions (2D or 3D) and done freehand,
mechanically or as a computer-aided design (CAD).

To pick the preferred solution, the best solution (idea) from all the ideas generated
is considered. This can be done by weighing up all the advantages and disadvantages
of each or comparing the ideas with each other, using a set of criteria. A motivation
for justifying the preferred solution must be part of the process.

The working drawings, i.e. the detailed setting-out of the design for the artisan by a
draughtsperson, is then made from the best idea.

(NB: Working drawings are marked separately.)

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
The table below can be used for comparing various solutions.

Criteria Idea Idea Idea

1 2 3

Best solution for the problem

Meets the specifications/limitations

Affordability

Appearance

Size

Modelling

Total

Use the following rating:

Excellent: 5
Good 4
Average 3
Poor: 2
Very poor 1

The idea scoring the highest mark is the idea that should be developed.

Example:
The following sketches show various designs for a bathroom cabinet designed by a
student for his/her flat. He/she approaches you for the best solution. Complete the
following table to see which idea provides the best solution.

Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

Mirror on door Mirror which moves Mirror on inside of door

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 1 Civil Technology

Use the following rating:

Excellent 5
Good 4
Average 3
Poor 2
Very poor 1

Criteria Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

Best solution for the problem 2 4 4

Appearance 2 3 4

Size 3 4 4

Degree of difficulty to make 2 3 4

User-friendly 4 3 4

Affordable 4 3 3

Total 17 20 23

Idea 3 is the preferred solution to be developed.

Activity 2
1. The security guard, who controls the entry of visitors at the school gate, has
nowhere to sit. Design a structure that will provide shelter and protection.
2. Name the sources you would use to find ideas.
3. Identify the specifications and limitations to be considered in designing the
solution.
4. Sketch three possible solutions and show the advantages and disadvantages of
each idea. Attach captions and dimensions to the sketch.
5. Pick the best solution and motivate your final choice.
6. The sketches below show three wall units for displaying ornaments.

Complete the following table and determine which idea offers the best
solution.

Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

Glass door

Glass door Fold down glass door

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 Practical Assessment Task 1

Criteria Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

Best solution for the problem

Appearance

Size

Degree of difficulty to make

User-friendly

Affordable

Total

Use the following rating:

Excellent 5
Good 4
Average 3
Poor 2
Very poor 1

7. The owner of a dwelling asks you to convert his existing double garage into a
flat. The outside dimensions of the garage are 6 440 mm × 6 440 mm.
• Identify the required specifications for the owner.
• Develop various design ideas.
• Name the advantages and disadvantages of each design.
• Show your preferred solution.
• Motivate your choice.

8. The floor plan of an RDP house is provided. The owner wishes to use dry
walls (stone walls) to divide the house into separate rooms. Design and draw
one possible solution that would make provision for a kitchen, bathroom,
living room and two bedrooms.

Communicating ideas

You will have reached this assessment standard when you are able to:
• make products according to the selected design
• compile a bill of materials and quantities
• set out logically all the steps for making a product
• indicate a complete time schedule
• indicate tools and equipment to be used in the manufacturing process
• accurately calculate quantities.

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 1 Civil Technology

During this stage of the design process, planning the manufacturing of the product
is addressed. The detailed working drawings are used to compile bills of materials,
quantities and costs. All tools that will be used in practice must also be indicated.
The manufacturing process must also be set out in logical steps and must include an
estimate of the time required for each step.

A start can now be made with manufacturing the products. Photos, sketches or
descriptions can be used to show the product at various stages.
The realisation of the product is assessed separately.

Example of quantity list

The external measurements of a building is 10 800 mm × 6 500 mm and it has a
hipped roof. Calculate the quantity of bricks needed for the beam filling. The beam
filling is 225 mm high.

Solution:

Steps: A B C D
Calculate the centre Beam filling:
line of the beam Centre line:
filling. 2/10 800 = 21 600
2/6 500 = 13 000
Total = 34 600
Minus: 4/110
Centre line is 34,16 m long

Calculate the area 1/ 34,16 Area of beam filling:

of the beam-filling 0,225 7,69 m2 Height of beam filling = 225 mm
wall by multiplying
the centre line by Area of wall for beam filling = 7,69 m2
the height of the
beam filling.
Multiply the area 1/ 7,69 m2 384,3 Number of bricks:
of the beam-filling 50 bricks 50 bricks per m² for a half-brick wall
wall by the number
of bricks per square Thus 385 bricks are required for the
metre for a half- beam filling.
brick wall.

Example of a table for indicating work procedure

Name of part/ Procedure Comments/

Planned completion date

item remarks
Actual completion date

Planned no. of periods

Actual periods

Sides and tops Cutting, planing 18.02 19.02 1 2 Too few clamps for
and gluing wood gluing whole job

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 Practical Assessment Task 1

Activity 3
1. The framework of a bathroom cabinet is shown. The dimensions of the
cabinet are: height = 535 mm, width = 435 mm,
depth = 240 mm. The drawer opening is 65 mm
and all timber thicknesses are 16 mm.
1.1 Compile a bill of materials and costs for the
timber needed for making only the
framework. The price of meranti is R556,00
per square metre.
1.2 Draw up a working procedure with time
schedule for making the framework.

Evaluation
You will have reached this assessment standard when you are able to:
• evaluate and test the product to see if it meets the design brief
• suggest improvements to the product.

To determine whether a product satisfies the purpose for which it has been
designed, the product must be evaluated and tested. During evaluation, critical
questions are raised around the procedures required for manufacturing the product.
The answers to these questions must be honest and meaningful.

The following questions must be asked:

• Does the design meet the specifications and limitations?
• What are the product’s strong points?
• What are the weaknesses and shortcomings of the design and how can they be
solved?
• How suitable were the materials, procedures, techniques and processes used?
• Has the time been productively used?

Certain tests must be conducted to see if the design meets its intended purpose. For
example, to ensure that all the specified items fit into the product, they must all be
physically placed into it.

Evaluation and testing must be done at all stages. In this way problems can be
identified timeously and corrected.
Use your question and answer brainstorming sessions to suggest improvements to
the product.

Activity 4
1. Evaluate the layout of your Civil Technology centre and identify its strengths,
shortcomings and any problems you have experienced.
2. Indicate how the shortcomings and problems can be solved.
3. How can you find out if a bathroom mirror is at the ideal height for a whole
family?

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 1 Civil Technology

To present solutions with a variety of

communication media
You will have reached this assessment standard when you are able to:
• select and apply suitable technologies for combining graphics and text.

The technological process is described in the design portfolio. Suitable technologies

such as computers, photocopiers, drawing and writing templates and audio-visual
aids can be used for communicating text and drawings.

The following technologies can be used for presenting your design portfolio in a
tasteful manner:
• hand-written text with photocopies
• computers for written text, drawings and photographs
• computers for written text and drawings and photos that are then photocopied
• audio-visual recordings combining text and graphics
• drawing and writing templates can be used to ensure that freehand drawings and
writing have a neat, professional appearance.

Setting out a design portfolio

Organising a design portfolio in such a way that it becomes an effective, neat and
correct communication can be simplified with the use of the following index. All
pages must be clearly numbered and headings and sub-headings must be clearly
indicated. The technical editing and presentation of the design portfolio is very
important,

1. Title page
2. Index
3. Problem/need
3.1 Identification of problem
3.2 Design brief
3.3 Investigations
3.4 Specifications
3.5 Limitations
4. Ideas
4.1 Ideas are generated
4.2 The best idea is selected
4.3 Working drawings
5. Manufacturing the product
5.1 Bill of materials, quantities and costs
5.2 Working procedure and time schedule
6. Evaluating the product
6.1 Evaluation
6.2 Testing
7. Bibliography

Bibliography
What is a bibliography?
• It is a list of books, articles in magazines or newspapers and websites that
provide information regarding the project.
• A bibliography is compiled according to a very specific format.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
General hints:
• All sources must be included in one list.
• All sources must be arranged alphabetically.
• Books are listed according to the authors (writers).
• Other sources are listed according to the title or name of the source.
• The titles of books, magazines, television or radio programmes and videos are
always underlined, when the assignment is handwritten or otherwise typed in
italics.

• Guidelines to listing sources:

Please note where the full stops (.), commas (,), colons (:), &, inverted commas
(“ ”) and brackets (< >) are placed when the source is listed.
• Book that has one author
Surname, name or initials. Year of publication. Title. Place: Publisher.
• Book that has two authors
Surname, name or initials & surname. Year of publication. Title. Place: Publisher.
• Book that has more than two authors
Surname, name or initials & et al. Year of publication. Title. Place: Publisher.
• Magazine article or a newspaper report
Surname of journalist, name or initials, year of publication, newspaper heading.
Name of magazine/newspaper and date: page references.
• Personal interviews
Surname of interviewee, his/her name or initials. Job description, name of firm,
subject of interview, date of interview, contact number, city or town.
• Website
Title, website <electronic address> [date downloaded]

Example of bibliography

Barker, B.J. 1993. The South African Book Of House Plans. Cape Town: Struik
Publishers.
De Villiers, L. 2006. South African House Plans. Cape Town: Struik Publishers.
Free house plans <http://www.smartdraw.com> [12 February 2011].
Free house plans <http://ezinearticles.com> [18 February 2011].
Gelderblom, E. Parents. Tesnasdal, 25 January 2011. 023 348 2000. Worcester.
Grobbelaar, A. 2006. Building Construction and Graphic Standards. Jeffereys Bay:
Anglo Rand.
Huisamen, T. Siviele Tegnologie Onderwyser, Building Focus Secondary School.
Compilation of a Design Portfolio, 14 February 2012, 079 234 5678. Builder’s Hope.

Activity 5
1. Design a title page for your design portfolio for a carport.
2. Compile a technically correct bibliography to indicate the following sources
that were used for research purposes:
• Two books: one has one author and one has more than one author
• One magazine
• An interview with a quantity surveyor
• One website.

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 1 Civil Technology

Grade 12 Civil Technology 201...

Practical Assessment Task (PAT)

Instructions to the learner

Time allowed: 1st–3rd terms

Name of learner:

NB: This document and assessment matrices must be bound into the design portfolio.

Instructions to the learner:

• This Practical Assessment Task counts 25% towards your final promotion mark.
• All work that you deliver must be your own.
• All sources used must be acknowledged.
• Calculations must be clear and must include units.
• Calculations must be rounded off to THREE decimals.
• Drawings may be hand-drawn (use drawing instruments) or done in CAD. No photocopies or scanned
information or drawings are allowed.
• Photographs in black and white or colour may be used, scanned photos may be used.
• SI units must be used.
• The use of recycled material is allowed.
• Changes made during the simulation of the product are to be noted and placed in the design portfolio.
• The instructions to the learner and assessment instruments must be included in the back of the design
portfolio.
• Study your assessment matrices for the design portfolio and product as well as the marking memorandum
for the working drawings so that you are aware of how your work is to be assessed.
• The marking memorandum for the working drawings must be stapled to your working drawings.
• Learners may use electronic equipment, i.e. cellphones, digital cameras and the like, where available for
documenting their progress.
• Drawings or sketches can be drawn on the same writing page or on a separate drawing sheet.
• Use captions and explanatory notes to explain the sketches.
• The product/model may not be removed from the classroom and must be stored in a safe place when
not being worked on.

What is a Practical Assessment Task?

The Practical Assessment Task (PAT) comprises the development of a design project that leads to the design
and production of a product or model. This assignment must involve problemsolving.

The PAT comprises a design portfolio, working drawings and a product/model that must be completed over a
period of three terms.

Design portfolio
A design portfolio is a document that contains all the information regarding a particular, practical project.
It is compiled in a particular sequence and it provides the reader with all the details regarding the practical
project. It must be neatly bound and completed before the practical project may be constructed. It must
contain all the necessary information to enable anyone who reads it to produce the product.

The final scale drawings, as indicated in the marking memorandum, will form part of the final product of the
model and make up 25 marks.

Computer-aided drawings must be supervised by the educator.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Mark allocation:
Design portfolio: 25% 62½ marks
Orthographic drawings: 25% 62½ marks
Product/model: 50% 125 marks
TOTAL: 100% 250 marks

Scenario
A recent graduate, who has just entered the labour market, decides to build an apartment rather than rent
one. The apartment must be designed in a way that allows it to be developed into a complete, medium-sized
dwelling at a later stage. The design of the apartment must include the developments/expansions intended for
the finished dwelling. As a Grade 12 Civil Technology student, you are approached to design the apartment,
draw the plans and build a scale model.

1. Specifications
• The plot is 25 × 25 metres.
• The apartment must have a bedroom, open-plan kitchen, living-room and bathroom.

2. Develop and compile a design portfolio by following the technological processes which include the
following:
2.1 Describe the situation/need/opportunity.
2.2 Write a design brief.
2.3 List the specifications.
2.4 List the limitations.
2.5 Do research by conducting interviews, compiling questionnaires, making use of correspondence, the
Internet, books, magazines, etc.
2.6 Generate at least three floor plans, with explanatory notes, of the apartment. Evaluate each floor plan,
choose the best one and motivate your choice.
2.7 Develop the preferred plan by further expounding one of the following options:
2.7.1 Option one:
• Set out the selected floor plan of the apartment.
• Draw the four views of the apartment.
• Compile a list of materials required to build the actual apartment.
• Compile a list of the tools and equipment required to build the actual apartment.
• Set out the steps and time schedule needed to construct the simulated apartment.
• Use the four-column method (dimension paper) and calculate:
– The number of bricks needed for the construction of the building.
2.7.2 Option two:
• Set out the selected floor plan of only the apartment.
• Draw a sectional elevation of the dwelling.
• Set out the steps and time schedule needed to construct the roof of the apartment.
• Compile a list of the tools and equipment needed to construct the actual roof.
• Use the four-column method (dimension paper) and calculate:
– The number of bricks needed for the construction of the building.
2.7.3 Option three:
• Set out the selected floor plan of only the apartment.
• Draw the site plan and include the layout of the sewage system of the dwelling.
• Provide a sectional drawing of the sewage system.
• Set out the steps and the time schedule needed to complete the sewage layout and the
construction of the external walls of the apartment.
• Compile a list of the tools and equipment needed to lay/install the actual sewage system.
• Use the four-column method (dimension paper) and calculate:
– The number of bricks needed for the construction of the building.
2.8 Evaluate the product/model.
2.9 Compile a bibliography.

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 1 Civil Technology

2.10 Proof of research: e.g. letters received; quotations of costs, Internet research, etc.
2.11 Learner’s assignment and assessment tools used for evaluation of the design portfolio, scale drawings
and product/model.
2.12 Design a cover for your design portfolio.
2.13 Compile an index/table of contents.
2.14 Complete the statement of authenticity.
2.15 Present the design portfolio – include the assignment and the assessment tools.

3. Draw the final work drawings for the option that you have chosen to expound.
Option one:
Design and draw, using an appropriate scale:
• The floor plan of the apartment
• The north, south, west and east elevations of the apartment
• Using the correct colour codes, as prescribed by the National Building Regulations/SANS 10400, colour
code all the elevations appropriately.
Option two:
Design and draw, using an appropriate scale:
• The floor plan of the apartment
• The vertical sectional view of the apartment
• Using the correct colour codes, as prescribed by the National Building Regulations/SANS 10400, colour
code the elevation appropriately.
Option three:
Design and draw, using an appropriate scale:
• The floor plan of the apartment
• The site plan, including the sewage plan and a sectional drawing of the sewage system
• The vertical sectional view of a manhole that illustrates its construction and details
• Using the correct colour codes, as prescribed by the National Building Regulations/SANS 10400,
colour-code the elevation appropriately.

All your drawings should preferably be executed on A3 drawing paper and provided with measurements,
labels, notes and scales.

Drawings must also meet the minimum requirements determined by the SANS/SABS 10400 (National
Building Regulations) and SANS/SABS 0143 Building Drawing Practice.

Use the criteria provided in the marking memorandum applicable to your option as guideline for your
drawings.

4. After completing the working drawings, build a scale model of the option you have selected.
Option one:
4.1 Build a scale model of the apartment.
The scale model must include the following:
• All the walls, windows and doors of the apartment
• All the floor and wall cabinets
• The complete layout of the kitchen.
Option two:
4.2 Build a scale model of the upper section of the roof.
The scale model must include the following:
• A section of the walls beneath the roof of the apartment
• The roof construction with roof trusses, roof cover and parts of the gutters and downpipe(s)
• A section of the ceiling slats, ceiling, cornice/crown moulding and cover strip.
Option three:
4.3 Build a scale model of the sewage system and manhole.
The scale model must include the following:
• All the external walls of the apartment
• All the sanitary fitments
• All the sewage pipes and the manhole.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Example of a design portfolio

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY

DESIGN PORTFOLIO FOR AN APARTMENT

South elevation West elevation East elevation

Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100

Kitchen

Bedroom North elevation

Lounge Scale 1:100
Window schedule

Floor plan
Scale 1:100

NAME: GABRIELLE FRANSMAN

GRADE: 12 B

YEAR: 2012

SCHOOL: BUILDING SECONDARY SCHOOL

EDUCATOR: MR T HUISAMEN

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CONTENTS
1. PRESENTATION
1.1 Title page
1.2 Contents
1.3 Learner’s recording sheet for the design portfolio
1.4 Statement of authenticity

2. DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN PROPOSAL

2.1 Situation 1
2.2 Design brief/proposal 1
2.3 Specifications and limitations 1

3. INVESTIGATION AND ANALYTICAL INFORMATION

3.1 Variety of research methods:
3.1.1 Interviewing the client 2
3.1.2 Questionnaire 2
3.1.3 Interviewing educator 4
3.1.4 Relevant photos of design 4
3.1.5 Research – books 5
3.1.6 Brief 5
3.1.7 Internet research 6
3.1.8 Building regulations – local authority 6

4. DEVELOPING DESIGN IDEAS

4.1 Possible solutions 8
4.2 Evaluation of possible solutions 8
4.3 Motivation of preferred choice 9

5. COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS
5.1 Developing the preferred solution 10
5.2 Material list 11
5.3 List of tools and equipment 12
5.5 Steps for constructing the product 14
5.6 Time schedule 14
5.7 Quantity list 15

6. EVALUATING THE PRODUCT OR MODEL

6.1 Evaluation: questions and answers 17
6.2 Results of testing the product or model 17

7. Bibliography 19

8. Addendum
8.1 Internet resources
8.2 Instructions to learners
8.3 Matrix for assessment of the design portfolio
8.4 Matrix for assessment of the final product

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Grade 12 Civil Technology 201...

Record sheet: Design portfolio

Place this sheet in the front of the design portfolio.

Name of student:

Term 1

Assessment criteria Design process Comment Mark out Marks

of 7 achieved

Development of Describe situation

design brief:
Write design proposal

Specifications and limitations

Investigation Interviews
and analytical
information: Questionnaire
A variety of research
methods such as: Find suitable photographs and mount them

Explain purpose of photos

Write a letter to request information

References, e.g. building regulations, etc.

Development of Sketch at least three ideas of possible solutions

design ideas:
The advantages and disadvantages of each idea

Pick the best idea and motivate your choice (first

choice)
Communication of Develop the preferred solution by furnishing more
ideas: details

Compile a list of materials that will be needed to

produce the solution in real life
Compile a list of materials and equipment for the
actual production

Describe the steps needed for making the scale model

Draw up a time schedule for making the scale model

Calculating quantities

Term 2

Working drawings: Front, left and top view

Cross-section view

West view

East view

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Term 3

Evaluation of Evaluate the scale model by asking questions whether

production of the aspects indicated in these criteria have been
model: achieved

Evaluate the product and see whether it meets the

criteria
Presentation: Title page

Contents page

Bibliography

Addendum

Total for design portfolio out of ................:

Converted total out of 25

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 Practical Assessment Task 1

STATEMENT OF AUTHENTICITY

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY

PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT TASK

NAME OF SCHOOL:

NAME OF LEARNER:

NAME OF EDUCATOR:

SCHOOL stAmp

I hereby declare that the Practical Assessment Task submitted by me for assessment is my own original work and that it has not
been submitted for moderation before.

SIGNATURE OF LEARNER:

DATE:

To my knowledge, the above statement by the candidate is true and I accept that the work submitted is her/
his own work.

SIGNATURE OF EDUCATOR:

DATE:

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 1 Civil Technology

Developing a design proposal

1. Situation/Need
A single graduate has decided to include the construction of an apartment in his financial planning. Since
he has only just entered the labour market, he does not qualify for a home loan. He can provide security
for a personal loan in order to build the apartment.

As a Grade 12 Civil Technology student, I was approached to design the apartment, draw the plans and
build a scale model of the apartment.

2. Design brief
Design an affordable apartment to meet the requirements of a graduate. The apartment must be large
enough to for him/her to receive his/her parents, family and friends.

3. Specifications
3.1 Single-storey house

3.2 Must be aesthetically pleasing

3.3 Area of the apartment must not exceed 60 m2

3.4 Size of plot: 25 m × 25 m

3.5 Apartment must have the following rooms:

• 1 Bedroom
• Open-plan kitchen with living area
• Bathroom
• Toilet

3.6 Municipal water and sewage connections are available

3.7 ESKOM electricity connection is available

3.8 The type of soil – good quality gravel

3.9 Must be environmentally friendly

3.10 Must be accessible to disabled persons

4. Limitations
4.1 Must be affordable for the graduate

4.2 Only municipal sewage system available

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Investigation and analytical information
Selection of research methods:
Interviews
Questionnaires
Research: books, magazines, Internet, etc.
Letter
Building regulations

1. Research: Interviewing client

The following questions were put to my client during an interview:

Question: How much are you willing to spend on the construction of this apartment?
Answer: Up to R160 000,00.

Question: The estimated building cost per square metre is approximately R3 500,00. That means that the
area of the house will be approximately 45m2 square metres. Would it be all right if the house
were designed according to these figures?
Answer: Yes.

Question: Does the Surveyor-General have a diagram of the premises?

Answer: No.

Question: May I request it? And who is the surveyor?

Answer: Yes. The surveyors are ABC Surveyors, located at 146 Land Street.

Question: Do you want to convert the apartment to a full, medium-sized dwelling in the future?
Answer: No.

Question: Do you have any suggestions regarding the apartment, as well as ideas for expanding?
Answer: No.

Question: Do you have any specific needs that have to be addressed?

Answer: No.

2. Research by means of a questionnaire for client to complete

The client completed the questionnaire provided here in order to provide more information regarding the
design of the apartment.

Questionnaire regarding the design of the apartment

Please complete the questionnaire in as much detail as possible

Interviewer: G. K. Fransman Date: 25 January 2012

2.1 Personal details of client

Client: Miss T. Sanetha
Plot number: 24328
Street: 30 Sixth Lane
City/Town: PAT CITY
Telephone (w): 024 437 3471 Cell no: 061 573 7092

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2.2 Information regarding planned apartment

Indicate your choice by ticking in the relevant spaces.

Shape of the dwelling:

Rectangular  L-shaped Other (specify)
Open-plan (specify which rooms): Kitchen and living room
Single-storey  Double-storey

Clay stone  Face brick Cement brick

Cement blocks Flat roof with parapet walls  Pitched roof

Closed eaves  Closed eaves Open eaves

Roof tiles Corrugated sheet IBR 

Thatch Other (specify)
Steel window frames  Wooden window frames Aluminium window frames

Single garage Double garage Carport

Adjoining garage/carport Separate garage/carport
Wooden garage doors Steel garage doors
Wooden stairs Concrete stairs
Plastic gutters and downpipes  Fibre-cement gutters and
downpipes
Laminated wood fascia boards  Fibre-cement fascia boards Other (specify)

Fibreglass swimming pool Concrete swimming pool

Outdoor braai Indoor braai Fireplace

2.3 Planning of flat

Description Internal Area Type of floor Number of Fixed fittings per

measurements in mm cover wall plugs room
Bedroom 1 4 000 × 3 670 14,68 m2 Laminated floors 1 Built-in cupboards
Kitchen 4 000 × 2 500 10,0 m2 Tiles 4 Built-in cupboards/
Sink/breakfast nook
Living room 4 000 × 3 280 13,12 m2 Tiles 3 None
Bathroom and 4 000 × 1 000 4,0 m2 Tiles None B/WB/SH/WC
toilet
Total area of internal measurements 41,8 m2
Total area of external measurements 52,9 m2
Total area of plot 625 m2

3. Research: conversation with teacher

I will consult my teacher continuously during the development of the proposal, compilation of the design
portfolio, the working drawings and the construction of the scale model. After consulting my teacher, the
following decisions were made:
3.1 The SANS 10400:1990 must be consulted when the apartment is designed.
3.2 The walls of the scale model should be dry walls.
3.3 My teacher will arrange for the local building inspector to evaluate the preliminary plans.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
4. Research: newspapers, magazines, catalogues, etc.
Research includes photos of the following, which will be included in my design portfolio.

4.1 Apartments that have flat roofs without parapet walls.

Flat roof without finish at eaves Corrugated zinc sheet

Rafter

Purlin

The roof does not appear aesthetic because the purlins and rafters are visible. Strong winds can loosen the
roofsheets.

Flat roof with eaves

Fascia board

Bargeboard

The roof looks attractive because the purlins and rafters are covered by barge boards and fascia boards.
Flashing to make walls
Flat roof with parapet walls moist on the inside of the
three parapet walls

Parapet wall

Parapet walls lend a superb, finished appearance and look durable. This best complements the appearance of
the apartment.

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4.2 Photos of open-plan kitchen interiors

Please note: Photos have not been included in this portfolio due to the Copyright Act.

5. Research: books used

In order to design the rooms, it would be a good idea to consider the standard measurements of furniture.
5.1 Master bedroom
Queen-size bed: 1 800 mm long and 1 520 mm wide
Headboard of the bed is 2 370 mm long
Built-in cupboards are 600 mm deep and 3 000 mm long

5.2 Living room

Couches: Three separate couches seating six
Dining-room suite: Table and six chairs need 2 800 mm floor space

5.3 Open-plan kitchen:

Double sink: 1 500 mm × 500 mm
Four-plate stove: 1 200 mm × 600 mm × 600 mm
Refrigerator: 1 920 mm × 600 mm × 600 mm
Dishwasher: 850 mm × 600 mm × 600 mm
Microwave oven: 500 mm × 400mm × 320 mm
Built-in cabinets in kitchen: 570 mm deep
Breakfast nook

5.4 Bathroom and toilet

Flush lavatory: 500 wide and 760 mm deep
Wash basin: 585 mm wide and 410 mm deep
Bath: 1 703 mm × 712 mm × 370 mm
Shower: 900 mm × 900 mm

6. Research: Letter

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 Practical Assessment Task 1

35 Design Street
PAT CITY
7834
25 January 2012

ABC Surveyors
P.O. Box 398
PAT CITY
7834

Dear Sir/Madam

COPY OF SURVEYOR-GENERAL’S DIAGRAM

I am a Grade 12 learner at Building Secondary School. Civil Technology is

one of my subjects and for the Practical Assessment Task I have to design an
apartment for a client, complete the working drawings and build a scale model
of my design.

My client, whose details are provided below, has given me permission to

request a copy of the Surveyor-General’s diagram. Here are the details:

Client: Miss T. Sanetha

Plot number: 24328
Street: 30 Sixth Lane
City/Town: PAT CITY

Enclosed, please find a cheque (number 20355) to the value of R100.00 to cover
the costs as indicated.

Thank you.

Yours faithfully

.................................................
G K Fransman (Miss)

7. Research: Internet
The properties of gravel soil were researched in order to determine its suitability
for the development of the project.

Properties of gravel soil

• It is a mixture of soil and broken rocks.
• Will not shift because of broken rocks.
• Gravel is usually solid, which makes it ideal soil on which to build structures.
• It will not shift or move.
• Resists pressure well.
• Suitable for drainage, e.g. dry stone or French drain.

8. Research: visiting local authority

During a visit to the local authority, the following Building Regulations
regarding the installation of a sewage system with a manhole were obtained from
the Code of Practice for The Application of National Building Regulations, as set
out by the SANS/SABS Act 0400:1990.

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 1 Civil Technology

Regulations regarding manholes:

• Any existing or proposed drainage system must meet the applicable
specifications of the Building Regulations Act and any other standards
prescribed by the Act.
• No person may initiate any development on any premises before the Engineer
has installed a sewage connection pipe.
• No rainwater or stormwater and no wastewater, other than wastewater approved
by the Municipality, may be released into the drainage system.
• The Municipality may determine the position of the sewage pipe and the
underground depth at which any drainage system must be installed.
• The owner must maintain the drainage system at his/her own expense.
• The owner of the premises must ensure that all manholes and sanitary outlets on
the premises are permanently visible and accessible.
• A drainpipe or part thereof, may only pass through or under a building if written
approval has been obtained from the Engineer in accordance with the conditions
as determined by him/her.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Developing design ideas
Possible solutions
Evaluation of possible solutions
Motivation of preferred choice

Generating designs for a one-bedroom apartment

The floor plans provided below show three ideas that were generated as possible designs for a one-bedroom
apartment.

Idea 1:

Main bedroom
Bathroom
Wooden floor
Tiles

Passage
Tiles

Kitchen Living room

Tiles Tiles

This is a good, pleasing design with spacious rooms. Breakfast nook or counter serves to divide the kitchen
and living room. Open-plan between living room and kitchen makes rooms look spacious. The kitchen
without the counter is L-shaped. It can be changed to a U-shape by building cabinets against the open wall.
The bathroom has two separate doors, which make it easily accessible. The bathroom is next to the master
bedroom and serves as an en suite to provide privacy. There are enough built-in cupboards in the bedroom.
A double bed will fit in easily, while larger beds may confine the space.

A mirror can be mounted on the side of the cupboard. Children running in and out when guests are received
may cause a disturbance. A kitchen door can easily be installed. The apartment has five external angles/coin
walls and one interior angle. Work surface in the kitchen is more than sufficient. There are many possibilities
when it comes to extensions. A second bedroom can be added at minimal cost if the cupboard in the passage
is removed.

Bathroom with shower and bath is ideal for someone who likes to bath and shower. However, it increases the
area of the apartment.

Idea 2:

Bathroom
Tiles
Kitchen
Tiles

Main bedroom
Living room Wooden floor
Tiles

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 1 Civil Technology

The design of the apartment is pleasing, with spacious rooms. It is functional and the construction should be
economical. Serving counter serves to divide the kitchen and living room. Using an open plan between the
living room and kitchen makes the rooms appear more spacious. The kitchen without the counter is ideally
suited for an L-shaped layout. The two external doors do not restrict access, which is very functional. It is
inexpensive to build since it has only coin walls/external angles.

The bathroom is modern, compact and economical with one door to allow visitors and residents access. It
is ideal for someone who prefers to shower. The bathroom and bedroom are not visible from the living
room, which ensures privacy. The spacious bedroom offers space for additional built-in cupboards. It can
accommodate either a king-size or a queen-size bed.

More rooms can be added on. A garage or additional bedroom can be added next to the master bedroom.
There are sufficient work surfaces in the kitchen.

Idea 3:

Living room
Tiles
Bathroom
Tiles

Main bedroom
Kitchen
Wooden floor
Tiles

This is a good, pleasing design with spacious rooms. Breakfast nook or counter serves to divide the kitchen
and living room. The open plan between the living room and kitchen makes the rooms look spacious. The
kitchen without the counter top is U-shaped. The apartment has only one door in the living room. The
position of the door, which serves as entrance, is not ideal since it is far from the road. Another door that
provides entrance should be considered in the kitchen. The apartment has five external angles/coin walls and
one internal angle, which increases the building costs. There is enough work surface space in the kitchen.
Any adding on to the existing structure will require extensive structural changes. To add an additional
bedroom, the cupboard in the passage as well as the shower would have to be removed in order to provide
passage to the second bedroom. The bathroom, with a shower and a bath, is ideal for someone who likes
showering and bathing. However, it increases the area of the apartment. The bathroom and bedroom are
separated from the kitchen and living room, which offers privacy.

Preferred choice:
Idea Two meets all the specifications and will be developed. Though the design is plain, the apartment looks
aesthetically pleasing and durable. The costs of construction are within the limits of the graduate who is my
client. The apartment possesses a variety of adding-on options.

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Communication of ideas
Developing the preferred idea
Material list
List of tools and equipment
Steps for constructing the product
Time schedule
Quantity list

Communicating the preferred idea

1. Developing the preferred idea

The drawing below illustrates my preferred choice which will now be expounded.

South elevation West elevation East elevation

Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100

Kitchen

Bedroom
North elevation
Lounge Scale 1:100
Window schedule

Floor plan
Scale 1:100

1.1 Kitchen layout

To facilitate unrestricted movement Fridge

between the sink, refrigerator, oven, the

appliances a triangular layout is preferred.
Make sure that there is enough workspace
next to the appliances. Position the The distance from AB
equipment or appliances to ensure that to BC to CA of the work
the walking distance between them does traingle must not exceed
7 metres
not exceed seven metres.

The oven, refrigerator and sink are

positioned according to the work triangle.

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 1 Civil Technology

1.2 Specifications relating to house plans that must be considered

1.2.1 Areas:
Area of plot: 625 m2
Area of apartment: 52,9 m2
% building area on plot: 8,46%
1.2.2 Floor plan:
Floor cover according to owner’s specifications.
Sanitary layout of bathroom and kitchen according to the owner’s
choices and specifications.
Built-in cupboards according the design and specifications of a
specialist.
1.2.3 Elevations:
Provide damp-proof coursing in walls at floor level and at
windowsills.
All the external walls must be plastered.
Plastered internal and external walls must be painted according to
the owner’s choice of colour and type of paint.
Walls in kitchen and bathroom are tiled up to the ceiling. Tiles are
chosen by the owner.
Internal and external doors must be meranti with a varnish finish.
Steel window frames with a high-gloss, white finish.
Fascia boards are varnished.
External doors have three-lever locks and internal doors two-lever
locks.
100-litre, horizontal geyser must be installed in the ceiling.

2. List of materials needed should the house actually be built

Substructure
River sand Brickforce Lime
19 mm concrete stone DPC Clay bricks
Superstructure
Construction of walls Doors Windows
Brickforce – with reinforcing External door frame – wood Steel window frames
wire
Cement Internal door frame – steel Concrete lintels
Paint Internal door – hollow core Window pane 4 mm
Clay bricks Solid external door Putty
River sand DPC Fibre-cement windowsills
Hinges Galvanised, mild steel hoop- Screws
iron strap
Door locks
Roof
Wood for roof trusses Gang nail plates Holderbats for downpipes
Laminated fascia boards Wire nails Gutter clip/strap/bracket
Fibro-cement for soffits Bargeboard Gutters
Galvanised roof sheets Screws with washers Downpipes
Gutter elbows/bends

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 Practical Assessment Task 1
Ceilings
6,4 mm Rhino ceiling board Racking/wooden strips 25 mm galvanised clout-
headed nails
76 mm Crown list/cornice 76 mm wire nails
Plumbing
Polycop pipes Wall tiles Septic tank
Copper pipes Tile cement 100-litre geyser
Taps 110 mm PVC sewerage pipes 40/50 mm PVC sewerage pipes
Electrical work
Wall plugs 15 amp Conduit fittings Light switches
Oven isolating switch Wall sockets Conduit
Lights Electrical cables Bulb holder
Distribution board: 6-phase with earthing connection and trip switches for wall plugs, lights, stove
and geyser
Floor finish
Floor tiles Tile cement Laminated floorboards
Tile spacers Panel pins Skirting – wood or vinyl
Grout Laminated wood Quarter bead
Sanitary ware
Shower head Sink Wash basin
Toilet
Built-in cupboards
Melamine board Handles Genkem
Formica tops Screws Nails
Painting
PVA for ceilings Paint – external walls Paint – internal walls
Filler (Polyfilla) Sandpaper Wood and metal paint
Oil for wood Cleaning solutions

3. List of tools and equipment needed should the house actually be built

Tools needed for building foundation and for brickwork

Tape measure Spade Plumb line
Steel square Pick Fishing line
Garden hose Tubular spirit level Heavy-duty, latex gloves
Square-nose shovel Concrete/builder’s Hard broom
wheelbarrow
Brick trowel Pointing trowel Gauging trowel
Jointing tools Club hammer Wall chisel
Concrete mixer Compacter/wooden beam Angle-grinder
with flat base
Bucket Scaffolding

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 1 Civil Technology

Tools needed for plastering

Steel square Tubular spirit level Plastering trowel

Float Claw hammer Hawk/trowel board
Straight edge Angle-grinder Square brush
Bucket Pointing trowel
Tools needed for construction of roof
Yankee screwdriver Screwdriver Crowbar
Centre punch Wire pliers Multi-purpose snips (tinman’s
shears)
Carving knife Shifting spanner/wrench Cross-cut saw
Pencil Multi-purpose knife Back and tenon saw
Rafter square Drill, flathead Hacksaw
Adjustable drill bits Stamper for gang nail plates Ratomslag (Hand-drill with
double spur/pinion)
Bench plane Shifting spanner/wrench Claw hammer
Oil stone/whet slate Combination square Circular saw
Portable electric drill Morse-spiral bits Reel of fishing line
Tools for installing ceiling
Hacksaw (fine) Pencil Cutting knife
Claw hammer Measuring tape Putty knife
Tools for installing gutters
Hacksaw (fine) Pencil Tubular spirit level
Screwdriver Measuring tape Rope
Medium file
Tools for electrical work
Wire-nippers Draw wire Multi-speed meter
Long-nose pliers Side-cutting pliers Wire stripper
Well-insulated screwdrivers
Tools for plumbing work
Hacksaw (fine) Pencil Tubular spirit level
Steel square Measuring tape Chalk line
Straight edge Portable electric drill Chain pipe tongs
Shifting spanner/wrench Masonry Pipe vice
Claw hammer Combination square Copper pipe cutter
Trowel Chisel Thread cutter
Tools for installing floors
Ceramic tile cutter Tile nippers Mitre box
Grindstone Notched trowel Saw
Float for grouting Sponge for tiling Nylon nail fasteners
Wood filler Nails
Tools for painting
Scaffolding Paint rollers and trays Paintbrushes
Masking tape Scraper Slip-proof cover sheets
Sandpaper

38
 Practical Assessment Task 1
4. Steps for construction of simulated apartment and a time schedule
The procedure and schedule provided here indicate the steps required to
complete my scale model.

Manufacturing Second term Third term

step Week number Week number
4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Week ending ... 6 13 20 27 15 22 29 5 12 19 26 31
May May May May Jul Jul Jul Aug Aug Aug Aug Aug
Marking out 
and working on
the front of the
apartment
Marking out and 
working on the
left side of the
apartment
Marking out and 
working on the
right side of the
apartment
Marking out 
and working on
the back of the
apartment
Marking out and 
working on the
floors
Fitting and 
assembling the
sides: front, right,
left and back
Marking out 
and working on
internal walls
Marking out, 
making and fitting
doors and windows
Designing and 
making furniture
for kitchen and
bedroom
Marking out, 
making and fitting
roof
Marking out, 
making and
fitting fascia
board, gutters and
downpipes
The finish of the 
apartment

39
 1 Civil Technology

5. Quantity list
The quantity of bricks needed to complete the sub- and superstructure is
calculated by:
5.1 calculating the area of the substructure
5.2 calculating the area of the superstructure
5.3 calculating the number of bricks.

The following specifications apply:

• The walls of the substructure are 220 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The walls of the superstructure are 220 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The internal walls of the superstructure are 110 mm and built in stretcher
bond.
• Height of the foundation wall is 425 mm.
• Height of the superstructure measured from the foundation is 2 600 mm.
• Height of the superstructure measured up to the parapet wall is 4 600 mm.
• Openings for doors are 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• Take 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.
• The total length of the 110 mm internal walls is 10 000 mm.
• All bricks are common/stock bricks.
• Allow 5% for waste.

A B C D
Substructure:
1/ 28,66 Total centre line = 28,660 mm
0,425 12,181 m² Height of foundation wall = 425 mm
Area of foundation wall = 12,181 m2

Superstructure – external walls:

1/ 28,66 Total centre line = 28,660 mm
4,6 83,114 m² Height of parapet wall = 4 600 mm
Area of 2 900 superstructure wall = 131,836 m2

Superstructure – external walls:

Triangular parapet wall
Length of canted wall = 6 220 mm
Difference in height of canted wall = 4 600 – 2 600 mm
= 2 000 mm
½ 6,22 Area of canted wall = ½bh
2,0 6,22 m 2
Area of one canted wall = 6,22 m²

2/ 6,22 12,44 m2 Total area of canted sections of walls

Area of two canted sections of wall = 12,44 m2

Total external wall area = Area of foundation wall + area of

4 600 mm superstructure wall – area of triangular parapet wall
Total external wall area = 12,18 m2 + 131,84 m2 – 12,44 m2
= 143,76 m2

40
 Practical Assessment Task 1
Superstructure – internal walls:
1/ 10,0 Total length of internal walls = 10 000 mm
2,6 26,0 m2 Height of internal walls = 2 600 mm
Area of internal walls = 26,0 m2

Windows:
2/ 2,0 Window 1 = 2 000 × 1500
1,5 6,0 m² Area of 2 windows 1 = 6,0 m²

1/ 0,6 Window 2 = 600 × 900

0,9 0,54 m² Area of window 2 = 0,54 m²

2/ 1,2 Two windows without measurement = 1 200 × 1 500

(own discretion)
1,5 3,6 m² Area of two windows = 3,6 m²

Total area of windows = 6,0 + 0,54 + 3,6 m2

= 10,14 m2

Doors:
4/ 2,0 Door = 2 000 mm × 900 mm
0,9 7,2 m² Area of 2 external doors and 2 internal doors = 7,2 m²

Total area of brickwork:

Area of wall – area of windows – area of doors
= 143,76 m2 – 10,14 – 7,2 = 126,42 m2

Total bricks for external walls

2/ 126,42 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks per m²
50 12 642 50 bricks per m² for a half-brick wall
220 mm superstructure is 2 half-brick walls
Thus 12 642 bricks are needed for the external walls

Total bricks for internal walls

1/ 26,0 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks per m²
50 1 300 50 bricks per m² for a half-brick wall
Thus 1 300 bricks are needed for the external walls

Total number of bricks

Bricks for external walls + bricks for internal walls
= 12642 + 1 300 = 13 942 bricks

Plus 5 % for waste

Waste: 5% of 13 942 bricks = 697,1 bricks
Total number of stock bricks:
13 942 + 698 = 14 640 bricks

41
 1 Civil Technology

Evaluating the product or model

Evaluation: questions and answers

Evaluation

1. Does the dwelling suit the purpose for which it was designed?
The instruction that the apartment should not exceed 60 m2 has been followed.
The apartment meets most of the given specifications.
The apartment can be expanded, which makes this an ideal design.

2. Is the dwelling functional, i.e. does it suit the purpose for which it was
designed?
The dwelling is well suited to the purpose for which it was designed. The
rectangular appearance of the apartment with its parapet walls is aesthetically
pleasing. The open-plan kitchen and living room look spacious. The layout of
the kitchen is extremely functional. The windows allow enough light into the
room, as well as enough sunlight during the winter months.

3. Is the house cost-effective?

Because there are only four coin/external angles, the construction costs of
materials and labour could be reduced. Standard sanitary ware and electrical
equipment will be used, which will also contribute towards keeping the costs
low. Costs can be cut by converting the pitched roof to a pent roof.

4. Were there any shortcomings in the procedure used to build the scale model?
No, the steps that had been set out and the schedule were simply and clearly
expounded and easy to execute.
The user-friendly steps really helped me to manage my time effectively.

5. Did you learn any new techniques while building the scale model?
Because I built the model according to the drywall concept, this was an
extremely educational experience. I have learned techniques that would enable
me to excel in the building of drywall constructions.
Many other values and skills, such as problem solving, dedication, self-discipline
and cooperation with my classmates and teacher, were learned.

6. How can the apartment be improved or changed?

Erecting a pergola in front of the doors and windows on the southern side of
the dwelling will reduce the maintenance costs and enhance the appearance of
the dwelling. Adding a shower to the bathroom can improve its functionality. A
window and door can also be added to the eastern side, near the carport.

7. Evaluate the applicability or suitability of the material used in building the

scale model.
The wood and hardboard that were used to construct the drywalls will ensure
a sturdy model. The parts can be assembled easily and attached firmly without
concerns that they will come apart when handled. The corrugated cardboard
used for the roof can be painted. The risk of shrinkage is reduced because it is
corrugated. The wood was easy to finish and there were no concerns regarding
shrinkage, as is often the case when cardboard is used.

42
 Practical Assessment Task 1
8. Were problems encountered and how were they solved?
Internet research is expensive and it is difficult to find applicable information.
The house plans found on the Internet were often not relevant. Books were
then consulted. The working drawings were initially very complex but, as the
techniques involved in drawing house plans were mastered, they became useful
and informative.

9. Is the apartment environmentally friendly?

No, the apartment is not environmentally friendly in all respects. The following
are presented as examples:
9.1 Natural materials were used in construction and solar energy panels were
fitted as part of the ecologically sensible lifestyle trend.
9.2 Eco-friendly building methods were used by buying local materials. This
reduces the carbon footprint. Recyclable material was used, e.g. the
laminated fascia boards.
9.3 Insulation material was inserted between the flat roof and the ceiling,
which reduces the cost of heating and cooling.
9.4 Solar energy is used to heat water.
9.5 No light bulbs were used. Only lighting emitting diodes (LEDs) that
require small amounts of electricity to produce light were used. LEDs use
20 to 50 times less electricity than light bulbs.

10. Has provision been made for the disabled?

Yes. The rooms are spacious. Entering the house is easy, since there is
only a slight difference between the natural ground level and the final floor
level, which rendered steps redundant. The needs of the disabled were also
considered regarding the entrance to and use of the bathroom.

43
 1 Civil Technology

Bibliography
Barker, B.J. 1993. The South African Book Of House Plans. Cape Town: Struik
Publishers.

De Villiers, L. 2006. South African House Plans. Cape Town: Struik Publishers.

Free house plans <http://www.smartdraw.com> [12 February 2012].

Free house plans <http://ezinearticles.com> [18 February 2012].

Grobbelaar, A. 2006. Building Construction and Graphic Standards. Jefferey’s Bay:

Anglo Rand.

Grobbelaar, A. 2007. Affordable Homes and Plans for South Africa. Jefferey’s Bay:
Anglo Rand.

Grobbelaar, A. 2007. A To Z Of Home Planning, Building & Extensions. Jefferey’s

Bay: Anglo Rand.

Grobbelaar, A. 2007. Home Planning and Building Guide & Editions. Jefferey’s Bay:
Anglo Rand.

Grobbelaar, A. 2007. The Star Home Designs. Jefferey’s Bay: Anglo Rand.

Haas, T.D., et al. 2010. Siviele Tegnologie Leerderboek Graad 10. Mowbray: Future
Managers.

Haas, T.D., et al. 2010. Siviele Tegnologie Leerderboek Graad 12. Mowbray: Future
Managers.

Houseman, P.J. Bouinspekteur. Breedevallei Munisipaliteit. Bouregulasies,

12 Februarie 2012. 023 348 2000. Worcester.

Huisamen, T. Siviele Tegnologie Onderwyser, Boufokus Sekondêre Skool.

Samestelling van ‘n Ontwerpportefeulje, 14 Februarie 2012, 079 234 5678.
Bouershoop.

Munnik Visser Black Fish & vennote. 1994. Ontwerp jou eie Huis. Kaapstad. Struik
Uitgewers.

Munnik Visser Black Fish & vennote. 1994. Design Your Own Home. Cape Town:
Struik Publishers.

Soil types for buildings <http://www.ehow.com/list_7446436_soil-types-building>

[9 March 2012].

Walton, D. 1995. Building Construction Principles And Practices. Macmillan:

Oxford.

44
 Practical Assessment Task 1
Addendum
Information

Internet resources

Instructions for learners

Matrix for the assessment of the design portfolio

Matrix for the assessement of the final product/model

Soil types for building

By Sienna Condy, eHow Contributor
updated: December 4, 2010

1. The type of soil under your building affects structural stability.

Whether building a new home or a smaller outdoor structure, check the building
for stability. The soil your structure is built upon is its first foundation and some
soil types are more prone to expansion or shifting than others are. If the ground
beneath your building is unstable and shifts or expands, it can cause your
structure to shift, creating cracks in the walls and foundation problems.

2. Rock
Solid rock, such as crystalline bedrock, bears the most weight of any type of soil,
making it one building option. According to the Concrete Network, crystalline
bedrock can handle up to 12 000 lbs. per square foot of load-bearing pressure
keeping the structure stable. Other types of rock, including sedimentary,
can bear up to 6 000 lbs. of pressure per square foot. However, some types of
sedimentary rock, such as shale, are not always a safe option on which to build.
In time, sedimentary rock can break apart, causing the ground to shift beneath
your structure.

3. Gravel
Although gravel soils can only bear up to about 5 000 lbs. of pressure, according
to the Concrete Network, gravel soils, which typically feature a mixture of earth
and bits of rocks or larger pieces, are often a solid soil type for building. Unlike
pure rock soils that may shift as the rock breaks, gravel soils are created from a
mixture of soil and rock that has already broken down. Gravel soils tend to stay
in place and react well under pressure. They also are typically well drained.

4. Coarse soils
Coarse soils, like sand, are often stable building spots. Sand doesn’t expand when
wet. It’s also difficult to move, making it one of the most stable soil choices on
which to build. Due to the nature of the soil, sand can only bear about 3 000 to
5 000 lbs. of pressure per square foot. When evaluating sand for building, look
at what’s mixed in with the sand. Gravelly sand or basic sand is stable, but sand
mixed with more unstable soils, like peat or clay, usually is not a good building
option.

45
 1 Civil Technology

5. Other soils
Fine-grained soils, such as clay and silt, are typically not stable soils on which
to build. Silt shifts easily and clay expands when wet, often creating cracks
in any foundation built upon it. Organic soils, such as peat in the process of
decomposing, are also not stable for building, as the organic materials are often
not fully compacted or settled. In some cases organic soils are mixed with other
soil types, such as sand, making them more stable.

46
 Notes:
Areas (m²)
Plot 625 m²
Boundary line House 49,42 m²
Total area 49,42 m²
% Building area on plot: 7,91%
Water pipe 15 or 19 mm polycop at
maximum depth of 450 mm with a
stopcock.
All soil pipes, 110 mm, with a 1 : 60
incline and minimum depth of 450 mm.
All water pipes 40 mm.
Apartment
50 mm soil vent pipe at the highest
point of the sewage system.
Kitchen sink 40 mm wastewater pipe.
Only SABS-approved drainpipes and
sewage accessories may be used.
Heavy-duty manhole covers for sewage
in road.
All sewage must meet the requirements
of the local authority.

Boundary line
Draughtsman: G.K. Fransman
SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Address: 23 Bird Lane

Boundary line
Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Cell no.: 081 246 4892
E-mail: gkfransman@telkomsa.net

Client
Building line Name: Miss T Sanetha
Signature:
Date:

Project title
Boundary line PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
PLOT 24328, PAT CITY
6850

Municipal connection
Description of drawing
Practical Assessment Task

SITE PLAN AND SEWAGE PLAN

Drawing no:
1 of 3
Scale: As indicated
Scale 1 : 200
Foundation Street
Date: 2 March 2012
1

47
48
Notes:
1
Areas (m²)
Plot 625 m²
House 49,42 m²
Total area 49,75 m²
% Building area on plot 7,91%
Floor plan
Stairs
Rise max. 200 mm
Tread min. 250 mm
Elevations
All external walls must be plastered and painted or must be
facebrick.
External water-resistant paint – 2 coats.
All dimensions, levels and all other information on this drawing must
be verified on the site before work commences.
South view West view East view Provide DPC in walls on floor level and at windowsills.
Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100 Scale 1:100 Floor cover according to owner’s specifications and preferences.
Bathroom and kitchen sanitary fittings according to owner’s
Civil Technology

specifications and preferences.

Cabinets/cupboards according to specialist design and specifications
OR
Built-in cupboards, the exposed face of white melamine and with
formica tops
Finish notes
Plastered and painted internal walls using high quality, white, PVA
paint.
Plastered external walls painted according to the owner’s choice of
colour and paint. Walls in bathroom and kitchen are tiled to ceiling
level.
Internal and external doors of meranti, finished with varnish.
External doors have 3-lever locks and internal doors 2-lever locks
Window frames of steel finished in white oil paint.
Fascia boards are varnished.
100-litre horizontal geyser installed in ceiling.
Roof not painted
All tiles according to owner’s choice.
Paving as specified by owner (optional)
Kitchen
Draghtsman: G.K. Fransman
North view SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Scale 1:100 Address: 23 Bird Lane
Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Bedroom Cell no.: 081 246 4892
Living room E-mail: gkfransman@telkomsa.net

Client
Name: Miss T Sanetha
Signature:
Date:
Project title
PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
PLOT 24328, PAT CITY
6850

Description of drawing
Floor plan GROUND PLAN AND ELEVATIONS
Scale 1:100
Drawing no: 2 of 3

Scale: 1 : 200
Date: 2 March 2012
 Notes:
IBR roof cover on 76 × 50 purlins at 1 100
h.o.h. on 152 × 38 mm tie beams
at maximum 850 h.o.h. at 5 degree pitch
with gutters and fascia board.
SA pine used for roof construction.
114 × 38 mm wall plate.
Purlins 50 × 75 at 900 mm centres.
Roof battens are kept in position by
galvanised hoop wire (1 200 × 40 mm) that
Galvanised zinc sheets penetrates
600 mm into the wall construction.
Eaves projection 300 mm.
Cross-bracing between roof trusses must
be provided according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Wall plate Roof trusses on 760 centres on 114 × 38 mm
wall plates with 114 × 38 mm tie beams.
2 lintels above all openings and brickforce
Facia board for each layer above the lintel.
228 × 28 Floor notes:
75 mm concrete floor on 250 micron DPC
Square gutter 75 mm cornice on 50 mm wearing course (sand bed) on
Ceiling batten
(100 × 100) 38 × 38 well-compacted hard-core fill
375 micron DPC in walls on finished floor
level.
Downpipe (75 × 75) 100 mm concrete floor on 250 mm micron
DPC on well-compacted filling material.

DPC 100 mm concrete floor Screed coat Draughtsmen: G.K. Fransman

SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Address: 23 Bird Lane
NGL NGL Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Cell no.: 081 246 4892
Undisturbed earth E-mail: gkfransman@telkomsa.net
Wearing course
Hardcore
Client
Name: Miss T Sanetha
Signature:
section BB Date:
SCALE 1 : 50
Project title
PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
PLOT 24328, PAT CITY 6850
Practical Assessment Task

Description of drawing
VERTICAL SECTIONAL ELEVATION

Drawing no: 3 of 3
Scale: As indicated
Date: 2 March 2012
1

49
 1 Civil Technology

50
 Chapter 2
Safety

Personal safety

General safety measures Construction work

 2 Civil Technology

Introduction
The term “safety” implies that one is free of any danger or risks. While one is
working, one’s personal safety must be guaranteed at all times.

The Occupational Health and Safety Act defines an accident as an unplanned and
uncontrolled event that occurs as the result of an unsafe act (unsafe actions) or
unsafe conditions. This results in injuries and damage to property.
Take note
Each worker is The aim of the legislation is to make workplaces as safe as possible. The
responsible for his/her Occupational Health and Safety Act, No. 85 of 1993, strives to prevent or reduce
own safety as well as the the number of work-related accidents and occupational diseases in South Africa.
safety of his/her fellow This calls for a culture of acceptance and implementation of safe work habits that, in
workers. turn, will produce tremendous social and economic benefits.

The Occupational Health and Safety Act ensures the right of workers to work in
an environment that is healthy and safe. The aim of the Act is to reduce health
and safety risks in the workplace, especially in areas where machinery is operated.
The Act compels employers to appoint and establish safety representatives and
committees in the workplace. Should employers not comply with the requirements
of the Act, they are punishable by law. According to this Act, each employer must
Did you know? appoint a safety officer who is responsible for ensuring that all the safety regulations
are met.
One first-aid member
must be appointed for
every 100 workers on It is the responsibility of each employer to subject himself to the measures stipulated
the premises. in the Act. He is responsible for his own safety as well as the safety of his employees
or co-workers.

Since you were introduced to some aspects of safety in Grades 10 and 11, the
enforcement and regulation of the following will now be studied:
• Enforcement and regulation of the Occupational Health and Safety Act
stipulations pertaining to clothing as well as head, eye and ear protection
• Enforcement and regulation of the Occupational Health and Safety Act
stipulations pertaining to hand tools, power tools, construction machinery,
workplaces and safe working methods
• Organising the safe planning of excavations, the handling of materials, open
floors and stairs, hoisting devices and ladders on a building site.
Did you know?
General Safety
Personal safety
Regulation number 3
pertaining to first aid Depending on the situation in which the employee finds him/herself in the
and first-aid procedures workplace, the employer is responsible for providing the necessary protective
stipulates that “the clothing/gear to protect the body and/or body parts.
employer undertakes to
take every possible step 1. Clothing
to ensure that a person The following points are important:
in his employment • protective overalls
receives the necessary • gloves (cement, metal, welding, etc.)
first aid and treatment • aprons
in the event of an
• masks (dust, paint, gas, etc.)
emergency or injury”.
• protective clothing.

52
 Safety 2
2. Head protection
• hard hat
• safety helmet.

3. Eye and ear protection

• goggles
• safety glasses
• earplugs
• ear protectors.

4. Shoes
• safety boots/shoes
• reinforced boots/shoes
• water boots.

General safety measures

1. Hand tools
• Always ensure that cutting tools are sharp.
• Using a blunt tool requires more force, which may lead to its slipping from
the user’s grasp, causing a serious injury.
• Use tools only for purposes for which they were designed.
• Do not use broken tools.
• Immediately report any damage.
• The safety precautions applicable to each piece of equipment must be
enforced rigorously.
• Maintain tools (oil, service, etc.).
• Maintain the correct cutting direction.
• Do not bend the blades/points of tools when you are using them.
• Never leave tools on the edge of the work surface, since they may fall and
cause serious injuries.
• Always keep your hands behind the cutting edge of tools.
• Never use your fingers to test the sharpness of tools. Rather use a piece of
wood.

2. Power tools
• According to law, safety regulations should be displayed on or near power
tools.
• Power tools may not be used without permission.
• Remove any jewellery before using power tools.
• Use the safety devices as instructed.
• Tuck in loose clothing. Wear an overall/overcoat.
• Keep your hands well away from moving parts.
• Be sure to turn off the power supply when replacing parts or adjusting the
machinery.
• Wait until the machine has stopped completely before moving away from it.
• Never remove shields from machinery. Leave these in position.
• Electrical cords and cables should be checked regularly.
• Machines must be operated by only one person at a time.
• Secure all the moving parts beforehand.
• Use the tools only for the designed purpose.
• Hold machinery correctly and firmly.
• Make sure that the machinery has stopped functioning before you put it down.
• Keep machinery dry.
• Keep the machine and the environment clean.

53
 2 Civil Technology

3. Construction machinery
• Entry to the area must be restricted.
• A system regulating the incoming and outgoing machinery and trucks must be
in place.
• Safe access roads to the site must be laid.
• Secure a parking area for machinery.
• A machinery service area must be available.
• Facilities for the washing of machinery must be provided.
• Safety equipment for use on open machinery must be supplied: nose, eye and
ear protection.
• All machinery used on the building site must be equipped with warning lights.
• A site foreman must be on duty at all times.
• Construction machinery may only be operated by qualified operators.
• Never overload the vehicles.
• Only persons who have received the necessary training are allowed to handle
moving machinery.
• The employer will see to it that each person who is authorised to handle a
machine is fully informed regarding the necessary precautionary measures in
order to avoid accidents.
• The machine operator may not under any circumstances leave the machinery
while it is being used.
• Machinery may not be used without the prior knowledge of a supervisor.
• Should a machine jeopardise anyone’s safety, the person operating it must turn it
off immediately.

4. Building sites/workplaces
Safe practice require the following measures:
• Warning signs must be displayed.
• Safety signage must be displayed.
• All routes must be laid out neatly and indicated clearly.
• The central power supply to the site must be strategically placed and accessible.
• Fire-fighting equipment must meet the requirements of local authorities.
• Safety equipment must be available.
• Persons must be appointed to monitor safety.
• First-aid equipment must be available at all times.
• Emergency phone or radio communications must be available on site.
• Workers must be educated regarding HIV/Aids.
• Workers should be informed regarding contracts and human rights.
• Unsafe situations/conditions must be eliminated/avoided.
• Storerooms must be erected.
• Safety material must be made available.
• Regular safety inspections must be carried out.
• Secure open stairs and floors.
• The necessary safety measures must be taken during high-rise development.
• Wearing safety gear is compulsory.

5.Safe work methods on site

• A building site is potentially dangerous.
• Good control and administration are of the utmost importance.
• Materials and rubble pose possible threats to both construction work and
workers.
• The safety of workers and visitors/sub-contractors is the responsibility of the
contractor.
• Safety starts with the surveying of the site and continues to be the responsibility
of contractor and architect until the project is handed over.

54
 Safety 2
6. Safe planning and organisation on site
The allocation of a contract to a specific contractor incorporates the layout of the
site and the plans for erecting the buildings. In most cases, the building contract
compels the contractor to accept responsibility for the accurate and correct
layout of buildings. Under Regulation 12, a responsible person or persons must
be appointed to accept responsibility for the following:
• meeting the stipulations and regulations of the Act
• ensuring that operating equipment and machinery in good working order
• the appropriate use of equipment and machinery
• ensuring that work is done according to designs and specifications
• ensuring that permission for the work is obtained from local authorities
• ensuring that only material of the best quality is used.

Notice of construction work

1. A contractor has to inform the provincial director, in writing, before
commencement of construction work which will involve the following:
i) demolishing a structure which exceeds a height of 3 metres;
ii) the use of explosives during construction; or
iii) dismantling a fixed structure that is 3 metres high or higher.
Before commencement of work, the contractor must inform the provincial
director should the work:
i) involve more than 30 days or more than 300 person days;
ii) include excavations deeper than 1 metre; or
iii) require building higher than 3 metres or building a landing.
2. Notice to the provincial director as required in sub-regulation (1) must be given
by completing the form similar to the appendix of this regulation.
3. The prime contractor must ensure that a copy of the completed form, as
specified in sub-regulation (2), is kept on site for inspection by a building
inspector, client, client’s agent or worker.

Activity 1
1. Two warning signs are provided here. Explain how and where they should be
displayed.

55
 2 Civil Technology

2. Study the photo below and list the unsafe conditions that you observe.

3. Draw one safety sign on an A4 sheet of paper, colour it in using the

appropriate colours, and place it in the correct area in your workshop at
college.

4. Identify the safety gear that the worker needs in order to protect himself,
given each of the following situations.

Did you know?

According to Franklin
Muchiri of the
International Labour
Organisation (ILO), The regulations provided here form an integral part of the Occupational Health and
specialists have stated Safety Act and can be consulted in these documents:
that, worldwide, 2,2 • Noise-induced Hearing Loss Regulation, 2003
million workers die as • Environment Regulations for Workplaces, 1987 and Facilities Regulations, 1990,
the result of accidents as well as General Administrative Regulations, 2003
in the workplace. He
• Electrical Machinery Regulations, 1988
states that, worldwide,
270 million workers are
• Driven Machinery Regulations, 1988
injured in accidents at • General Machinery Regulations, 1988
work. • Lifts, Escalators and Passenger Conveyor Regulations, 1994
• Draft Amendment to the Construction Regulations Act, 2010

7. Excavations
• The contractor will ensure that all excavations take place under the
supervision of a qualified person whose appointment has been confirmed in
writing.
• Where possible, the contractor must test the stability of the terrain before
commencement of excavations.
• During excavations, each contractor must take the necessary steps, where
applicable, to prevent workers from being buried and/or trapped by falling
earth or material during excavations.

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 Safety 2
• Prior inspections must be carried out to determine whether there are electric
cables, water pipes or gas lines in the area to be excavated, since this may
affect the excavation process.
• Should personal safety be a concern, a fence of at least 1 metre high must be
built as closely as possible around the perimeter of the excavation site.
• Warning signs must be displayed and they must be clearly visible, even at
night or in the dark.
• The regulations of Government Notice R.1031 of 30 May 1986 must always
be met before an excavation site may be entered.
• Shoring is compulsory where the banks slope/slant, if the soil is loose or if the
engineer insists.
• Ensure that no load, material, construction machinery or tools are stored
near excavation areas where the sides may cave in.
• Bracing is necessary where trenches or canals are deeper than 1,5 metres.
• The banks or ground table must be sufficiently supported.
• Daily inspections are necessary to test the strength of the bracing, especially
after heavy rain.
• Safe access to trenches, or the area where excavations are taking place, must
be ensured.

8. Handling of material
This section of the work was covered in Grade 11. The risks and possible injuries
that may occur when handling materials were set out clearly.

In Grade 12, the following additional information regarding a construction site

must be considered:
• Always ensure that proper procedures are followed when handling and
storing material, or when removing material from a site.
• Loose material or building rubble must not be left on the construction site or
stored in a way that will restrict the entrance or exit.
• Loose material or rubble must never be dropped from elevated areas. It must
be conveyed via a chute or conveyor belt.
• A construction site to which the public has access must be cordoned off, and
the access area must be clearly indicated to prevent unauthorised access to
the site.
• A safety net or platform must be positioned or erected to prevent falling
objects from injuring workers.
• When material is transported in bulk, it must be secured firmly.
• When material is transported to higher levels, make sure that workers
maintain a safe distance from the material being moved overhead.
• When heavy material is transported via a lift/hoist, a qualified person must
take charge of operations. Did you know?
• When material is stacked, the height of the stack must never exceed three Most injuries are caused
times the width of the material. by picking up or lifting
• Workers should only handle as much material as they physically can. They objects that are too
should not lift or carry excessively heavy loads. heavy.

9. Safety measures pertaining to floors and stairs

Safety signage must be displayed at all stairs and floors that have no railings:
• The sides must be covered and the railing must be sturdy.
• Safety nets must be installed at the entrance.
• Safety gear must be used when working on upper levels, especially in windy
conditions.
When work is being done along the edge of a high-rise construction, the
worker should be extra careful and his/her safety must be a priority. (It
should be avoided if possible.)

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• Boards must be fitted along the floors of upper levels to prevent material
from falling to the lower levels.
• The area should always be clear of rubble or loose material.

10. Hoisting devices

In Grade 11, you learnt how hoists operate and for what purposes they may
be used.

The purpose of a hoisting device is to transport personnel, materials, and

equipment quickly between ground level and upper levels, or between floors in
the middle of a structure.

To ensure the safe use of hoisting devices, the following requirements

must be met:
• A qualified person must operate the device.
• The device must never be overloaded.
• The gates and wire components of the lift or the hoisting device must be at
least 1 980 mm high.
• The gates must be shut when the device is being used.
• Emergency brake mechanisms must be installed.
• Safety measures must be displayed inside the cage.
• Inspections and maintenance work should be carried out regularly by
qualified persons (six-monthly).
• Overhead protection must be provided to protect workers from falling
objects.
• When material or equipment is being hoisted, it must be stacked firmly and
correctly, and secured properly.
• It must be inspected weekly by a qualified person.

11. Ladders
Ladders must be handled with the utmost care. Most ladders are made of
wood, aluminium or fibreglass.

Bear the following in mind when using a ladder:

• A ladder should be used by only one person.
• An aluminium ladder must never be used in the proximity of electrical
wires.
• Carry ladders in such a way so as not to damage them.
• Always store ladders in a dry area.
• When a ladder is placed against a wall, a 1 : 4 angle must be maintained (as
indicated in the adjacent sketch).
• Store the ladder in the appropriate area after use.
• Keep ladders clean and free of oil/grease.
• Make sure that the area where the ladder is being stored is within easy
reach.
• When transporting a ladder, make sure that it does not protrude
excessively.
• Soft material must be used to protect the ladder during transportation.
• Mark the end of the protruding ladder with a red or orange flag.
• When carrying a ladder, grip it near the middle.
• Be careful when carrying a ladder along passages or through doorways
where your view may be obstructed.
• Ask someone to help you carry a heavy ladder and grip the same side of the
ladder.
• Never store material or equipment on top of a ladder.

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 Safety 2

Wall brackets

Wall
Detail
(side view)
2 m max.

Figure2.1: Carrying a ladder Figure 2.2: Storing a ladder against a wall

Activity 2
1. What does making use of a qualified person imply?
2. The term “excavation” has a very specific meaning. Explain.
3. What is wrong in the following illustrations? Explain how you would rectify
the situation.

4. What is the purpose of a safety net when high-rise buildings are under
construction?
5. When a ladder is too heavy for you to carry, someone must be called to assist
you. How should the ladder be carried?

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Terminology
Qualified or competent person
Any person who has the knowledge, training, experience and qualifications
specifically required by the job or task to be completed: with the proviso that when
the applicable qualification and training is registered in terms of the regulations
of the South African Qualifications Act (SAQA), 1995 (Act 58 of 1995), these
qualifications and/or training will be regarded as the required qualification and
training.

Building work
Any work pertaining to:
• the erection, maintenance, modification, renovation, repair, demolition or
dismantling of or in addition to a building or similar structure
• the installation, erection, dismantling or maintenance of a fixed plant where the
work includes personal risk
• the construction, maintenance, demolition or dismantling of any bridge, dam,
canal, road, railway, runway, sewerage or waterworks system or any similar civil
engineering project
• the moving of earth, clearing land, doing excavations, piling or any similar type
of work.

Excavations
A manmade cavity, trench, pit/well or depression shaped by cutting, digging or
floating

Power tools
Tools that are powered by electricy or batteries

Safety signage
Signs displayed to serve as warnings. Each safety sign has a specific meaning

Unsafe condition
A condition that poses a threat and that may cause harm, serious injury or death.

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 Chapter 3
Graphic communication

?????????? ????? ??????

Building plans Architectural symbols

Colour codes for plans CAD programme

 3 Civil Technology

Introduction
During the introduction to graphic communication in Grades 10 and 11, the
various drawing symbols used in the building industry, dimensions and how to
indicate them, the different lines used in drawings, the various scales used for
drawings or plans as well as how to choose window frames and doorframes were
studied.

Another important component that was introduced in Grade 11 included floor

plans, elevations and sectional elevations.
Take note
In this chapter, the various elevations of a dwelling, plans for houses that have
The house plans in
this section will not be gable-end or hipped-end roofs, lean-tos and Howe pitched roofs (the so-called SA
colour-coded. pitch) will be introduced. Floor plans and the layout of a sewage system, as well as
the site plan, will also be discussed.

Building plans
Indicating letters and numbers as well as dimensions on a drawing or building plan
is of the utmost importance if the contractor is to make appropriate decisions when
the house is being built. Drawings or plans must meet the SANS specifications.

The labelling of the drawing must meet the following requirements:

• The drawing must be clear and legible.
• It must be executed on white paper or any other acceptable material.
• The name of the owner of the plot must appear on the drawing.
• The drawing must be dated and signed in black ink by the owner.
(Any changes must be signed and dated by the owner.)
• The drawing or plan must be drawn according to an acceptable scale. Any of the
scales indicated in the table below may be used.

Scale
The scale must be specified in the scale title block to indicate which scale was used.

Various factors determine or influence the scale:

• Accurate communication of the drawing
• The size of the project
• Specific detail that has to be indicated.

The table below indicates the different scales for each type of drawing or plan.

Type Scale
Working drawing Locality plan 1 : 1 000 or smaller
Site plan 1 : 500
1 : 200

Layout drawing 1 : 200

Plans, sections and views 1 : 100
1 : 50

Drawing components: 1 : 50
Detail of a section, 1 : 20
fitting sections, 1:0
inclinations 1:5
1:2
1:1

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 Graphic communication 3
Lines
Lines vary in thickness and various lines are used to illustrate different types of
drawings. The type of line is determined by the purpose of the drawing and the
detail that has to be included. The most common thicknesses are 0,25 mm 0,3 mm
0,35 mm 0,5 mm and 1 mm.

Line type Description Application

Continuous line dark Visible detail

Continuous line light Dimension lines

Hatching lines
Leader lines
Extension lines

Continuous line very light Projection lines

Construction lines

Broken lines light Hidden detail

Chain line light for work to Symmetry lines

be removed Pitch lines (circles)
Centre lines
Thick broken line Cutting planes

Continuous, wavy and light Non-regular boundaries

Breaks in continuity of Limit of views and

drawings. Long break line sections

Figure 3.1: Types of lines used in drawing

Figure 3.2: The correct way for dimensioning a building plan

Figure 3.3: The correct way for dimensioning normal drawings

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Handwriting (script)

Standard codes of practice

As a learner, you should know by now that your handwriting is of cardinal
importance when you need to write on a drawing. The latest SABS 0111 Codes of
Practice can be studied for this purpose. The writing must be legible and uniform
as recommended by the Code. Printed writing must be practised to produce
consistently neat work. See the alphabet on the next page for practising printing.

Dimensions
• Dimensions are indicated to specify the distance between points.
• Always indicate the ratio of the dimensions clearly.
• Dimensions must be printed large enough to produce clear copies.
• Continuous measurements are always indicated directly above the dimension
line.
• Numbers are always placed close to the arrowhead side so that they can be read
from bottom right-hand side of the drawing.
• Decimals are indicated using a comma and to indicate units smaller than 0
(0,75 mm).
• To indicate thousands, leave a gap between the thousand digit and the hundred
digit (7 234 mm).
• All linear dimensions must be indicated in millimetres.
• The order of measurements must remain constant to prevent confusion, for
example, length must be provided first, followed by width and breadth, and
thirdly, depth or heights.

Measurements

The SABS Code of Practice 0111 specifies how measurements should be indicated.

The following aspects are very important:

• Dimension lines may not be closer than 10 mm from the outline of the drawing.
• Dimensions must not be closer than 1 mm from the measurement line.
• Use the same density as the outline when indicating dimensions.
• Leave a 2 mm gap between the outline and the projection line.
• The projection line must extend past the arrowhead by at least 2 mm.
• Indicate the dimensions above and preferably in the centre of the measurement
line.
• Indicate the dimensions so that they can be read from the bottom right-hand
side of the drawing.
• Arrowheads must be neat, pointed and must touch the extension line.
• Arrowheads must be 3–5 mm long.
• The abbreviation of diameter (dia) must follow the number (30 dia). However,
when the symbol is used, it must be placed in front of the number (ø 30).
• When referring to radius, the letter R is placed in front of the number.
• Angles are indicated in degrees, for example 35˚.

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Radius

Circles

Corners

Letters

Numbers

Figure 3.4: Radii, circles and corners

Letters and numbers

• Use the latest SABS 0111 Code of Practice to study the letters and numbers.
• Letters and numbers must always be written neatly and clearly to ensure
uniformity.
• The height of letters and numbers vary from 2,5–7 mm.
• Name and title should be 5–7 mm high, while all other writing should be
between 2,5 mm and 3,5 mm.
• Use capital letters when printing.

See the alphabet below for practising printing.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
QRSTUVWXYZ RSTUVWXYZ

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
QRSTUVWXYZ RSTUVWXYZ
1234567890 1234567890
[ ( ! ? : // ÷ = + ± x √ % & Ø ) ] [ ( ! ? : // ÷ = + ± x √ % & Ø ) ]

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Drawing symbols in the building industry

Symbols for material

Material Symbol Material Symbol
Undisturbed earth Sheet membrane

Earth fill Firebrick

Plaster Undressed wood

Concrete Dressed wood

Hard core Plywood

Face brick Metal

Common brick Glass

General symbols
Description Symbol Description Symbol
Centre line Level, finished floor

Datum level Level, invert

Diameter Level, required on plan

Diameter, inside Level, required on section

Diameter, outside Indicate Northpoint

Level, existing on plan Ramp

Level, existing on section Staircase

Services
Drain Gully

Grease trap Stormwater drain

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 Graphic communication 3
Water supply
Check valve Stop valve

Drain-off tap Water cistern

Hot-water cylinder Water meter

Safety valve Water storage tank

Electrical installation
Distribution board Socket outlet

Earth Emergency light

Electricity meter Fluorescent light

(3 tubes of 40 W)

One-way switch – Light (3 lamps of

single pole 40 W)

One-way switch – Light wall-mounted

double pole

One-way switch – Telephone, internal

tripple pole

Two-way switch Telephone, public

Furniture and fittings

Bath Urinal – slab type

Bidet Urinal – wall mounted

Shower and bath Washbasin

Sink unit – single Wash tub

Sink unit – double Water-closet

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Colour-coding used for house plans

Take note Local authorities require one/two sets of appropriately colour-coded house plans.
The house plans in The colour-coded plans enable them to read the drawings more easily and also
this section will not be distinguish between new additions and existing material.
colour-coded.
The following colour codes are stipulated in the SANS 0143 Building Drawing
Practice:

Site plans
1. Proposed new work Red
2. Existing work Not coloured
3. Work to be demolished Black broken line

Sewage installation drawings indicating the needs of a site

1. Sewage/drain and diverting water pipes Brown
2. Existing drainpipes Black
3. Wastewater pipes Green
4. Stormwater pipes Blue
5. Diverted water and combination vents Red
6. Wastewater vents Yellow

Layout drawing
1. New masonry (bricklaying) Red
2. New concrete Green
3. Walls: Plaster and paint Yellow
4. New timber Brown
5. New iron and steel Blue
6. New glass Black
7 Walls: Face brick Orange
8. All existing material Grey

Abbreviations indicated on house plans

Description Abbreviation Description Abbreviation

Not according to scale NTS Inspection eye IE
Natural ground level NGL Gulley G
Finished floor level FFL Rodding eye RE
Shower SH Bottom depth BD
Bath B Drainpipe DP
Kitchen sink S Stormwater pipe SWP
Water meter WM French drain FD
Water closet WC Septic tank ST
Grease trap GT Soil vent pipe SVP

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 Graphic communication 3

Activity 1
1. Provide an appropriate scale for:
1.1 site plans
1.2 floor plans.

2. Use drawings to illustrate three ways in which to indicate dimensions.

3. Make neat drawings of the following drawing symbols:

3.1 undisturbed soil
3.2 earth filling
3.3 concrete
3.4 driveway
3.5 gulley
3.6 socket outlet
3.7 wall-mounted light
3.8 bath
3.9 kitchen sink (single basin)
3.10 shower.

4. Which colour codes are used to indicate the following?

4.1 New work, as indicated on a site plan
4.2 Diverting water pipes
4.3 Waste-water pipes
4.4 New concrete
4.5 Plaster and paint

5. What do the following abbreviations mean?

5.1 B
5.2 SH
5.3 S
5.4 RE
5.5 NTS

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Registering with SACAP (The South African Council for the Architectural
Profession)
In order to submit plans, draughtsmen must be registered members of the
above-mentioned body. The reference numbers of architects and architectural
draughtspersons must always be indicated when house plans are submitted.

When the client has made sketches and plans concerning the dwelling, the
architect or architectural draughtspersons is approached to draw up a complete
plan according to the client’s specifications. The plan will include the floor plan,
elevations, the elevation of sections, the sewage system, the electrical layout and the
layout of the roof, as well as all the descriptive notes that must accompany the plan.

Title blocks for house plans

Title blocks can be indicated horizontally at the bottom or vertically on the right-
hand side of the drawing page. To suit the purpose of the house plans used here,
vertical title blocks that comprise eight rows will be used. Complete these blocks in
as much detail as possible. The title block can also contain additional information
to make provision for each project. The vertical block has a width of 100 mm.

Details that should be included in the title block

Row 1: Notes regarding the drawings:
• Notes are added to the house plan to provide information that is not
readily conveyed by the drawing as succinctly as possible.
• Notes relevant to a specific drawing must be grouped together.
• Notes must not be underlined.
• Use a larger letter size if a note or heading must stand out/be
emphasised.
• Lettering may be vertical or italics (cursive), but the styles must not be
mixed in one drawing.
• Notes can be typed and printed beforehand, and then pasted onto the
drawing.
• Notes regarding the site plan must provide relevant information
regarding the site.
• Floor plans and sectional elevations need other appropriate notes.
• The notes that are made here must contain all the information that the
quantity surveyor and builder will need for the construction of the
house according to the plan.
Row 2: Provide the personal details of the draughtsperson.
Row 3: Provides the details of the client.
Row 4: Indicates the project title.
Row 5: Mention the type of drawing used.
Row 6: Number of the drawing
Row 7: Scale
Row 8: Date

Checklist/marking list for the drawing of a house plan

Local authorities use checklists that must be completed by draughtspersons in order
to assist them in determining whether their plans meet all the requirements. The
checklists shown on the next page provide examples of the following elevations.

The Surveyor-General’s diagram/location plan

Before a house plan can be developed, a plan must be obtained from the Surveyor-
General. This plan provides the exact dimensions of the plot, where it is located,
and its contours. This plan also indicates how the site plan should be prepared. The
scale is usually 1 : 200 to 1 : 1000.
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 Graphic communication 3

Figure 3.5: Surveyor General’s location plan

The site plan

The site plan provides the following details:
• The boundaries of the property and numbers of adjacent plots (lots)
• Services to the site, e.g. water, sewage and power cables
• The names of roads, description of driveways, contours, and service connections
• The building lines, building position, service connections, drainpipes, and
stormwater pipes
• The north point of the site and the scale that is used are also indicated.

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Example of a site plan

A site plan containing analytical questions is provided.

QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1 According to which scale has this plan 2

been drawn?

2 What is the plot number of the property 2

on the eastern side?

3 What does the abbreviation IE represent? 2

4 What is the total area of the house? 8

5 What property/characteristic is 2
represented by no. 1 on the drawing?

6 What property/characteristic is 2
represented by no. 2 on the drawing?

7 What property/characteristic is 2
represented by no. 3 on the drawing?

8 What property/characteristic is 2
represented by no. 4 on the drawing?

9 What property/characteristic is
represented by no. 5 on the drawing?

10 What property/characteristic is

Botha Street
represented by no. 6 on the drawing?

11 Which street borders the property on the 2

eastern side?

12 What is the plot number of the illustrated 2

house?

13 What is the distance between the flat and 2

the plot numbered 41?

14 If additions were to be added to this plan, 2

which colour ought to be used?

15 What is the total perimeter of the house 2

in metres?

16 What is the distance from the borderline 2

to the building line on the eastern side of
the house?

17 What does the abbreviation RE represent 2

on the drawing?

36

Malgas Street

Name and surname:

Scale 1:200

Figure 3.6: Example of a site plan

Evaluate the site plan using the checklist.

Use a to indicate the appropriate block.

1. Site plan

No. Description Yes No N/a

1. Information regarding the plot was obtained from a
Surveyor-General diagram/chart (SG) or the Town
Planning Division by the owner
2. The north point is indicated at the bottom, right.
3. Scales: 1 : 100, 1 : 200, 1 : 500
4. Building lines and dimensions
5. Plot number
6. Adjacent plot numbers
7. All the dimensions of the site
8. Ground contours/collimation heights

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 Graphic communication 3
9. Adjacent street name(s)
10. Street number
11. Layout of sewage
12. Connecting manhole
13. Water connection point
14. Main sewage connection point
15. Connection point of electricity
16. Position of proposed building
17. Position of existing buildings
18. Buildings that must be demolished are indicated using a
broken black line
19. Motor-vehicle driveway from road
20. Registered servitude
21. Existing trees as indicated
22. The proposed work is indicated in red
23. The existing work is not coloured

Floor plans
A floor plan is that part of the house that would be seen if the house were to be cut
off one metre above the floor slab. This plan provides a view from the top, as if you
were looking down on the external and internal walls, floors, windows, doors, built-
in cupboards, etc. It is usually drawn without the roof construction. A scale of
1 : 100 is most commonly used, and it must be indicated in the title block. The
north point must be indicated at the bottom right-hand side of the page.

Figure 3.7: Example of a floor plan

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Evaluate the floor plan using a checklist.

Use a  to indicate the appropriate block.

Ground plan

No. Description Yes No N/a
1. Scales: 1 : 100, 1 : 50, 1 : 500
2. Dimensions
3. Window numbers – schedule
4. Door swing – direction in which doors open
5. Sanitary fittings (plumbing fixtures)
6. Names of all the rooms
7. Stairs and direction of stairs
8. Sliding doors and other doors
9. Floor covering
10. Line(s) of intersection

Control test for horizontal and vertical dimensions

It is important that the dimensions of the floor plan be checked in order to ensure
that the horizontal and vertical external measurements correspond individually
with the inside measurements. Two tests are conducted regarding the horizontal
and vertical dimensions:

Write down all the measurements underneath one another and add them. Both
totals must correspond with the inside measurement.

Example
Use the following information provided by the floor plan to check the horizontal
and vertical measurements.

Horizontal measurements

Control test 1 Control test 2

220 220
800 1 400
2 000 2 000
800 1 600
110 110
800 200
600 900
800 700
110 2 000
2 600 810
900 110
200 300
110 3 000
800 300
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 Graphic communication 3
2 000 220
800
220
TOTAL: 13 760 TOTAL: 13 760

Vertical measurements

Control test 1 Control test 2

220 9 060
4 200
110
1 000
110
3 200
220
TOTAL: 9 060 TOTAL: 9 060

Activity 2
1. A newlywed couple approaches you to design a single-storey house that
comprises the following:
Bedroom Kitchen
Living room Garage
Bathroom with hand basin, bath, shower, and flush lavatory.
The specifications are:
• The living room and bedroom are next to each other, facing south.
• The kitchen and bathroom face north.
• The living room and kitchen are open plan.
• The garage is on the south side of the house and has an internal door
that provides direct access to the living room.
• The house has a flat roof.

Draw the floor plan that contains the following information:

1.1 The names of the rooms
1.2 The floor covering that will be used
1.3 All the external and internal measurements of the house according to
your discretion
1.4 Dimensions of thickness of walls
1.5 Title of drawing
1.6 The scale.

2. Use the correct symbols according to the above-mentioned Code of Practice

and indicate only FOUR of the following views on the drawing:
Kitchen sink Shower Bath
Hand basin Flush lavatory Driveway
Built-in cupboard in bedroom Garage door

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3. Use the information in Question 1 and draw up a site plan. Provide all the
dimensions according to your discretion.

Elevations
Houses usually have four sides. These four sides are referred to as elevations
(views) of the house – the north elevation, south elevation, west elevation and
east elevation. The elevations may also be indicated as north west, north east,
south east or south west, but these elevations will not be covered in this course.
In order to determine the elevation, the drawing symbol that indicates north is
used. The north point is usually indicated at the bottom, right-hand side of the
floor plan in order to be clearly visible. The arrowhead of this symbol may only
point upward or to the left.

Symbol to indicate the north point

North

West East

South

The north elevation is the side of the house that faces north. In order to draw the
elevations, one must walk around the house and examine the sides. The number
of elevations that must be submitted will depend on the local authority. Some
authorities prefer only the north elevation and the one facing the street. If the
elevations differ vastly, all of them should preferably be drawn.

Elevations are drawn from the floor plan and they indicate all the exterior details
of the house. Aspects indicated include the type of external wall and the finish,
type of doors and windows, direction in which windows open, the pitch of the
roof, the roof cover, bargeboard, fascia board, gutters, downpipes, natural ground
level, driveway, stairs, etc.

Barge board 230 x 25 mm

Roof pitch 30˚

Plaster and paint Fascia board

Plaster and paint

NGV NGL

West elevation South elevation

Scale 1 : 100

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Evaluate the elevations by using the checklist.

Use a  to indicate the appropriate block.

3. Elevations

No. Description Yes No N/a

1. Minimum elevations – three
2. Natural ground level
3. Finished ground level (FGL)
Completed floor level (CFL)
4. Windows
5. Sections of windows which open
6. Windowsills
7. Doors/garage door
8. Finish of walls/material
9. Material used for roof and pitch of roof
10. Bargeboards
11. Fascia boards and gutters
12. Downpipes
13. Names of elevations
14. Scale

Tips for drawing the elevation of a building

When elevations of houses are drawn in class, the correct colour coding for
each material must be used.

1. Study and analyse the information that is given and make a freehand
sketch of the elevation.
2. Find the symbol to indicate the north point. The SANS specify that it
must always be indicated at the bottom, right-hand side of the drawing.
The arrowhead will always point upwards or to the left.
3. Find out which elevations must be drawn. If the arrow is pointing
upwards, the south elevation will be at the bottom, near the symbol; the
west elevation will be seen from the left-hand side; east elevation from
the right-hand side; and north elevation from behind. To draw these
elevations you would basically need to “walk around the house” until you
are facing the elevation. These elevations are drawn according to the
principles of first-angle orthographic projections. The north elevation, if
the arrow is pointing upwards, must be rotated hypothetically to obtain
a mirror image. The position of the doors and windows will of course
change, given this scenario.
4. A calculator is used to convert the dimensions to scale and to calculate
the distances.
5. The finished floor level (FFL) can be indicated using a dark or a broken
line.
6. Indicate the height of the wall using a broken line. This will indicate the
overhang of the roof.
7. Always show this construction in order to determine the height of hipped
roofs.

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8. The roof ridge can be indicated using one of two lines. Study a few
modern roof ridges used for corrugated zinc sheets and check whether
all of these form sharp edges. To save time, the front elevation of the
door can be indicated by drawing two lines. Do not draw a panel door,
etc. since that will take too long. This is only done to indicate a specific
type of door, such as a framed door.
9. Remember that the height of the window and door will be the same.
10. The position of a window in the wall is left to your own discretion,
unless the position has been indicated.
11. Windows that open must be indicated. The diagonal is connected to the
centre of each window frame using a broken line.
12. If a fibre-cement window sill is used, it will extend over the window. If
the window sill is a brick construction, it will be the same width as the
window. If the type of window sill is not specified, either type may be
used.
13. The fascia board can be flush with the edge of the roof sheet, or it can be
taken back slightly.
14. The dimensions do not have to be indicated on the elevations. This is
only done to explain the drawing.
15. Marks are always awarded for indicating the following labels. Label the
drawing neatly using print:
• Indicate the elevation
• Scale
• Plaster and paint, or facebrick finish – if mentioned in the question
• NGL – natural ground level
• FFL – finished floor level
• Bargeboard
• Fascia board
• The pitch of the roof (30°)
• Gutters and downpipes must be indicated if specified in the question

Sectional elevation
If a house were to be cut in two from the roof ridge to the foundation and the
pieces separated, what remains will represent a vertical sectional elevation of
the building. Sectional elevations usually indicate the roof construction, ceiling
details, floor details, foundations details, damp-proof coursing, the height from
the floor to the ceiling, and the doors and windows that form part of that section.
The descriptive notes provided in the title block of this drawing must provide
more details in order to prevent misinterpretations, and they should provide the
builder with indications as to how the components should be combined.
Ridge plate

Galvanised zinc sheeting

Purlins (76 x 50)

Square gutter
75 mm cornice (100 x 100)
Ceiling
battens
(38 x 38)
Water Downpipe (75 x 75)
proofing 75 mm cement floor FFL
NGL NGL
Undisturbed soil
600 x 250 Hardcore Wearing course 600 x 250
(1 : 3 : 6) Section BB (1 : 3 : 6)
78 Scale 1:50
 Graphic communication 3

Evaluate the elevation using the checklist.

Use a  to indicate the appropriate block.

4. Sectional elevation

No. Description Yes No N/a

1. Scales: 1 : 100, 1 : 50, 1 : 500
2. Dimensions of foundation
3. Vertical dimensions
4. Damp-proof coursing, walls and windows
5. Wall plate
6. Floor level up to existing ground level
7. Floor level to finished ground level
8. Floor level to existing ground level
9. Design of roof

Detailed drawings
Detail is indicated in these specific drawings. The scale is usually 1 : 20 or 1 : 50.
Sections can be enlarged in order to include more information in the drawing.
Descriptive notes also highlight details that may not be clearly understood.

Galvanised zinc sheeting

300 × 75 mm

Galvanised zinc gutter 75 x 50 mm

228 x 50 mm
DETAIL 2 Scale 1 : 20

Ridge purlin

Purlin/Roof batten 76 x 50 King post

Corrugated zinc
Rafter 114 x 38

Tie beam 114 x 38

Foot purlin 76 x 50
Wall plate 114 x 38
Wall 220 mm
Fascia board
228 x 32 mm Plaster 12 mm thick Scale 1 : 10
Soffit board 6 mm
Soffit hanger 38 x 38 mm
Quarter round (moulding) 20 mm
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Activity 3
1.The incomplete floor plan of an apartment for a student is provided.
1.1 Using a scale of 1 : 50, draw the north elevation of the apartment
1.2 Use the information on the floor plan and check the horizontal and
vertical dimensions.

SCALE 1 : 50

Provide details for the following labels:

• Title and scale
• Plaster and paint
• NGL and FFL
• Pitch of the roof

Specifications:
• Floor height (final finished floor level – FFL) 170 mm
• Height of wall 2 700 mm
• Roof pitch 30°
• Eaves projection 600 mm
• Roof cover Corrugated zinc sheets
• All windows 900 mm high, 1 500 mm wide

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• Door openings 2 000 mm × 900 mm

• Fibre-cement facia boards 225 mm × 15 mm
• Bargeboard 228 mm × 32 mm
• Windowsill 1 500 mm wide
• Laminated beam (resting on pillar) 297 mm × 45 mm

2.The plan below shows the incomplete floor plan (not according to scale) of
an office complex. It has a hipped roof with a pitch of 30°. The steel
windows must be drawn according to the window schedule.
2.1 Using a SCALE OF 1 : 50, draw the SECTIONAL ELEVATION of the
house on intersecting line BB.

Use the following specifications:

• Floor height (finished floor level – FFL)
from above the foundation 340 mm
• Hard core filling (under concrete floor) 170 mm
• Wearing course 50 mm
• Height of wall from FFL 2 600 mm
• Eaves projection 500 mm
• Roof cover Corrugated zinc sheets
• Aluminium sliding door 1 800 mm × 2 000 mm
• Fascia boards 228 mm × 32 mm
• Foundation 600 × 250 mm
• Thickness of floor 100 mm
• Square gutter 100 × 100 mm
• Downpipes 75 × 75 mm

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Sewage plan
These drawings indicate the sewage system of a dwelling. The illustration below
shows the sectional elevation of the system, using colourcoding and standard
abbreviations. The plan must be submitted for approval and the colourcoding
must be appropriate.

Ground level 100,000 98,000 90,000 95,000 95,000

Invert level 100.45 97.5 89.45 94.2 94.18
Depth 0,450 0,500 0,500 0,800 820
Distance 8 000 3 700 10 800 2 500
Slope 1:60 1:60 1:60 1:60

How to calculate the slope of a drainpipe

The slope of a sewage system varies from 1 : 40 to 1 : 60; any slope between these
two ratios can be used. The customary slope is 1 : 40. For calculation purposes,
all the measurements will be converted to millimetres.

Example 1
The distance between the manhole in the street and the furthest inspection eye is
20 metres. Calculate the fall from the inspection eye to the manhole if the slope
is 1 : 40.

Solution
Fall = Distance × slope
= 20 000 mm × 1 ÷ 40
= 500 mm

Activity 4
1. Calculate the incline between the inspection eye and the manhole if:
1.1 the slope is 1 : 40 and the distance 1 metre.
1.2 the slope is 1 : 60 and the distance 1 metre.
1.3 Indicate which slope has the greater incline.
1.4 If it were up to you, which slope would you choose? Motivate your
choice.
2. Calculate the incline between the inspection eye and the manhole if:
2.1 the slope is 1 :4 0 and the distance 30 metres.
2.2 the slope is 1 : 60 and the distance 30 metres.
3. Calculate the incline between the inspection eye and the manhole if:
3.1 the slope is 1 : 45 and the distance 16 metres.
3.2 the slope is 1 : 40 and the distance 4 metres.
4. Calculate the incline between the inspection eye and the manhole if:
4.1 the slope is 1 : 40 and the distance 18 136 mm.
4.2 the slope is 1 : 60 and the distance 29 910 mm.

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Specifications and descriptive notes
How to use specifications to draw up a ground plan
The floor plan of an apartment for a student is shown on page 80 (Activity 3).
Using a scale of 1 : 100, draw the north elevation of the apartment.
Use the following specifications.
Type of roof: Gable-end roof
Type of roof truss for front section: Half Howe roof truss
(S A truss)
Type of roof truss for rear section: Full Howe roof truss
Roof pitch: 30 degrees
Eaves projection: 450 mm
Roof covering: Corrugated zinc sheets
Floor height above ground level: Two brick layers
Height of wall: 2 700 mm
Door opening: 2 000 mm × 900 mm
Steel windows: 2 000 mm broad and 1 500 mm
high according to design
Fascia board: 230 mm × 25 mm
Bargeboard: 230 mm × 25 mm
Square gutters: 100 mm × 100 mm
Downpipes: 75 mm × 75 mm

Plan showing roof construction

Roofs are designed and built according to the design of the ground plan of a
building or dwelling.

Hipped-end roof

Gable-end roof

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Max 500 mm Flat roof construction Parapet wall

high
parapet wall

Seal
Gutter

DPC DPC

Flat roof construction Parapet wall

Scale 1 : 25
Plaster 12 mm
Slope of roof 5o Parapet wall 220 mm
Flashing
Square gutter
100 x 100 mm Corrugated zinc

Purlins 76 x 50
Rafter 152 x 50 mm

Beam 228 x 50 mm

Joints by A Downpipe 76 x 76 mm

Pillar 350 x 350 mm

Wall- 220 mm

Screed 30 mm
Concrete slab 75 mm

Lean-to-roof

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Activity 5
Roof design

1. The sketch below shows the ground plan of a dwelling. The house has a
hipped-end roof with corrugated zinc sheets as cover. The pitch of the roof is
30°. The roof has an overhang of 600 mm.
1.1 Design and draw a gable roof for the floor plan of the house provided
here, using a scale of 1 : 50. Use broken lines to indicate the roof.

3 600

4 700

2. Draw to scale of 1:100 two different floor plans to show the following:
2.1 a gable roof for the house
2.2 a hip roof for the house.

The overhang of the roof is 500 mm.

110

220 4 000 4 000 220

220
4 200
6 600

220
2 000

8 550
220

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Notes:
Areas (m²)
Erf (Plot) 625 m²
House 124 m²
Carport 16.76 m²
Covered verandas

Total area 140.75 m²

% Building area on plot: 22.52 %

Water pipe 15 or 19 mm polycop at a
minimum depth of 450 mm with a stopcock
All soil pipes, 110 mm, with a 1:60 incline
and minimum depth of 450 mm
All water pipes 40 mm
50 mm soil vent pipe at the highest point of
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the sewage system

Kitchen sink 40 mm wastewater pipe
Only SABS approved drainpipes and
sewage accessories may be used
Heavy-duty manhole covers for sewage in
road/lane.
Sewage must meet the requirements of the
local authority.

Draftsman: J.P. Ellis

SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Address: 23 Bird Lane
Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Cell no.: 081 246 4892
E-mail: jpellis@telkomsa.net

Client
Name: Department of housing
Signature:
Date:

Project title:
PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
ERF (PLOT) 1964, PARKER’S DAM,
WORCESTER
6850

Description of drawing
SITE PLAN AND SEWAGE PLAN

Drawing no:
1 of 4

Scale: As indicated

Date: 2 March 2012

 Notes:
IBR roof cover on 76 x 50 purlins – 1 100
h.o.h. - that rest on 152 x 38 mm tie beams
–
maximum 850 h.o.h.???? – and pitched at
5 degrees in relation to gutters and fascia
board.
Roof pitched at 26 degrees
SA pine used for roof construction.
114 x 38 wall plate.
Purlins 50 x 75 at 900 mm centres.
Roof battens are kept in position by
galvanised hoop wire (1 200 x 40 mm)
imbedded
600 mm in the wall construction.
Eave projection 300 mm.
Cross bracing between roof trusses must be
provided according to the
manufacturer’s instructions.
Roof trusses on 760 centres op 114 x 38
wall plates with 114 x 38 tie beams.
2 lintels above all openings and brickforce
for each layer above the lintel.
Notes regarding floor:
75 mm concrete floor on 250 micron DPC
on 50 mm wearing course (sand bed) on
well-compacted hard-core fill
375 micron DPC in walls on finished floor
level.
100 mm concrete floor on 250 mm micron
DPC on well-compacted filling material.

Draftsman: J.P. Ellis

SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Address: 23 Bird Lane
Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Cell no.: 081 246 4892
E-mail: jpellis@telkomsa.net

Client
Name: Department of housing
Signature:
Date:

Project title
PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
ERF (PLOT) 1964, PARKER’S DAM,
WORCESTER 6850
Graphic communication

Description of drawing
VERTICAL SECTIONAL ELEVATION

Drawing no: 1 OF 4
Scale: As indicated
Date: 2 March 2012
3

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Notes:
Areas (m²)
Erf (Plot) 625 m²
House 124 m²
Carport 16.76 m²
Covered verandas
Total area 140.75 m²
% Building area on plot: 22.52 %
Floor plan
Galvanised roofing Stairs
Rise max. 200 mm
Tread min 250 mm
Elevations
All external walls must be plastered and painted or must be
Plaster face brick
External water-resistant paint 2 coats
and All dimensions, levels and all other information on this drawing
Paint must be verified on the site before work commences.
Provide DPC in walls on floor level and at windowsills
NGL FFL Floor cover according to owner’s specifications and
East elevation
preferences
Bathroom and kitchen sanitary fittings according to owner’s
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South elevation specifications and preferences

Cabinets/cupboards according to specialist design and
specifications OR
Built-in cupboards, the exposed face of white Melamine and
Formica tops
Notes regarding finish:
Plastered and painted internal walls using high-quality, white,
PVA paint
Plastered external walls painted according to the owner’s
choice of colour and paint
Walls in bathroom and kitchen are tiled to ceiling level
Internal and external doors of meranti, finished with varnish
External doors have 3-lever locks, and internal doors 2-lever
locks
Window frames of steel finished in white oil paint
Facia boards are varnished
Garage door of wood and varnished
FFL 100-litre horizontal hot-water cylinder installed in ceiling
NGL NGL Roof not painted
All tiles according to owner’s choice.
West elevation Paving as specified by owner (optional)

Draftsman: J.P. Ellis

SARAP REG. NO.: HS 1023
Address: 23 Bird Lane
Tel./Fax: 086 531 5474
Cell no.: 081 246 4892
E-mail: jpellis@telkomsa.net
Window schedules

Client
Name: Department of housing
Signature:
Date:
Attachment
details at A Project title:
PROPOSED NEW DWELLING ON
ERF (PLOT) 1964, PARKER’S DAM,
WORCESTER 6850

Description of drawing
SITE PLAN AND SEWAGE PLAN

Drawing no: 1 of 4
Scale: 1 : 200
Date: 2 March 2012
 Graphic communication 3

Activity 6
Draw a simple floor plan of a dwelling, indicating the following:
• One bedroom
• A livingroom
• Kitchen with sink
• Bathroom with toilet, basin and bath

A drawing of the site plan of this dwelling that indicates the following:
• the roof
• the layout of the sewage
• a section of the sewage layout, and
• the municipal connections.

The slope indicated on the sectional elevation is 1 : 60, the depth of the sewer
trench begins at 450 mm and the ground level begins at 100 000.

Determine the invert level and the distance between the various parts of the
drainpipe. The following abbreviations must be used on the section view of the
sewage:
• kitchen sink • inspection eye
• water-closet • ground level
• hand basin • manhole, and
• bath • invert level.

Activity 7
In order to generate additional income, you wish to convert your double garage
into a flat. The figure below represents the site plan of your property, as well as a
plan view of the existing garage.

The garage has a tiled roof that is pitched at a 30° angle. The eaves protrude
500 mm. The walls are 2 730 mm high, measured from the floor to the bottom of
the wall plate.

The flat requires the following:

• A front door
• A window in each of the rooms
• 1 Bedroom
• 1 Bathroom
• Kitchen area
• Living area.

You will have to build 110 mm internal walls in order to divide the garage
into various rooms. The doors and windows are 2 032 high above the ground
line. The foundations are 600 × 200 mm, and the first two layers of brickwork/
masonry on the foundation must lie below the natural ground level.

1. Draw the plan view of the flat, using a scale of 1 : 50. Indicate all the
windows and doors, as well as all the accessories.
2. Design the interior of the flat.
3. Draw the north and east elevation of the house, using a scale of 1 : 50.
(No gutters or downpipes have to be indicated.)

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4. Draw a vertical section of

the house on section line
A-A, as indicated in the
diagram.
5. Draw the site plan, using a
scale of 1 : 100. The lengths
and direction of the
boundary line are provided
in the diagram.
6. Provide the section and
elevation with the necessary
notes regarding
construction, materials, and
finish (walls, ceilings and
floors).

Civil drawing using the program

Introduction

It is suggested that you take some time to work through the Grades 10 and 11 CAD
sections to refresh your memory on all the applications. A brief summary is given
to assist you.

Prior knowledge
Before starting with the Grade 12 civil drawings, let’s refresh some of the Grades 10
and 11 content. This will enable us to draw up the plan as well as add any fixtures
required.

Remember to use Toolkit ▶ Architectural or to place the Architectural toolbar on

your screen.

Grade 10 (External walls)

In Grade 10, we drew the plan view of a building. To enable us to do this, we set the
Drawing Settings to a scale of 1 : 50 or 1 : 100.

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We then select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

The Architectural Settings dialog box will be displayed.

Remember the Drawing direction and Justification are important as they determine
the overall size of the plan view.

Select the Wall type to use or create your own style and click “OK”.

Outside Inside
justification justification

Now draw in the external walls using the direction arrows.

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Walls or left click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

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Grade 11 (Internal walls)

In Grade 11, we added the internal walls to the plan view of a building.
We used Geometry ▶ Parallel Line to position the internal walls.

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the

Architectural toolbar. The Architectural Settings dialog box will be displayed.

Select an Internal wall type. Select the Wall style to use or create your own style and
click “OK”.

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Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Walls or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar. Draw in the internal walls. Remember the Justification and
Drawing Direction.

Using a Draw inwards justification and a Clockwise Drawing direction:

• Drawing left to right the parallel line is placed below.
• Drawing right to left the parallel line is placed above.
• Drawing top to bottom the parallel line is placed on the left.
• Drawing bottom to top the parallel line is placed on the right.

Grade 11 (Hatch the Plan View)

The walls in the Plan View now need to be hatched.

Select Draw ▶ Hatch or click on the icon in the Drawing toolbar.

The Power Bar changes to display the Hatch boundary draw methods.
Click on the “Settings” button and the Hatch Settings dialog box is displayed.

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Click on the “Select” button and you will be able to view the hatch patterns.
Scroll to find the style for the roof tile or type in ANSI32 in the Search box and the
style will be displayed. Click “OK”.

Select the colour for the hatch pattern and the scale and click “OK”.

Select the automatic tracking boundary selection method by clicking on the last
icon in the list.

The program prompts “Boundary 1 – Click inside perimeter near an entity (Right-
click for menu)”. Click inside the walls of the Plan View.

The Hatch is displayed.

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Right click on the screen and select “Accept” to lock the hatch pattern in position.

Grade 11 (Place blocks)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Place Symbols or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.
The Control Centre will open on your screen.

Click on the Block Browser tab along the bottom of the Control Centre to view the
blocks (symbols). Open the folder containing the blocks you require.

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Double-click on the block you would like to use and it is added to the Block
Manager. The Power Bar opens allowing you to insert the Block.

Insert the required symbols and fittings.

Grade 11 (Roof line)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar. The Architectural Settings dialog box will be displayed.
Click on the Roof Line tab and make the required changes to the Roof Line settings.

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Insert a Roof Line by selecting Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Roof Line or left
click on the icon in the Architectural toolbar. Make any changes to the Roof Line
and click “OK”.

The cursor changes to the Point snap mode and you are prompted to “Indicate 1st
corner of wall (else spacebar to exit). Click around the perimeter of the building
and right click and select “Close”. The Roof Line is added.

Select an option to highlight the external walls and click Accept to add the Roof
Line.

The Question
Assume that you are a draughtsperson and a client approaches you to design a
house for him.

The figure that follows shows the plan of your client’s proposed house.

The house has a roof pitched at 30° with tiles. The eaves have an overhang of
500 mm. The walls are 2 730 mm high, measured from the floor to the underside of
the wall plate.

The entrance doors in the lounge and kitchen are (BB-230 PD24). The internal
doors are (BB-115 PD8). The windows for the living room are (FP-230 SC3 and
SC22). The bedroom windows are (FP-230 SC3), the kitchen window is a 230C_
TYPE1 (NC4) whilst the bathroom window is a (FP-230 SC3). The height of the
doors and windows is 2 150 above the ground line. The foundations are 600 × 200
mm and two courses of brickwork above the foundation must be under the natural
ground level. (NB: If you are using CAD software other than AllyCAD you may
need to use the symbols supplied by the software or create your own symbols.)
1. Draw the plan view of the house to a scale of 1 : 50. Insert all the windows and
doors and add the fittings to the dwelling.
2. Draw to scale 1 : 50 the north elevation and east elevation of the house.
3. Draw to scale 1 : 50 a vertical section through the house on section line A–A as
shown in the diagram that follows.
4. Draw the site plan to a scale of 1 : 100. The lengths and bearing of the boundaries
are given in the diagram. Point “A” is situated 4 550 up and 3 450 left of the top
left corner of the external wall of the plan view.
5. Provide the section and views with the necessary notes on construction,
materials and finishes (walls, ceilings and floors).

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Grade 11 (The elevations)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar. The Architectural Settings dialog box will be displayed.
Click on the Elevation tab and make the required changes to the Elevation settings.

Remember, you will need to load the Blocks for the elevation view of all the
windows and doors that have been used in the Plan view. If the Blocks are not
loaded, then they will not be placed in the Elevation views.

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Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Elevations or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

The program will prompt you as follows: “Indicate a point close to the face on plan
for adding elevation (else spacebar to exit)”.

1. Click on the outside wall of the North elevation on the plan view.
The program will prompt you with “Select a placement point for the baseline of
the selected elevation (else Esc to exit)”.
2. Click where you want to place the North elevation. It will be at ground level
position. The elevations are drawn in the “1st Angle Orthographic Projection”.
The program will then prompt you: “Select window/door on plan to insert in
elevation (else spacebar to end selection)”.
3. Click on all the windows and doors of the plan view for the elevations. The
windows and doors will be placed in the elevation position. Press the spacebar
when all the windows and doors have been selected.
4. The programee will then prompt you:: “Select corner of building (else spacebar
to end selection)”.
5. Jump to the corner of the elevations and press “Enter”.
The program will then prompt you: “Select corner of building (else spacebar to
end selection)”.
6. Jump to the next corner and press “Enter”. Press the space bar to draw the
elevation.

This brings us to the end of the revision of Grades 10 and 11.

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Grade 12 (Add the roof)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar. The Architectural Settings dialog box will be displayed.
Click on the Roof tab and make the required changes to the Roof settings.

North elevation roof (Side gable)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Roof or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

The program prompts “Select roofline on elevation’s roof level (else Esc to exit)”.
1. Click on the roofline of the North Elevation and the line is highlighted.
The program prompts: “Enter Yes or No to select correct highlighted or
Spacebar to exit”.

2. Click on the “Yes” button if the correct roofline is highlighted.

The program prompts: “Select nearest roofline on plan view (else Esc to exit or
for face gable)”.
3. We are drawing a side gable on the North Elevation. Click on the north
elevation roofline.
The program prompts: “Select face gable of roofline on plan view for side
gable or Esc (2x) for face gable”.
4. Click on either the east or west elevation roofline. The program calculates the
height of the roof using the length of the roofline and the roof pitch angle.
The program prompts: “Enter Yes for side gable No for hipped side gable or
Spacebar to exit”.
5. Select “Yes” for a side gable.
The program prompts: “Select nearest roofline on plan view (else Esc to exit or
for face gable)”.
6. Press “Esc” and the roof is added to the elevation.

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East elevation roof (Facing gable)

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Roof or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

The program prompts: “Select roofline on elevation’s roof level (else Esc to exit)”.
1. Click on the roofline of the East Elevation and the line is highlighted.

The program prompts: “Enter Yes or No to select correct highlighted or

Spacebar to exit”.
2. Click on the “Yes” button if the correct roofline is highlighted.
The program prompts: “Select nearest roofline on plan view (else Esc to exit or
for face gable)”.
3. We are drawing a facing gable on the East Elevation. Click on the east elevation
roofline.
The program prompts: “Select face gable of roofline on plan view for side
gable or Esc (2x) for face gable”.

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4. Press “Esc” for a face gable.

The program prompts: “Enter Yes for face gable No for hipped side gable or
Spacebar to exit”.
5. Select “Yes” for a face gable.
The program prompts: “Select nearest roofline on plan view (else Esc to exit or
for face gable)”.
6. Press “Esc” and the roof is added to the elevation.

Rotate and moving the views

Drag a box around the North Elevation to select it.

Select Modify ▶ Rotate 2D or click on the icon in the Modify toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate point about which to rotate”. Click on the
“Keyboard” radio button and enter an angle of 180°.

Move to the ground line and press “C” on the keyboard and then enter to select the
point. The elevation is rotated.

Select Modify ▶ Move or click on the icon in the Modify toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate the source point”. Click on a point and move the
elevation into position and click to place it.
Repeat this with the East elevation: however, this time rotate it by 270°.

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Hatching

Select Draw ▶ Hatch or click on the icon in the Drawing toolbar.

The Power Bar changes to display the Hatch boundary draw methods.
Click on the “Settings” button and the Hatch Settings dialog box is displayed.

Click on the “Select” button and you will be able to view the hatch patterns.

Scroll to find the style for the roof tile or type in LT949 EDUC in the Search box
and the style will be displayed. Click “OK”.

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Scroll down to LT949Educ and select it.

Select the colour for the hatch pattern and the scale and click “OK”.

Select the automatic tracking boundary selection method by clicking on the last
icon in the list.

The program prompts: “Boundary 1 – Click inside perimeter near an entity

(Right click for menu)”. Click inside the roof of the North elevation near the top of
the roof.

The Hatch is displayed.

Right click on the screen and select “Accept” to lock the hatch pattern in position.

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Sectioning

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Design Setup or click on the icon in the

Architectural toolbar. The Architectural Settings dialog will be displayed. Click
on the Cross Section tab and make the required changes to the Roof settings.

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Roof or click on the icon in the

Architectural toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate position of cross section (else Esc to exit)”.
1. Click in the position you would like the sectional view placed.
The program prompts: “Indicate inside face of close external wall (else Esc to
exit)”.
2. Click on the external wall you would like the section to pass through.
The program prompts: “Indicate face of internal wall parallel to ext wall (else
Esc for far ext wall)”.

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3. Click on any internal walls the cutting plane passes through. Press “Esc” once all
the internal walls are selected.
The program prompts “Indicate inside face of far external wall (else Esc to
exit)”.
4. Click on the far external wall.
The program prompts “Indicate side of line you would like arrow heads placed
(else Esc to exit)”.
5. Click on the side you would like the arrows placed.
The sectional view is drawn.

The windows now need to be inserted into the sectional view. To do this, you need
to load the Blocks into the Block Manager.

Select Toolkit ▶ Architectural ▶ Draw ▶ Place Symbols or click on the icon in the
Architectural toolbar.

The Control Centre will open on your screen.

Click on the Block Browser tab along the bottom of the Control Centre to view the
blocks (symbols). Open the folder containing the blocks you require.

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Double click on the side elevation view of the block you need to insert in the
sectional view (the blocks in the plan view through which the section passes). They
are added to the Block Manager. The Power Bar opens allowing you to insert the
Block.

Select the Block from the drop-down list and insert it in the sectional view.

Section A–A

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Site plan

Firstly, we will create a layer for the erf as laid out in the question.
Select Settings ▶ Layer Settings or click on the icon in the File toolbar.

The Layer Settings menu appears.

Right click on one of the layers and select “Add new layer” or click on the “Add”
button. Type the name for the new “SITE PLAN” layer.

Click on the “Site Plan” layer and make it the current layer by clicking on the “Make
Current” button.

Click “OK”.

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Move to a portion of the screen where there is no drawing by minimising the screen
(M on the keyboard) or using the scroll bars.

Select Draw ▶ Chained Line or click on the icon in the Main toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate start position of line”. Enter on the screen in the
position for point “A” of the erf.

The program prompts: “Indicate end position of line”. Press “P” on the keyboard
for a Polar move (distance and bearing).

The program prompts: “Enter distance and Bearing for Polar jump”. Type in the
distance (12167) and bearing (352°) and press enter or click on the “Done” icon.

The program prompts: “Indicate end position of line”. Type in the distance
(11238) and bearing (275°) and press enter or click on the “Done” icon.

The program prompts: “Indicate end position of line”. Type in the distance
(15007) and bearing (183°) and press enter or click on the “Done” icon.

Move the cursor and jump to point “A” and enter.

Select Draw ▶ Rectangle or click on the icon in the Main toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate first corner of rectangle”. Move to and jump to
point “A”. Move into the correct position by pressing the right arrow.

The program prompts: “Move Right: How far?” Type in 3450 and enter. Press the
down arrow.

The program prompts: “Move Down: How far?” Type in 4550 and enter twice.
Press the right arrow and the program prompts: “Move Right: How far?” Type in
6500 and enter once.
Press the down arrow and the program prompts: “Move Down: How far?” Type in
6000 and enter twice.

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Drag a box around the whole site view to select and highlight it.

Select Modify ▶ Scale or click on the icon in the Modify toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate point about which to scale.” Select a point inside
the erf.

Use the “Tab” key to move into the X-scale and Y-scale text boxes and enter the
scale of 0.5 and press “Enter”.

The Site Plan is scaled.

Select Modify ▶ Move or click on the icon in the Modify toolbar.

The program prompts: “Indicate the source point.” Select a point inside the erf.

The program prompts: “Indicate the destination point.” Move the Site Plan to the
required position and enter. Press “Esc” to clear the selection.

Insert a NORTH sign.

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Select Draw ▶ Hatch or click on the icon in the Drawing toolbar.

The Power Bar changes to display the Hatch boundary draw methods.
Click on the “Settings” button and the Hatch Settings dialog box is displayed.

Click on the “Select” button and you will be able to view the hatch patterns.
Scroll to find the style for the roof tile or type in ANSI31 in the Search box and the
style will be displayed. Click “OK”.

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Select the colour for the hatch pattern and the scale and click “OK”.

Select the automatic tracking boundary selection method by clicking on the last
icon in the list.

The program prompts: “Boundary 1 – Click inside perimeter near an entity

(Right click for menu)”. Click inside the building area on the Site Plan.

The Hatch is displayed.

Right click on the screen and select “Accept” to lock the hatch pattern in position.

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Activity 7
You would like to convert your double garage into a granny flat so as to earn
extra income.

The figure below shows the site plan of your property and the plan view of the
current garage.

The garage has a roof pitched at 30° with tiles. The eaves have an overhang of
500 mm. The walls are 2 730 mm high, measured from the floor to the underside
of the wall plate.

The granny flat will require the following:

• A front door
• A window in each of the rooms
• 1 Bedroom
• 1 Bathroom
• Kitchen area
• Living area

You will need to add 110 mm internal walls to divide the garage into the various
rooms. The height of the doors and windows is 2 032 mm above the ground
line. The foundations are 600 × 200 mm and two courses of brickwork above the
foundation must be under the natural ground level.
1. Draw the plan view of the granny flat to a scale of 1 : 50. Insert all the win-
dows and doors and add the fittings to the dwelling.
2. Design the inside of the granny flat.
3. Draw to scale 1 : 50 the north elevation and east elevation of the house. (No
gutter and downpipes must be shown.)
4. Draw to scale 1 : 50 a vertical section through the house on section line A–A
as shown in the diagram below.
5. Draw the site plan to a scale of 1 : 100. The lengths and bearing of the
boundaries are given in the diagram below.
6. Provide the section and views with the necessary notes on construction,
materials and finishes (walls, ceilings and floors).

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 Chapter 4
Materials

Steel profiles Preservation

Painting materials Galvanising Concrete treatment

 4 Civil Technology

A wide variety of materials is used in the building industry to complete the many
projects being undertaken all the time and it is important to gain a thorough
knowledge of the properties and applications of all these materials.

The sustainability or durability of materials also plays a role when choices have to be
made to pick the right materials that will offer longest useful life. The application of
these materials must be done with skill and care to avoid negatively affecting their
useful life.

Preserving or protecting by painting or other methods and the curing of cement

and concrete are only some of the methods used to extend the usefulness of
materials.

Profiles, characteristics and use of I-beams, H-beams,

channel sections and angle iron

Steel profile Properties Uses

I-beam • Does not bend easily • Used as beams in building industry
• Welds well • For construction of barns/sheds
• Can easily be joined • Manufacturing of steel roof trusses
• Malleable • Construction of small footbridges
• Ductile • Columns
• Pillars
• Roof structures
H-beam • Does not bend easily • Used as beams in building industry
• Welds well • For construction of barns/sheds that
• Can easily be joined have brickwork between the profiles
• Malleable • Manufacturing of steel roof trusses
• Ductile • Columns, bridges, pillars and roof
structures
Lipped • Does not bend easily • Carports; steel roof trusses; roof
channel • Welds well trusses with long overall span
iron • Can easily be joined • Columns
• Malleable • Pillars
• Ductile

Angle iron • Does not bend easily • Steel roof trusses

• Welds well • Stockades/fences
• Can easily be joined • Runners for sliding barriers/gates
• Malleable • Supports for fixing objects to walls
• Ductile

Preservation
“Preservation” refers to the protection or safeguarding of materials in order to
ensure a longer useful life. All preservatives must be registered at the Department
of Agriculture. Standard specifications are set by the South African National
Standards (SANS) body and materials must be tested before they are approved.

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The purpose of preservatives
The preservation of timber refers to the process used to prolong the durability
of wood, i.e. extending its useful life for as long as possible. The method of
preservation will depend on the degree of preservation required. Various degrees of
preservation can be distinguished:
• low grade
• medium grade
• medium to high grade
• high grade
• outdoor furniture
• timber for outdoor use (above ground)
• contact with soil/earth (outdoors)
• timberused near water or in coastal areas.

Why is timber preserved?

It is done to provide protection against any type of damage, such as that caused by
the elements, like rain and sunshine; and natural threats, for example, beetles (like
the borer beetle) and termites such as the dry-wood termites.

Preservatives must meet the following requirements before they can be used. They
must:
• be poisonous enough to kill insects, such as termites and beetles, without being
harmful to humans
• be affordable, i.e. not over-expensive
• be free from adverse effects on metals
• be able to strengthen rather than weaken the wood
• not alter the natural appearance of the wood and must not increase the
flammability of wood.

Types of preservatives
Preservatives are divided into three main categories:
• Coaltar creosote
• Poisonous chemical salts (aqueous solutions of metallic salts)
• Organic compounds (solutions of volatile organic solvents).

Coaltar creosote (oily preservatives)

These preservatives are the by-products of processing coal and wood; they are
viscous, dark liquids. Coaltar creosote is diluted for the purpose of application
and it may contain additives, such as wax oil, to enhance its durability. This
preservative’s power to protect lies in the phenol, oil, and naphthalene that it
contains. It contains either coaltar or coaltar distillates and in some cases both. It
kills most insects and fungi.

These creosotes are:

• ideal for outdoor use
• suitable for timber in direct contact with soil
• do not dry out the timber
• dark, so it may change the colour of the wood
• able to stain clothing after application.

Advantages
• Creosote is resitant to leaching and thus ideally suited for outdoor use.
• It is not easily flammable.
• It does not cause metals to rust.
• Creosote treatment does not affect the dimensions or shape of timber.

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Disadvantages
• It has a distinctive odour that may be absorbed by food and other materials in
the immediate vicinity.
• It is not ideal for indoor use.
• Ordinary paint cannot be used on wood that has been treated with creosote.
• Aluminium paint with a bituminous or epoxy base can be applied but only once
the wood has weathered for a few months.
• Wood that has been treated with creosote may stain or discolour plaster or paint.

Poisonous salts – aqueous solution containing metallic salts (water-borne

preservatives)
Timber that is used in the building industry is exposed to a variety of fungi and
insects that may severely reduce the useful life of the timber. There are numerous
preservatives available with which wood can be treated or painted in order to
improve its resistance.

These preservatives consist of a mixture of inorganic salts. The most common

insecticides and fungicides in this group are magnesium silicofluoride and sodium
fluoride, which are applied using a paintbrush. Arsenic compounds also kill fungi
and insects.

Metallic salts are usually dissolved in water to produce the preservatives. Examples
are copper chrome arsenic (CCA), acid cupric chloride and zinc chloride. These
agents:
• can be used indoors
• can also be used outdoors if they do not contain arsenic
• are odourless
• do not stain/colour wood excessively
• contain water, so timber has to dry out after application
• change the dimensions of timber after treatment and drying.

Advantages
• These preservatives are suitable for both indoor and outdoor use.
• They are non-flammable.
• They are odourless and often colourless.
• Wood treated with these agents can be painted and glued.

Disadvantages
• Some are toxic for humans.
• May cause rust when they come into contact with certain metals.
• Water and moist conditions can leach out the salts, which restricts them to
indoor use.

Organic compounds dissolved in volatile organic solvents (Light Organic

Solvent Preservatives – LOSP)
Light oils, such as naphtha and spirits, are more readily absorbed by wood than
water and are, therefore, used as solvents to allow toxins such as pentachlorophenol
(PCP), copper naphthenate and zinc naphthenate to penetrate the wood. They are
applied with a paintbrush, and when the oil evaporates the toxins remain in the
wood.

Solvents are white spirit, mineral turpentine or light mineral oil (paraffin).
Examples include pentachlorophenol (PCP), zinc naphthenate, tetrachloro-
naphthenate, tributyltin oxide (TBTO) and metal-naphthenate.

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These agents
• are mainly suited to outdoor use
• are not suitable for use on wood in contact with soil
• do not change the colour of the wood
• allow timber to be painted after treatment.

Advantages
• They rarely cause metals to rust and do not stain the wood.
• They can be used on machine-finished wood because the wood will not warp
and the measurements do not change.
• After the solvents have evaporated, the wood can be painted and glued.
• They are resistant to leaching.

Disadvantages
• Until the solvents such as naphtha have evaporated, the wood is flammable.
• They are poisonous for indoor use.

Methods of preservation
This is determined by the type of timber that is used as well as the purpose for
which it is being used. The amount of preservative that is absorbed and retained by
the wood will be in the manufacturers’ specifications.

These methods include:

• pressure processes: (a) saturated-cell process and (b) empty-cell process
• surface treatments
• soaking (steeping), and
• open hot and cold tank process.

High-pressure processes
Preservatives are applied under pressure in a metal cylinder, which is sealed and
locked to facilitate the process and can resist pressure of up to 6 MPa. This pressure
forces the substance into the timber cells.

Advantages of this process

• It ensures deeper penetration than other processes.
• The procedure is less time consuming.
• Penetration and absorption can be controlled.
• The preservatives are applied more evenly.

Full-cell process
• The so-called “Bethell” process causes maximum absorption where, the timber
does not easily absorb or retain the liquid preservatives.
• The wood cells are partially or completely filled with the preservative.

Empty-cell process
• During the “Reuping” process, cells are not filled with the preservative, merely
transfused, rinsed or washed.
• It is used when wood cells readily absorb the preservatives.
• After the treatment, the cells are left partially filled; they may also contain none
of the preservative.

Surface treatments
• This is the easiest method of application, but it is only a superficial treatment.
• It protects the surface and can only provide long-term protection if the
preservatives are applied regularly.
• Adequate ventilation is necessary and skin contact must be avodied.

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Soaking (steeping) process

This requires a bath large enough for the timber to be dipped in. The process does
not always produce satisfactory results, but it can provide short-term protection
without staining.

Open hot and cold tank process

• This process is more manageable since the timber is completely submerged in
the preservatives.
• The timber is soaked in the solution, which has reached a specific temperature,
for approximately four hours.
• Thereafter, the preservative is allowed to cool. The timber remains submerged,
allowing absorption of the solution to place.

Painting and curing of wood, metal, concrete, walls and

plastic
Wood
Wood is an attractive natural product but it is not as durable as modern materials
like plastics, aluminium or stainless steel. Wood must be treated properly to extend
its useful life – it must first be cured and then treated before being finished by being
oiled, painted or varnished. After being sawn from raw timber, wood is cured (dried
outside under cover or in a kiln).

Take note Curing

Seasoned wood should • removes excess moisture from the wood to more or less the same levels as that of
not be too dry as it may the environment in which it will be used
absorb moisture from • prevents the wood from warping
the atmosphere and • removes excess weight when transported
swell or warp. • enhances the colour and appearance of timber.

The preservation and finishing of wood

Wood:
• can be varnished or lacquered
• can be oiled with linseed or synthetic oil,
• can be painted with water or oil-based enamel.

Preparing for painting

• Use a sharp trying plane set to cut thin shavings.
• Use a steel scraper to remove scratches and blemishes.
• Use 60 grit sandpaper and a block to sand along the grain.
• Remove the wood shavings and dust from the surface of the wood by blowing or
wiping the surface with a tack cloth.
• Repeat the sanding process, using 80 grit sandpaper, followed by 100 or 120 grit
to ensure a smooth finish.

Painting the prepared surface

• Apply one or two layers of a suitable primer, thinned if necessary).
• Next, apply the first undercoat.
• Allow to dry and sand lightly.
• Now apply the final coat.

Before applying varnish or sealant to wood

• Wooden surface must be clean, smooth and free of defects.
• Now apply the first coat (soft wood requires one coat and hard wood, two.)
• Sand the sealant coating using extra-fine sandpaper.
• Apply one or two coats of varnish or lacquer to acquire the final finish. These
coats must also be sanded using extra-fine sandpaper.
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 Materials 4
Preservation, painting, and aftercare treatment of metal
• Metals can be galvanised to preserve them.
• Metals can also be plated (chrome plating, nickel plating, copper plating – both
copper and brass can be used).
• They can also be painted.

Galvanising
Galvanising is used to prevent corrosion of steel and iron. It is very effective but
more expensive than paint, and it can only be used for smaller structures. The
process involves coating metal with a thin layer of pure zinc that is applied directly
in molten form or by using an electrolytic process. The zinc layer is more corrosion-
resistant than steel and protects the metal against moisture and air that cause
corrosion.

Galvanising is applied as follows:

• The object is washed in a hot, alkaline liquid to remove grease, oil and other dirt.
• It is then thoroughly rinsed.
• Next, it is washed in acid (pickled) to remove surface rust and other substances,
and to etch the surface of the metal so that the zinc coating will adhere more
firmly.
• The object is rinsed yet again.
• It is then dipped in zinc-ammonium chloride to prevent any further oxidisation.
• Thereafter, it is dipped in a bath of molten zinc. The liquid zinc combines with
the soft steel, coating the object.
• The object is removed from the zinc bath. Excess zinc is removed and the object
is allowed to cool. During this period, a hard zinc coat is formed.

Galvanising (electro-galvanising)
• Electrolytic galvanising, often considered a “true” form of galvanisation, uses
a DC current to deposit the pure zinc anode on the metal to be protected
(cathode) to create a chemical compound.
• The soft steel workpiece is cleaned prior to treatment, as described above, and
suspended in a bath containing a zinc sulphate and zinc bar.
• The workpiece and the zinc bar are connected to a DC source and zinc is
gradually deposited on the workpiece.

Painting metal
Paint is a common, useful surface coat that helps to improve the corrosion
resistance of soft steel by preventing the ingress of water or moisture, and it also
enhances its appearance.

The following steps must be followed when metals are painted:

• Remove any traces of dust, rust, oil, or grease.
• Sand down the metal using an emery cloth (type of sandpaper used for metals).
• Apply a rustproof undercoat if the metal has not been galvanised.
• When the undercoat is dry, sand it gently before applying a coat of paint. Allow
the paint to dry.
• Apply the topcoat. (Apply two topcoats in coastal areas.)

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Preservation, painting and curing of concrete

Reasons for curing concrete
• Newly poured concrete must be protected against drying too quickly.
• The concrete must contain sufficient water for a considerable period to complete
the hydrating (i.e. the hardening) process.
• Concrete gains strength for months, even years, after being cast if it is kept
moist.

Methods of curing concrete

Excessively quick drying of concrete is facilitated by the sun and wind; thus, after
the concrete has been poured, it must be kept moist in the following ways:
• Sprinkle or spray water on the surface regularly to keep it moist.
• Concrete floors can be covered with river sand and then watered to keep them
moist.
• Allow water to pool on the surface at regular intervals.
• Use a hosepipe to water the surface as soon as it is firm enough not to be
damaged by the spray.
• It can be covered in a curing compound.
• The process can be repeated for 7 to 10 days, depending on the circumstances.
• A commercial sealant can also be applied. This substance is sprayed onto the
surface of freshly poured concrete to retain the moisture. Dye can be mixed
with the sealant to indicate exactly where it has been applied.
• Freshly poured concrete can be covered with sand, hessian bags, sheets or any
other protective material. If it is not covered, the surface must be hosed down at
least twice a day.
• It can also be covered in a plastic coating.
• Concrete should not be poured in extreme cold weather conditions. If this
is unavoidable, warm water must be used in order to maintain the minimum
temperature of 5 °C needed to ensure proper hardening of the concrete.
• Keep the formwork in place and cover all the exposed concrete surfaces.

Protection, painting, and aftercare treatment of walls

Newly built brick walls are also finished in various ways for protection and
appearance. They can be:
• rendered (plastered) with a fine sand and cement mortar
• tiled, wallpapered, or clad with wood or metal, or
• prepared for painting by means of a smooth layer of gypsum-based plaster
screed and
• painted with a suitable undercoat, followed by a (colour) topcoat.

Protection, painting and aftercare of plastic surfaces

Plastics are generally less weather-resistant than wood or metal and need special
finishes for durability. They need to be protected again UV radiation in particular
and special finishes have been developed for this purpose.

Some plastics have smooth surfaces and need to be primed with special etching
primers before being painted. Because plastics commonly have very smooth
surfaces, they are spray-painted or dipped rather than being hand-painted.

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Activity 1
1. 1.1 Complete the following table by providing the properties and uses of
the steel profiles.

Steel profile Properties Uses

I-beam

H-beam

Lipped channel
iron

Angle iron

1.2 Make a simple sketch to illustrate the following steel profiles:

1.2.1 I-beam
1.2.2 H-beam
1.2.3 Channel iron
1.2.4 Angle iron.
2. Briefly, using your own words, describe the term “preservation”.
3. What is the purpose of preservation?
4. Name the three main categories into which preservatives are divided, and
mention two advantages and disadvantages of each.
5. Name four preservation processes.
6. Briefly describe the steps that should be taken when wood is painted.
7. What is your understanding of the term “galvanising”?
8. Discuss three reasons for the curing of concrete.
9. Concrete cannot be allowed to dry too quickly, since that would impede
its strength. In your own words, briefly describe the methods used for
curing concrete.

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 Chapter 5
Equipment

?????????? ????? ??????

Hand tools Power tools

Machine tools Dumpy level Angle grinder

 5 Civil Technology

Introduction
Tools play a key role in the construction industry. Their use and care must be
thoroughly studied by learners, because they will deal with them daily. Specialised
Take note
tools must be treated with great care, because they need to be handled with skill
The equipment studied and caution and can sometimes be very dangerous. In our course, we will only
in Grade 11 will also be
look at the use and care of hand tools, power tools and two specialised pieces of
tested in Grade 12.
equipment: the dumpy level and angle grinder.

The use and care of hand tools

• Only use tools for their intended purpose.
• Wet hands can cause ferrous metals to rust – touch these parts as little as
possible.
• Remove rust with steel wool only – never sandpaper. Apply a thin layer of wax
or oil afterwards.
• Check tools frequently for defects. Report any faulty tool to the teacher. Faulty
tools can spoil good work.
• Do not store tools on top of one another.
• Don’t leave tools lying around. Tools must be kept in proper storage – even a
blunt cutting edge can cause a nasty accident.
• You must be familiar with safety regulations and apply them.
• Cutting tools must be sharp – blunt tools require more pressure.
• Use tools in the correct way for optimum productivity and safety.
• Always carry hand tools with sharp points or cutting edges pointing downwards.
• Keep your hands behind the cutting edges or planes of sharp tools while
working.

Power tools

• Check power cables for damage.

• Ensure that the power cable lies outside the working area.
• See that the power supply is properly earthed. For proper safety, the current
must be led through an earth leakage trip switch.
• Do not work near water with power tools.
• The shoes of workers must have soles of rubber or other non-conductive
material.
• Moving parts must be kept away from the body.
• Switch off power supply and disconnect a machine when making adjustments.
• Keep the air vents of machine tools clear. Do not insert objects into the vents.
• Allow motors to come to a complete rest before putting down power tools.
• Only switch on the power when you have taken up the right working stance,
with both feet on the ground.
• Hold portable power tools securely and firmly when using them.
Did you know?
Defective tools • Remove all jewellery (chains), loose clothing, etc. when using a machine.
can spoil good work. • Use safety goggles to protect the eyes.
• Report any defects immediately.

Machine tools

• Learners may only use prescribed machine tools and only with the teacher’s
permission.
• Machine tools may only be used when the operator is properly informed about
the use, care and safety regulations that apply to the machine.

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 Equipment 5
• No power tool or portable tool may be used by a learner before being tested and
declared safe by a teacher.
• Learners may not switch on machine tools.
• No bystanders are allowed while working with machine tools – they distract the
operator and may cause an accident.
• Do not let power cables lie in such a way that they may trip people.
• Switch off a machine at the mains before removing or adjusting it.
• Frequently check electrical connections, especially earth connections.
• Put up printed safety regulations for a machine tool on or near the machine.
• Keep body parts away from moving machine parts.
• Machines must come to a complete stop before the operator leaves.
• See that all safety shields are in place.
• Remove all jewellery, especially rings and chains, before working with a
machine.
• Use safety goggles to protect the eyes.
• Only one person at a time may operate a machine. Did you know?
Learners may not
• Don’t make jokes or play games to distract the operator while the machine is
switch on machine tools.
running.
• Keep the working area around a machine tool clear at all times.

Surveying
This is the process whereby a plan representing a particular site or area is drawn
up by means of actual measurements made on site. All relevant data is included
into the plan by means of drawings and symbols. A plan will also indicate various
elevations (vertical heights) obtained by levelling.

Measurements are taken on the following four levels to determine the data
described above:
• horizontal distances
• horizontal angles
• vertical distances
• vertical angles.

Types of surveys
Surveys are usually done in these categories:
• topographical surveys
• cadastral surveys
• engineering surveys
• hydrographic surveys
• geodetic surveys
• mine surveys.

Remember that no one type of surveying can function independently of another.

We need to look in more detail at the first three types of surveying in particular.

1. Topographical surveying
Here, all the details of the Earth’s surface within the surveyed area are
determined and represented on a plan. Because the Earth’s surface is very rarely
completely flat, a method must be applied to indicate differences in elevation
(height) intermediate points. Contours are used for this purpose.

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What is a contour?
This is a continuous line on a chart or plan that connects all points at the same
height above a particular reference level. This reference level is usually mean sea
Contour line level. Contours and other details on a plan give a good indication of the terrain
This is a continuous
on which building is to be constructed.
line on a chart or plan
that connects all points
at the same height The Earth’s surface is a continuous succession of valleys, hills, mountains and
above a particular plateau. From a height, it appears folded and contour lines follow these folds.
reference level. These lines mostly gradually change direction and rarely coincide or cross – this
only happens where a vertical or overhanging cliff is shown.

2. Cadastral surveying
Here, the boundaries of properties such as farms or town or city plots are
determined. A cadastral plan is needed when a property is registered against
an owner’s name as required by law. Such a plan is carefully drawn to scale to
indicate the location and boundaries of a property.

The following information is supplied on the plan:

• surface area
• the coordinates of corner beacons
• the lengths and headings of sides
• descriptions of beacons.

These surveys are also necessary because they contain the information that is
used on building plans when construction work is planned and executed.

3. Engineering surveying
This type of survey is done onto an existing topographical chart for projecting
the details of a building onto the ground, so that earthworks and the digging of
foundations and cellars can be done.

Horizontal distances
A plan is merely a flat, horizontal representation of the area, while the terrain is
never or hardly ever quite flat. All the distances used on a plan therefore need to
be horizontal distances.

For this, distances across inclines must be converted to their corresponding

distances before being drawn onto an engineering plan. When a plan is
physically scaled down and set out and distances are scaled from a plan, the
scaled distances need to be converted to the inclined distance.

Site plan
Where a building is to be erected on a site/terrain falling within a local
authority’s boundaries, it must first be surveyed and provided with a datum
point by a surveyor. This is done to find the boundaries of the site or terrain and
to establish one point from which all elevations are determined.

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Figure 5.1: Site plan

Information on a site plan

• compass heading (north)
• scale
• type of survey
• datum point
• additional information
• description of site (type, soil, environment, etc.)
• surveyor’s name
• date of survey.

Determining levels/elevations

All levels/elevations needed for a building on a site are taken from the benchmark,
which is deduced from the datum point indicated on the site by means of an iron
peg set in cement. The benchmark is indicated by a horizontal line drawn onto a
wall, building or any fixed structure near the site. The point where a vertical arrow
drawn under the line meets the line is the true benchmark. If no benchmark can be
drawn, the site’s datum point must be used as a temporary benchmark.

Setting and testing methods

Setting out a building’s foundations can be done with the following basic and/or
technologically advanced instruments:
• builder’s square
• the 3:4:5 method
• the diagonals method
• the telescope method
• the dumpy level
• the Global Positioning System (GPS).

The dumpy level

The dumpy level is basically a telescope mounted on a tripod. The telescope can be
swung through 360° around a fixed vertical axis. The telescope has cross hairs that
are adjustable by means of foot screws until the observation line coincides with the
air bubble axis.
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Figure 5.2: Dumpy level on a tripod

Setting up the dumpy level

• The instrument has an air bubble level on the base plate, which is adjusted by
three foot screws. The base plate is set to be perfectly horizontal by means of
three thumbscrews.
• The dumpy level rotates around the axis that is adjusted to be perfectly vertical
by means of an air bubble. Once both the axis and base plate have been set up at
Did you know?
exactly 90° to each other, the telescope can be turned through 360° while always
The more modern remaining horizontal. Some dumpy levels also have an oblong air bubble (plate
dumpy levels only have bubble) for the last fine adjustment.
a round air bubble to • Setting up begins by opening the tripod, pulling out the legs and clamping them
which the telescope is in place.
levelled using the foot • The legs of the tripod are set so that the base plate is more or less horizontal and
screws. only minor adjustments by the foot screws are needed. Before adjustment, the
foot screws should be set more or less in the middle of their ranges to simplify
adjusting the telescope.
• The legs must be set at a length that puts the telescope at a comfortable viewing
height, to avoid having to crouch over the telescope for what could be a whole
day.
• The telescope is then bolted to the base plate and levelled by means of the round
air bubble.
• For some telescopes, the plate air bubble must be parallel between two foot
screws before being adjusted.
• The more modern dumpy levels only have a round air bubble to which the
telescope is levelled using the foot screws.
• Two foot screws must always be turned together until the air bubble is perfectly
centred. The air bubble will always follow the direction of the left thumb.
• The telescope is then swung clockwise through 90° towards the third screw.
Minor adjustments to the third screw will again make the air bubble follow the
left thumb.
• The telescope will now be level and can be used at any angle through 360°
because it has been set up correctly at two positions 90° from each other.

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Precautions
• The tripod must always stand on a firm footing.
• Swing the telescope through 180°; if the air bubble stays level, the dumpy level
has been correctly set up.
• This procedure must be done frequently to ensure that all measurements are
accurate.
Focusing knob Sights

Objective Eye piece

Airbubble mirror
Footplate air
bubble

Micro- Horizontal
adjustment gradient
screw measurements

Leveling screw

Foot piece

Tripod

Figure 5.3 (a): The telescope of the dumpy Level

Focusing screw
Sights
Objective
Air bubble mirror
Did you know?
The telescope of
the dumpy level should
Micro- always be put back
adjustment screw
into its case after use to
Horizontal prevent damage.
Eyepiece
adjustment screws
Footplate air bubble
Foot screws Horizontal gradient
measurements

Foot piece

Figure 5.3 (b): The telescope of a dumpy level with its various parts

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Cross hairs

When you look through the lens of the telescope, you see the cross hairs, that play
Take note an important role in setting up and using the dumpy level. The cross hairs consist
Never confuse the stage of:
hairs with the horizontal • a vertical hair
cross hair, which is the • a horizontal hair
true indicator of height. • two additional hairs (stage hairs).

Vertical hair

Horizontal hair Top and bottom stage

hairs

Figure 5.4: Cross hairs

The top and bottom stage hairs are used to measure distances between the observer
and the staff. This method is not very accurate, but gives a good general indication
of distance.

Figure 5.5: An example of what is seen of the telescopic staff through the lens of the
telescope of the dumpy level

The telescopic staff

The telescopic staff is used with the dumpy level or other instrument to measure
elevations (heights) above a certain point accurately. It is between 4 and 5 metres
long and has several telescoping sections. When extended, it is kept securely in
position by catches for accuracy. Readings from the staff can be taken at distances
ranging from 30 m to 200 m.

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Graduations
The staff below is divided into metres, each subdivided into 100 mm (or 10 cm)
graduations. Each “tooth” on the staff represents 10 mm.

Height on staff = 146 cm or

1 460 mm, or 1,46 m

Height on staff = 140 cm or

1 400 mm or 1,4 m
Each tooth = 1 cm or
10 mm

Figure 5.6: Telescopic staff

The reading on this staff must be calculated as above to find the height. Calculations
must be done accurately to avoid mistakes and using incorrect heights/readings.

Height on staff = 146 cm or

1 460 mm or 1,46 m

Height on staff = 140 cm or

1 400 mm or 1,4 m

Figure 5.7: Telescopic baton with measurements in millimetres

The measurements on this type of staff are more readable and heights can be read
off directly without any calculations. Faults are kept to a minimum.

Care of the telescopic staff

• Always telescope the staff together when transporting.
• Place the staff in its bag to prevent scratches on it during transport.
• Treat the plastic or metal catches with care so they can keep the sections
securely in position.
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Reading on the staff = 1,600

Figure 5.8: Reading on telescopic staff

Measuring distance

The distance between two points can be measured by using the dumpy level:
subtract the reading from the bottom stage line from the top stage line and multiply
by 100.

Distance = (top stage line reading – bottom stage line reading) × 100
= (1,625 – 1,575) × 100
= 0.05 × 100
=5m

Reading = 1,625

Reading = 1,575

Figure 5.9: Measurement of distance on a telescopic baton

The following mistakes can occur during the reading of heights on the baton and
the recording thereof:
• Over-concentration on decimal readings and the incorrect recording of height
readings
• Leaving out zeros, e.g. 4 09 instead of 4 009.

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• Swapping of numbers, e.g. 1,601 instead of 1,106.
• Taking reading on the stadia line instead of cross lines.
• Recording readings in the wrong columns.
• Not writing up certain readings.

Surveying and level book

Levelling

Levelling entails measuring vertical distances at various points. It indicates

differences in height/elevation between two consecutive points.

Types of levellers

Various types of levellers are generally used but for the purpose of this course only
the dumpy level will be used.

Taking a reading

It comprises a top and a bottom stadia line. (These are the two short cross hairs
above and below the main cross.)
These lines are used to calculate the distance between the staff and the dumpy level.

Formula for calculating the distance

Distance between dumpy level and staff = (top stadia reading – bottom stadia
reading) × 100

Example
Top stadia reading = 1,352
Bottom stadia reading = 1,039
Distance = (1,362 – 1,039) × 100
= 0,323 × 100
= 32,3 m

The horizontal cross hair and vertical cross hair indicate the height from the
lowest point of the staff and the reading on the staff.

The leveller is a surveying instrument that is designed exclusively to provide

a horizontal line of sight. With the aid of these horizontal lines, the elevation
differences (vertical distance) between the consecutive points can be determined.

For the purpose of this course, the following abbreviations will be used:
Back sight – BS
Foresight – FS
Intermediate sight – IS

If the distance between two points is too far or if the difference in elevation is too
great, more points are measured between the initial two distances. This is referred
to as the intermediate sight (IS).

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Guidelines for fieldwork

The leveller must be in the middle, between BS and FS.

If the instrument is faulty, the fault will be eliminated because the leveller is in the
middle.
The collimation line/line of sight must not be closer than 0,5 m to the ground. This
will prevent refraction.

Graphic illustration of the field book and telescopic staff

A = Ground stake point

B = Ground stake point
C = Position of the instrument
AC = CB

a = Vertical reading on telescopic staff (staff) at stake A

b = Vertical reading of staff at stake B
a – b = Difference in height between A and B

Graphic illustration of surveying to complete the field book

3,82

In the sketch provided here, the heights are usually known. The heights at the other
points must be calculated.

The leveller is set up at the position numbered 1. The line of sight/collimation line
to A is called the Back Sight (BS).

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• Take the staff to position B.
• The line of sight/collimation line to B is called the Foresight (FS).
• Keep the staff at B.
• Move the leveller to the position numbered 2.
• Take the BS to B.
• Take the staff to position C.

Position C precedes D and is known as the Intermediate Sight (IS). The staff is
placed there because the difference in height between B and D is too great.

Rules for completing the level book:

• Always subtract the FS from the BS, or subtract the IS from the BS in the
previous line.
• Always subtract the FS from the IS.
• Always subtract the second IS from the first IS.
• If the answer is positive, it indicates a rise.
• If the answer is negative, it indicates a fall.
• Add the rise to the previous height to determine the new height.
• Subtract the fall from the previous height to calculate the new height.
• Add the BSs, and write the total at the bottom of the column.
• Add the FSs, and write the total at the bottom of the column.
• Now subtract the sum of the FSs from the sum of the BSs.
• Add the rises, and write the total at the bottom of the column.
• Now add the falls, and write the total at the bottom of the column.
• Subtract the sum of the falls from the sum of the rises.
• Subtract the first height from the last height.
• The differences between the BS and the FS, the rises and falls, the first height and
the last height must be the same.

Steps to follow when completing a table (level book)

• The bench mark (BM = A: 751.250) is usually indicated on the diagram and is
entered right at the top in the reduced level column.
• Collimation height is determined by adding the back sight (BS = 1.712) to the
reduced height (751.250).
• The back sight A (BS = 1.712) is entered right at the top of the first column
under (BS).
• The foresight B (FS = 0.801) is entered in the second space under (FS).
• The difference between A (BS) and B (FS) is entered in either the rise or fall
column, depending on whether the next height indicates a rise or fall. If the first
reading is greater than the second, there must be an increase of one staff position
to the next. This difference (1.712 – 0.801 = 0.911) is entered in the second
space in the rise column.
• To determine the reduced height, the first reduced height is either deducted
from the difference between A (BS) and B (FS), or added (rise column is added
and fall column is deducted) depending on whether there is a rise or fall.
• The first reduced height (751.250) is now added to the difference between the
(BS) 1.712 and (FS) 0.801 = 0.911 because it was entered in the rise column.
• This reading (751.250 + 0.911 = 752.161) is entered in the second space under
the reduced height.
• The next (BS = 0.252) is now entered in the third space in the (BS) column.
• The following (FS = 1.530) is now entered in the fourth space under (FS).
• The difference between (1.530 – 0.252 = 1.278) indicates a fall.
• This height is entered in the fourth space in the Fall column.
• The second collimation height can now be determined by adding the first
reduced height to the second (BS).

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• The third reduced height is now determined by subtracting the difference

between the first (BS) and (FS) (1.530 – 0.252 = 1.278) from the second reduced
height, because it was entered in the fall column.
• Repeat the steps until the column is completed.

HB/BM = A: 751.250

Collimation Deduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
1.712 752.962 751.250
0.801 0.911 752.161
0.252 752.413
1.530 1.278 750.883
1.226 752.109
0.530 0.696 751.579
1.101 752.680
1.402 0.301 751.278

4.291 4.263 1.607 1.579 751.278 Totals

4.291 1.607 751.278

-4.263 -1.579 -751.250

0.028 0.028 0.028 Difference

Figure 5.10: The various dumpy level readings used to complete a field book

Example
Use the information provided here, and answer the question by transferring the
readings to the field book and processing them. Test your answers.

3,82

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The field book will be completed as follows given the above example:
The benchmark (BM) above sea level at A is 10, 00 metres.

Back Intermediate Foresight Rise Fall Collimation Height Remarks

sight reading height
(BS) (IS) (FS)
3,82 13,82 10,00 Point A
3,60 0,22 10,22 Point B
3,84 14,06 Point B
1,55 2,29 12,51 Point C
1,65 0,10 12,41 Point D
7,66 5,25 2,51 0,10 20,07 Total
7,66 2,51 12,41 Calculation
– 5,25 – 0,10 –10,00
+2,41 +2,41 +2,41 Difference

HB/BM = A: 751.250

Collimation Deduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
1,712 752,962 751,250
0,801 0,911 752,161
0,252 752,413
1,530 1,278 750,883
1,226 752,109
0,530 0,696 751,579
1,101 752,680
1,402 0,301 751,278

4,291 4,263 1,607 1,579 751,278 Totals

4,291 1,607 751,278

–4,263 –1,579 –751,250
0,028 0,028 0,028 Difference

Figure 5.11: Different readings on dumpy level to complete field book

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HB/BM = 473.17

Collimation Deduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
2,20 475,37 473,17 A
1,30 0,90 474,07 B
0,80 474,87
0,87 0,07 474,00 C
1,31 475,31
2,40 1,09 472,91 D
1,83 474,74
0,90 0,93 473,84 E
1,20 0,30 473,54 F
1,40 0,20 473,34 G

6,14 5,97 1,83 1,66 473,34 Totals

6,14 5,97 1,83 1,66 473,34

–5,97 –1,66 –473,17
0,17 0,17 0,17 Difference

Figure 5.12: An example of completing a collimation book if intermediate readings

were also taken

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HB/BM A = 541.30

Collimation Deduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
0,41 541,71 541,30 A
0,84 0,43 540,87 B
1,10 539,77
1,19 0,09 540,78 C
1,20 0,01 540,77 D
0,60 540,17
1,34 0,74 540,03 E
1,21 0,13 540,16 F
1,19 0,02 540,18 G

2,11 3,23 0,15 1,27 540,18 Totals

2,11 3,23 0,15 1,27 541,30

–2,11 –0,15 –540,18
1,12 1,12 1,12 Difference

Figure 5.13: Another way of completing a collimation book

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Activity 1
1. Use the information provided below to complete the prepared sheet of the
field book.

Collimation Reduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
A
B

Totals

Difference

2. Use the information provided below to complete the prepared sheet of the
field book.

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 Equipment 5

Collimation Reduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level
A

C
D

Totals

Difference

3. Use the information provided below to complete the prepared sheet of the
field book.

Figure 9

Collimation Reduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level

Totals

Difference

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4. Use the information provided below to complete the prepared sheet of the
field book.

Figure 10

Collimation Reduced
BS IS FS Rise Fall Remarks
height level

Totals

Difference

To calculate the distance from the dumpy level when the

top and bottom stadia readings are known
Example:
Calculate the distance from the dumpy level to the telescopic staff if the following
readings were observed on the telescopic staff:

Top stadia reading = 2,54

Bottom stadia reading = 1,49

Levelling Solution:
The process used to Distance from the dumpy level to the staff = (top stadia reading – bottom stadia
compare different levels reading) × 100
with each other. = (2,54 – 1,49) × 100
= 1,05 × 100
= 106 m

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Activity 2
Calculate the distance from the dumpy level to the telescopic staff if the following
readings were observed on the telescopic staff:

Number Top stadia reading Bottom stadia reading Distance from dumpy level
1. 1,75 1,51
2. 2,36 2,25
3. 1,625 1,475
4. 3,450 3,359
5. 2,45 2,26

To calculate the distance from the dumpy level when the top stadia reading and
the horizontal cross hair reading are known

Example 1
Calculate the reading on the bottom stadia line as well as the distance from the
dumpy level to the telescopic staff if the following readings were observed on the
telescopic staff:
Top stadia reading = 1,75
Horizontal crosshair = 1,63

Solution
Difference between top stadia and middle horizontal cross hair readings = Top
stadia reading – horizontal cross hair reading
= 1,75 – 1,63
= 0,12

Top stadia reading = horizontal cross hair reading – difference between

readings
= 1,63 – 0,12
= 1,51

Distance from dumpy level to staff = (top stadia reading – bottom stadia
reading) × 100
= (1,75 – 1,51) × 100
= 0,24 × 100
= 24,0 m

Example 2
Calculate the reading on the bottom stadia line as well as the distance from the
dumpy level to the telescopic staff if the following readings were observed on the
telescopic staff:

No. Top stadia Horizontal Difference between the top Bottom Distance
reading cross hair stadia and middle horizontal stadia
reading cross hair readings reading
1. 1,75 1,63
2. 2,79 2,68
3. 3,24 3,10
4. 5,25 5, 13
5. 1,686 1,666
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Solution
To calculate the height (difference in height) if the BS and FS are known

Rules that apply when calculating the difference in height when the Back sight (BS)
and Foresight (FS) are known:
1. Always subtract the FS from the BS in the previous line.
2. If the answer is positive, it indicates a rise.
3. If the answer is negative, it indicates a fall.

Example 3
Calculate the difference in height if the:
1. BS = 2,230 and the FS = 1,720
2. BS = 0,709 and the FS = 1,432

Solution
1. Difference in height = BS – FS
= 2,230 – 1,720
= 0,51 indicates a rise because it is positive.

2. Difference in height = BS – FS
= 0,709 – 1,432
= –0,723 indicates a fall because the reading is
negative.

Activity 3
Complete the table below by calculating the difference in height. Write the
answer in either the rise or the fall column. The following readings were
observed using the leveller:

BS FS Rise Fall
2,45 1,59
3,69 2,58
1,23 2,57
3,61 4,53

To calculate the difference in height if the BS and IS are known

Rules that apply when calculating the difference in height if the Back sight (BS) and
Intermediate sight (IS) are known:
1. Always deduct the IS from the BS.
2. If the answer is positive, it indicates a rise.
3. If the answer is negative, it indicates a fall.

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 Equipment 5
Example
Calculate the difference in height if the:
1. BS = 1,070 and the IS = 0,456
2. BS = 0,976 and the IS = 2,592

Solution
1. Difference in height = BS – IS
= 1,070 – 0,456
= 0,614 a rise because it is positive.

2. Difference in height = BS – IS
= 0,976 – 2,592
= –1,616 a fall because it is negative.

Activity 4
Complete the table below by calculating the difference in height. Write the
answer in either the rise or the fall column. The following readings were
observed using the leveller:

BS IS Rise Fall
2,034 1,098
1,230 1,135
0,857 1,798
3,541 4,256

To calculate the difference in height if the two ISs lie next to each other

Rules that apply when calculating the difference in height of two intermediate
readings lying next to each other:
1. Subtract the second IS from the first IS.
2. If the answer is positive, it indicates a rise.
3. If the answer is negative, it indicates a fall.

Example
Calculate the difference in height if the:
1. IS at the first point = 1,35 and the IS at the second point = 0,349
2. IS at the first point = 0,53 and the IS at the second point = 0,70

Solution
1. Difference in height = IS (1) – IS (2)
= 1,350 – 0,349
= 1,001 a rise because it is positive.

2. Difference in height = IS (1) – IS (2)

= 0,53 – 0,70
= –0,17 indicates a fall because it is negative.

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Activity 5
Complete the table below by calculating the difference in height. Write the
answer in either the rise or fall column. The following readings were observed
using the leveller:

IS IS Rise Fall
4,31 3,98
1,456 1,024
0,974 1,409
2,86 3,24

To calculate the true height if the benchmark (BM) and rise are known

Rules that apply when calculating the true height if the rise is known:
1. Always add the rise to the given height.

Example
Calculate the true height if the:
1. BM = 279 m and the rise = 0,445.
2. BM = 472,48 m and the rise = 0,94.

Solution
1. True height = BM + rise
= 279 + 0,445
= 279,445

2. True height = BM + rise

= 472,48 + 0,94
= 473,42

Activity 6
Complete the table below by calculating the true height.

BM Rise True height

123,54 0,987
220 1,20
298,24 1,96
532,543 2,54

To calculate the true height if the BM and fall are given

Rules that apply when calculating the true height if the fall is given:
1. Always subtract the fall from the given height.

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 Equipment 5
Example
1. Calculate the true height if the:
1.1 BM = 541,30 m and the fall = 0,430.
1.2 BM = 132,75 m and the fall = 2,28.

Solution
1.1 True height = BM – fall
= 541,30 – 0,430
= 540,87
1.2 True height = BM – fall
= 132,75 – 2,28
= 130,47

Activity 7
Complete the table below by calculating the true height.

BM Fall True height

321,54 1,785
340 0,98
178,43 2,69
337,713 2,211

To calculate the collimation height

What does the term “collimation height” mean?

Collimation height refers to the height of the line of sight, which will be the same
for all telescopic directions of the same instruments.

The height of the line of sight can be calculated and is referred to as the
collimation height.
This level is also referred to as the instrument height (IH).

Rules that apply when calculating the collimation height:

1. Always add the last true height to the BS.

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Example
Calculate the collimation height if the:
1. true height = 479,0 and the BS = 2,53.
2. true height = 239,45 and the BS = 1,10.

Solution
1. Collimation height = true height + BS
= 479,0 + 2,53
= 481,53

2. Collimation height = true height + BS

= 239,45 + 1,10
= 240,55

Activity 8
Complete the table below by calculating the collimation height.

True height BS Collimation height

463,17 2,20
464,07 1,7
463,8 0,31
462,71 1,2

Two-peg test
The double-stake test is a very simple test that is used in the field to determine
whether the line of sight of the telescope is exactly parallel to the bubble/spirit level
of the levelling instrument. This is one of the most important features of the dumpy
level and it must be checked regularly. The following steps must be followed to
check the setting of the dumpy level.

Back sight Foresight

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 Equipment 5
1. Set up two stakes, approximately 100 m apart. Label them stakes A and B.
2. Set up the dumpy level in the middle of the two stakes.
3. Set the instrument perfectly level.
4. The field hand places the staff at stake A.
5. The surveyor takes the reading on the staff at stake A. Make sure that the staff
is in the middle of the cross hair and that the bubble is in the middle of the
spiritlevel when the reading is taken.
6. The field hand now moves to stake B and places the staff on the stake.
7. The surveyor turns the dumpy level to take an accurate reading of the staff at
stake B. Ensure that the bubble is in the middle of the spiritlevel when the
reading is taken.
8. Move the spirit level to a position close to the staff at stake B. Take the reading
at stake B.

Back sight Foresight

9. The field hand takes the staff to stake A. Take the reading at stake A.
10. The true difference in height between points A and B of the first two readings is
calculated by subtracting them.
11. The difference in height of the second set of reading is then calculated.

If the line of sight is truly horizontal, the difference in height of the second set
of readings will be equal to the true difference in height of the first set.
If this is not the case, the line of sight is not parallel with the bubble in the spirit
level of the telescope. Adjustments must be made to the instrument.

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Equipment
Name Use Maintenance and care
Dumpy level • Used to determine distances • Place the telescope in its case directly after use.
• To determine levels and heights • Do not bump the instrument against objects or drop
• For layout of buildings it.
• To transfer levels and heights • Perform the collimation test regularly to ensure
accuracy.
• Caring for the telescopic staff:
– The staff must always be folded when it is
transported.
– Keep it in a bag to prevent scratching of the
graduation during transportation.
– Ensure that plastic or metal clasps are working in
order to keep the section in position.

Activity 9

A
C

Figure 5.14: A precision measuring instrument that is used in the building industry

1. Name the measuring instrument labelled A.

2. Identify section B on which the instrument is mounted.
3. What accessory (C) is used with this instrument to provide accurate readings?

4. Use the TWO readings as seen through the eyepiece of the instrument and
calculate the difference in height between point D and point E.

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 Equipment 5
Equipment
Equipment (hand held)
Name Use Safe handling Maintenance and care
Steel tape-measure • Steel tape-measures are • Do not bend steel tapes. • Do not expose steel tape to
available in lengths of • Return tape slowly to its moisture.
2 m to 100 m case. • Wipe clean after use.
• Some tape-measures have • Do not expose steel tapes
steel measuring tapes to direct sunlight for long
while others are made of periods.
fibreglass and covered in • Fine, accurate measuring
PVC. instruments must be
• Fibreglass tape-measures returned immediately to
perish easily and are not their holders after use.
resistant to wear and tear, • Never oil a tape-measure.
bad weather conditions,
and bending.
• Most tape-measures are
equipped with automatic
retraction mechanisms
and a lock action.
• The fibreglass type usually
has a handle that is used to
rewind the measuring tape.
Used to:
1. Measure any lengths of
wood or building material
2. Measure layout of
buildings
Building line (fishing line) 1. For layout of foundations, • Tighten just enough to give • Wipe the line clean after
to keep the building of a straight line. use. Roll up carefully after
brickwork straight and • Avoid abrasive surfaces. wiping to avoid knots.
level • Avoid knots and roll up on • Do not expose
2. Used with corner blocks reel after use. unnecessarily to wet
to ensure building across conditions.
long distances occurs in a • Always store in its rightful
straight line place and correct manner
3. To line up doors, windows after use.
and pillars.
4. To suspend plumb bobs

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Name Use Setting up Maintenance and care

Chalk line • Chalk line (carpenter’s • The line is stretched • Wipe the line clean after
line) comprises an between two points, picked use and reel up carefully
aluminium/plastic casing up near the centre and into its container to avoid
that is filled with approved allowed to snap back to knots.
chalk. leave a line. • Add more chalk when the
• The line can be reeled in • Rinse after use and replace line becomes faint.
• Has a multi-purpose hook when the handle becomes
attached to the line. loose.
• Used to draw straight lines • Store in a way that would
on concrete. rid it of excess water.
• Marks the position where • Store in a safe, dry place.
building will take place on • Replace loose or cracked
foundation. handles.
• Place one end of the chalk
line at one point, and the
other end at the other
point and stretch tightly.
• Draw the chalk line more
or less in the middle of the
measurement and release
it to leave a line on the
concrete.
1. Used to lay out walls on
foundations.
2. Some types can be used as
plumb bobs.
3. Draw long lines, especially
on floors, etc.
Plumb bob Cone-shaped weight with • Hold the line firmly at the • Keep dry and store in a
sharp point suspended from top and let it hang without container with the string
a rope. Used to: swinging before making a neatly rolled up.
1. Determine perpendicular mark.
positions • In windy conditions or
2. Test vertical surfaces over long distances, the
(walls, foundations) bob may be held in a
3. Project points (e.g. against transparent container of
a ceiling) to the floor water to keep it steady.
4. Determine centres

Steel square (builders’) A rectangular, 3 mm thick, • Do not drop squares. • Wipe off and store after
steel try square that is • Test regularly for accuracy. use.
divided into millimetres and • Adjust or replace if no
centimetres. longer accurate.
Used to:
1. Set out stairs
2. Test the squareness of
constructions
3. Mark out brickwork
4. Mark out concrete work
5. Test whether larger
construction are straight
6. Lay out foundations,
masonry, stairs, roof
trusses and concrete work
• Used everywhere to test
squareness of especially
larger objects.

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 Equipment 5
Name Use Setting up Maintenance and care
Spirit level This spirit level is usually • Check regularly • Wipe clean after every use.
made of aluminium or wood, for correctness by • Do not allow glass windows
with a glass tube that is filled comparing spirit levels. to get clogged up with
with ether, spirits or alcohol. • Do not bump or throw cement.
The size varies between around unnecessarily.
75 mm to 1,2 m.

It is used to:
1. Level objects
2. Check whether objects
are horizontally and
vertically level
3. As a straight edge in
some cases
4. Ensure that the pegs in
foundations are level for
the casting of concrete
5. Ttransfer heights
6. Place bricks or blocks so
that they are level
7. Ensure that doors and
window frames remain
perpendicular when they
are mounted
8. Test horizontal, vertical
or slanted surfaces
(45°) in buildings,
foundations, roof trusses,
etc.
9. Project a line or point.
10. As a straight edge
Transparent pipe level • Can be used as level to • Fill with water. • Wipe clean, drain and roll
transfer levels from on • Make sure that it up.
point to another. contains no bubbles. • Replace a dull (worn) pipe.
• (The pipe is filled with Keep the ends open on
water until almost full. the same level and allow
All air bubbles must be the top of the water
removed from the pipe (meniscus) to stabilise
while it is being filled with before levels are tested or
water. The ends of the marked.
pipe must remain open.
Take one end of the pipe
and ensure that the water
bubble and the surface
that is to be transferred are
level.
• Do not add more water.
The other end can now be
taken to another point and
the level can be transferred
successfully.
• Ensure that the water level
at the initial point remains
the same throughout
the measuring process.
A piece of clear plastic
piping is filled with water
(coloured or clear) to
project levels across long
distances.

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Woodwork tools
Name Use Setting up Maintenance and care
Try square Comprises a steel blade and • Do not drop squares. • Wipe off and store after use.
a stock made of rosewood, • Test regularly for • Adjust or replace if no longer
ebony, or steel. Stock is accuracy. accurate.
covered in brass plate to
prevent wear. Used to:
1. Test for sureness
2. Draw perpendicular lines
on a piece of wood
3. Measure, using the
calibrated steel blade
4. As a straight edge to test
whether surfaces are flat
and straight
Mitre square Mitre square has the same • Do not drop the mitre • Wipe and store in a dry
properties and uses as the try try square. place.
square. Used to: • Regularly test its • Adjust or replace if it is no
1. Draw 45° lines (mitre squareness. longer square.
lines) • Oil the blade lightly to
2. Test 45° (mitre) angles. prevent rust.
3. Test the squareness of
corners
4. Test straight lines.
Mitre square 5. Test mitre angles and mark
them

Sliding bevel Sliding bevel has an • Ensure that the blade • Wipe off and store in a dry
adjustable steel blade that slides smoothly in the place after use.
can be set at any angle. groove easily disturbed. • Oil lightly to prevent rust.

The blade has a groove at one

end. This fits into the handle
and is fastened using a bolt
and wing nut (lever). The
wing nut (lever) is used to
position the steel blade.
Used to:
1. Draw inclined/oblique
lines as well as for testing
angles
2. Draw angles other than
90°

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 Equipment 5
Name Use Setting up Maintenance and care
Ripsaw Length of the ripsaw varies • Do not cut/rip timber • Wipe off and store in a dry
between 550 mm and with nails in it. place after use.
700 mm with 4 teeth per • Stand firmly above the • Store after use with the teeth
25 mm, while the cross-cut blade and keep your eye covered.
saw is between 450 mm and in line with the cut to • Oil the blade lightly and
600 mm long and has 6 to 8 saw straight. ensure that the handle is
teeth per 25 mm. • The teeth must be firmly fixed to the blade.
Used to: properly sharpened and • Do not oil the handle.
1. Saw along the grain of set.
timber
2. Saw required breadths.
3. Split planks or boards
lengthwise
Crosscut saw Length of a crosscut saw • Do not cut/rip timber • Store after use with the teeth
varies between 450 mm and with nails in it. covered.
650 mm, and it has 6–8 teeth • Stand firmly above the • Oil the blade lightly and
per 25 mm. blade and keep your eye ensure that the handle is
Used to: in line with the cut to firmly fixed to the blade.
1. Saw across the grain of saw straight. • Do not oil the handle.
timber • The teeth must be
2. Saw timber to required properly sharpened and
lengths set.
3. Saw lengths of wood
used in the construction
of roofs, e.g. lathing,
purlins, tie beams, rafters,
hangers, etc.
Cross-peen hammer Two types are available. • Tap the nails before they • Keep hammer face clean
• Warrington joiner’s bench are hammered. and ensure that the handle is
hammer. • Do not damage the firmly attached to the head.
• Exeter joiner’s bench surface of the wood. • Replace loose handles or fix
hammer’ • Set the nails using a them using a wedge.
Both have a toggle at one punch. • Replace hammer when
end, which can be used the edges of the head are
to hammer nails into rounded or worn.
difficult-to-reach corners.
300 g is a comfortable size
Used to:
1. Hammer in light nails
2. Hammer in nails of
between 10 mm and
38 mm
3. Toggle is used to tap
in small nails that are
held between the fingers
so that they can be
hammered in using the
hammer face later.
Claw hammer Used for general • Hold carefully. • Keep hammer face clean
construction work. Sizes • Do not drop. and ensure that the handle is
vary between 500 g and • Use wood under claw to firmly attached to the head.
680 g. extract long nails. • Replace loose handles or fix
Used for: them using a wedge.
1. Heavy nail work (roof • Replace hammer when
trusses) the edges of the head are
2. Claws are used to extract rounded or worn.
nails
3. Light work (building in
cupboards)
4. Hammer in nails of
25 mm to 150 mm

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Power tools
Name Use Safe handling Maintenance and care
Portable electric circular saw • Portable electric circular • Never use the saw without • Maintained like all
saw for sawing and the protective covering. machinery – lubricate
cleaving wood Avoid sawing planks that and adjust according to
• If the correct blades are contain nails. instructions.
fitted, it can also be used • Always wear eye • Clean after use and store
to cut ceramics, slate, non- protection. in a safe place.
ferrous metals, corrugated/ • Make sure that the blade • Repair or replace damaged
zinc sheets and other has stopped moving electric cords.
building materials before you leave the saw • Handle it so as not to
unattended. damage it or impair the
• Ensure that the protective accuracy.
cover remains in position. • Use machinery only for
• Remove electric power the intended purpose.
plug when adjustments are • Do not force the electric
made. circular saw. (Avoid the
• Use both hands when use of blunt blades.)
handling the saw. • Keep ventilation holes
• Stand firmly and open and clean.
comfortably. • Service the saw regularly.
• Use a dust mask when
sawing wood.
• Ensure that the electric
cord does not touch the
blade.
• The saw must be in
position before the power
is turned on.
Generator • Used to generate electricity • Use the generator in a • Switch it off when topping
for the use of power tools. well-ventilated area. up the petrol. Check the
• Avoid exposure to rain. oil levels regularly and
top up when necessary.
Do not connect too
many power tools
simultaneously. Service
the generator regularly.

Angle grinder • The angle grinder is used • Never use the angle • Maintained like all
to cut stone, concrete, tiles, grinder without its machinery – lubricate
ferrous metals and slate. protective cover. and adjust according to
• Always wear safety goggles. instructions.
• Make sure that the blade • Clean after use and store
has stopped moving before in a safe place.
you leave the grinder • Repair or replace damaged
unattended. electric cords.
• Ensure that the protective • Handle it so as not to
cover remains in position. damage it or impair the
• Make sure that the accuracy.
grinding wheel is free of • Use machinery only for
cracks and chips. the intended purpose.
• Be sure to remove the • Do not force the angle
chuck key from the nut grinder.
before the machine is • Keep ventilation holes
switched on. clean and open.
• Wear a dust mask when • Service the grinder
cutting stone and concrete. regularly.
• Remove the electric power
plug when adjustments are
made.
• Use both hands to operate
the machine.
• Stand firmly and
comfortably.

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 Equipment 5
Name Use Safe handling Maintenance and care
Portable electric plane Used to: • Always wear safety • Avoid planing wood that
• Plane surfaces and face- goggles. contains nails.
edges of timber. • Make sure that the blade • Maintained like all
• Plane bevels, chamfer and has stopped moving machinery – lubricate
edges of wood before you leave the plane and adjust according to
unattended. instructions.
• Remove electric power • Clean after use and store
plug when adjustments are in a safe place.
made. • Repair or replace damaged
• Use both hands to operate electric cords.
the machine. • Handle it so as not to
• Stand firmly and damage it or impair the
comfortably. accuracy.
• Wear a dust mask when • Use machinery only for
planing. the intended purpose.
• Do not force the portable
electric plane. (Avoid the
use of blunt blades.)
• Keep ventilation holes
open and clean.
• Service the plane regularly.
Construction machinery
Name Use Safe handling Maintenance and care
Electric mitre saw • Used to saw mitres of • Never use the saw without • Maintained like all
skirtings (for walls) and the protective covering. machinery – lubricate
picture frames • Avoid sawing planks that and adjust according to
• If appropriate blades are contain nails. instructions.
used, it can also cut 45° • Always wear eye • Clean after use and store
in ceramics, slate, non- protection. in a safe place.
ferrous metals, and other • Make sure that the blade • Repair or replace damaged
building material has stopped moving electric cords.
before you leave the saw • Handle it so as not to
unattended. damage it or impair the
• Ensure that the protective accuracy.
cover remains in position. • Use machinery only for
• Remove electric power the intended purpose.
plug when adjustments are • Do not force the electric
made. mitre saw. (Avoid the use
• Use both hands when of blunt blades.)
handling the saw. • Keep ventilation holes
• Stand firmly and open and clean.
comfortably. • Service the saw regularly.
• Use a dust mask when
sawing wood.
• Ensure that the electric
cord does not touch the
blade.
• The saw must be in
position before the power
is turned on.

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 5 Civil Technology

The angle grinder – a more detailed look

This is a versatile portable cutting and grinding tool. It can be fitted with various
kinds of wheels and discs for specific tasks. These discs and wheels can be easily
removed, as can the steadying handle on the side of the machine, making it easier to
store. The safety guard is adjustable to suit the type of work being done.

1 2 3

Figure 5.15: Angle grinder

Components Function
1. Safety guard Protects the body against cuttings
2. Arrow Direction of rotation
3. Spindle lock Locks spindle for changing wheels
4. Ventilation holes Keeping the machine cool
5. Rear handle For holding machine
6. Switch Switching machine on and off
7. Front handle For holding the front of machine

8. Cutting disc/wheel For doing cutting work

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 Equipment 5
Components not shown in Figure 5.15.

Component Function
Lock nut • Holds cutting wheel/disc firmly against tensioning flange.
• Has two holes to take two pegs of wrench.
• Easily damaged if not properly used.

Tensioning • Fits over spindle between body of the grinder and the
flange cutting wheel/disc.
• Some models have a tensioning nut to hold cutting wheel/
disc.

Peg wrench • Wrench with pegs that fit into holes in lock nut for undoing
and tightening it.

Cutting disc • The cutting disc or wheel consists of an abrasive set in a

polymer matrix strengthened with artificial fibres.
• Discs for ferric metals contain aluminium oxide while
masonry discs for brick and concrete consist of silicon
carbide.
• Cutting discs are available in 110 mm, 115 mm and 230
mm diameters, depending on the size of the machine.
Grinding wheel • The grinding wheel is thicker than the disc and uses aloxide
as the abrasive.
• Thicknesses vary from 4,5–6 mm while the diameter will
depend on the type of machine.
• Available sizes are 110 mm, 115 mm and 230 mm.
• These discs are used for grinding ferric metals.

Uses of the angle grinder

For cutting
• walls and brickwork
• bathroom tiles
• floor tiles
• slate
• various metals

Safety measures
• Ensure that the safety guard is always in position.
• Check the cutting disc for gouges and cracks.
• Ensure that the peg wrench is removed from the tensioning flange before
switching on the machine.
• Use safety goggles at all times.
• Use a dust mask when cutting bricks or concrete.
• Unplug the power cable before making adjustments.
• Keep the power cable in a good condition.
• Keep the power cable away from the cutting disc.
• Machine must come to a complete standstill before putting it down.
• Rotation speed of discs must suit that of the machine.
• Use both hands to hold the machine.
• Take up a secure standing position before using the machine.

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 5 Civil Technology

Activity 10
1. You are a bricklayer who has to expand a dwelling.
Name the tools that you will use to expand the dwelling.
2. Briefly describe the uses of the tools listed in question 1.
3. How would you take care of these tools?
4. Complete the table below by filling in the uses and care/maintenance of the
tools listed.

Woodwork tools
Name Use Maintenance and care

Try square

Mitre square

Sliding bevel

Ripsaw

Cross-cut saw

Cross-peen
hammer

Claw hammer

5. Describe the uses of each of the following power tools:

5.1 Portable electric circular saw
5.2 Angle grinder
5.3 Portable electric plane
5.4 Electrical mitre saws

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 Chapter 6
Applied mechanics

Roof frame and Cantilever frame

Beams
roof structures structures

Point loads and evenly Shear forces and

distributed loads bending moments

Centroids Laminas
 6 Civil Technology

Introduction
In Grades 10 and 11, you learnt that Applied Mechanics involves different types of
forces that create a system of forces. It enables experts to design structures that can
safely be used or occupied by people.

Revising Grade 10 and 11 force diagrams

In Grades 10 and 11, the nature and magnitude or size of a force that affects only
one point was determined graphically. However, in Grade 12 the focus will not
only be on the forces affecting a single point; the forces exerted at several points in a
structure, such as a roof frame and other framed structures, will be considered.

Example of forces affecting one point, as dealt with in Grades 10 and 11

The space diagram below illustrates four forces affecting a common point.
1. Copy the space diagram on a sheet of drawing paper.
2. Apply Bow’s notation to determine the magnitude of the unknown forces P and
Q graphically, using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
3. Provide the diagrams with titles and indicate the scale.
Space diagram

Solution: Vector diagram

Scale 1 mm = 1 m

P = 162 N
Q = 150 N

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 Applied mechanics 6
Roof frame and other roof structures
Determining the nature and magnitude of the components
of roof structures, such as roof frames and other structures,
graphically
In order to determine the nature and magnitude of the various components, you
will need the knowledge gained in Grades 10 and 11.

For Grade 12 purposes, two types of framed structures will be studied:

• Roof frames and other roof structures.
• Cantilever roofs (cantilever frames).

This course will focus on the following:

• Graphically determining the nature and magnitude/size of the various
components of a roof structure
• Graphically finding solutions using drawing equipment (to ensure accuracy)
• Focusing only on vertical loads.

Frames are commonly made of wood or steel. The components of wooden roof
trusses are joined by means of nail plates or nails, while gusset plates, rivets and
welded joins are used for steel frames. A beam structure can be described in terms
of one or more supports, also called the reactive force, vertical loads and members.

In order to solve structures, we will call the loads points.

Vertical load

Pin joint

Pin joint Pin joint

D Members

Left support Right support

Left reactive force Right reactive force

Figure 7.1: Frame structures

Remember:
• The members of the structure are called AD, DB and DC (Bow’s notation).
• There is one downwards force namely AB.
• There are two upwards forces, also called reactive forces, BC and CA.
• The reactive force is a counter-force acting on the supports when downwards Take note
forces act on a structure. Remember to work
• The reactive force keeps a structure or beam in equilibrium. counterclockwise at all
• In any structure, the sum of the downward forces must be equal to the sum of times.
the upwards forces, or the structure would not be in equilibrium.
• The names of the pin joints are ABD, BCD and CAD.

The following must be taken into account when the size and nature of the members
of the frame are determined:
• All frames are in equilibrium, therefore every pin joint will also be in
equilibrium.
• The frames can’t bend.
• The members of the frame are connected at the pin joints.
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 6 Civil Technology

• Pressure (loads) is only applied on the pin joints.

• When the frame is built, loaded and supported symmetrically:
– the reactions at the two support points would be the same
– the loads in the opposite members would be the same
– the force diagram would be symmetrical.

For the solution of frame structures, frames would be presented as

line diagrams because it would be too time consuming to indicate the
measurements of the frame structure.

Front view of structure Line diagram

Example
Find the horizontal position of the apex of a triangle on its basis if the basis angles
are equal.

Three simple triangular frameworks are shown. Find the point where a vertical line
from the apex meets the basis of each.
Use a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.

30˚ 30˚ 60˚ 60˚ 45˚ 45˚

6m 10 m 13 m

Solution:
1. Measure the basis of the triangle = 60 mm, on a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
2. Draw two 30° angles from the ends of the base.
3. Drop a vertical line from the apex to the basis.
4. Measure the left and right sections of the basis.

What do you find?

Repeat these steps for the other triangles.

What did you find out about the three triangles if their basis angles are equal?

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 Applied mechanics 6
Example
Finding the horizontal position of the apex of a triangle on its basis if the basis
angles are unequal.

Two simple triangular frames are shown. Find the horizontal distance of the apex
on the basis of each triangular framework.
Use a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.

30˚ 60˚ 60˚ 30˚

8m 12 m

What did you find out about the position of the apex on the baseline if the two
basis angles of the triangles are unequal?

This information is important when the size of the reactive forces is to be calculated.

Tips to bear in mind in order to solve frameworks according to the graph

method:
Take note
1. Draw the space diagram according to the supplied measurements and/or If the base angles of
angles. Comfortable scales for space diagrams could be 1 mm = 1 m, the triangle are equal,
0 mm = 1 m, etc. the the top of the
triangle will be in the
2. Use Bow’s notation and mark the spaces between the strains, support points centre of the base line
and members by adding capitals to the right (clockwise) in the open spaces. of the triangle.
These letters identify the forces (members) when the solution is graphically If the base angles are
drawn. 60° and 30°, then
the top will be one
3. If the reaction forces are not indicated, they have to be calculated first. quarter of the total
length of the basis
Represent the framework as a beam, draw the space diagram to scale and
side.
calculate the reaction forces.

4. Draw a force diagram (vector diagram) on a comfortable spot on a page. The

forces diagram is drawn to determine the size and nature of the members.

Draw a vertical line on a comfortable spot in the answer sheet to draw the force
diagram (vector diagram).

Measurements may only be done on this vertical line. Preferably start at
point A, measure the force either upwards or downwards. Take note of the
arrow points of each force. They indicate whether you should measure up or
down on the vertical line. Measure all forces at the start on this vertical line.

Use lower case letters to indicate joins and members on the force diagram.

Comfortable scales for force diagrams could be 1 mm = 10 N, 10 mm = 5 kN,

etc.

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 6 Civil Technology

5. Start with the pin joint at A, e.g. ABD.

To ensure that you are working with the same pin load and that you are working
to the right (clockwise) around the pin joint, an arch with a point for the start
and arrow points that move to the right over each join or part can be used.
Take note An alternative method is to place your finger or a pencil on the pin joint after
An alternative method which the forces around the pencil or finger can be displayed graphically.
is to place your finger or
a pencil on the pin joint
after which the forces
around the pencil or
finger can be displayed
graphically. Pin joint

6. Arrows are used on the space diagram to indicate the members as a strut or tie
beam. The arrows indicate the direction in which the force works against the
pin joint. The nature of the force indicates whether it is a push force (strut) or
binding force (tie/pull) in the member that is discharged onto the point load. If
the arrow points on a member discharged pressure, then that member is known
as a strut.

Strut

If the arrow points on a member pull on the pins then that part is known as a
tie.

Tie

7. The size and nature of the forces are usually shown in a table. Measure the
distance in the force diagram for each individual part and write it in at the
specific part. Multiply this measurement with the scale that was used and
indicate the force in N or kN.

Take note Member Measurement Force Nature

No measurement may
initially be measured
on the oblique or
horizontal lines of a
space diagram, as the
size of these forces
are unknown and It will not be possible to immediately draw some of the members at the pin
the reason for the joint due to not enough information being available. Continue with the other
exercise is precisely to pin joints as the missing members can be filled in at a later stage as the solution
determine them. progresses.
Always work from the right on the pin joint.

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 Applied mechanics 6
Draw the arrow points for each part on the space diagram.
Draw the arrow points as close as possible to the pin joint on each member.
Always work with one pin joint and determine the directions in the members
surrounding that pin joint.

Example 1

A simple triangular roof truss with three vertical loads is shown.

1. Draw the space diagram on a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
2. Determine the size of the left and right reaction forces.
3. On a scale of 1 mm = 1 N, graphically determine the size and nature of the forces
of each of the parts of the truss. Tabulate your answers.

130 N

30˚ 30˚
9m

Steps to solve frameworks according to the graphic method

Step 1:
Redraw the space diagram according to the given measurements and/or angles on a
scale of 10 mm = 1 m in your exercise book.
Measure 90 mm, draw 30° lines and complete the triangle.

130 N

Step 2:
Make use of Bow’s notation and mark the spaces between the forces, members and
base by adding capitals in the open spaces from the right hand side (clockwise).
These letters indicate the forces and members, e.g. AB, BC, etc.
There are three pin joint. Pin joint ABD, BCD and CAD.
Draw arches at each pin joint to indicate the direction according to Bow’s notation.

A B

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 6 Civil Technology

Step 3:
Indicate the framework as a beam and draw a space diagram.
The distance of the force from the base is in the 4,5 m middle of the beam (refer to
the deductions already made). Indicate the force and supports.
Calculate the reaction forces at the supports.

Take moments around RL Take moments around RR

RR × 9 = 130 × 4,5 RL × 9 = 130 × 4,5
9RR = 585 Nm 9RL = 585 Nm
RR = 585 Nm RL = 585 Nm
9m 9m
= 65 N = 65 N

Step 4:
Draw the force diagram (vector diagram) on your answer sheet.
The force diagram is drawn to determine the size and nature of the forces.
Draw a vertical line. Place the first point in such a position as to allow the
diagram to fit onto the page. Call this point a. Only make use of small letters on
the diagram. Measure all vertical forces which will discharge force up or down
according to the given scale.
Use the scale 1 mm = 1 N and measure 130 mm from point a to determine point b.
That indicates AB = 130 N.

Force BC works upwards 65 N. Measure 65 mm upwards from b.

Mark this point as c.
Force CA also works upwards and is 65 N. Measure 65 mm from c to get to point a.

Step 5:
Start at pin joint ABD. Work in the direction of the arrow points of the arch.
Force AB is already indicated as ab. Member BD is angled at 30°. Draw a 30° line
from b so that it lies in the same direction as BD in the space diagram.
Member DA is angled at 30° in a different direction. Draw a 30° line from point a.
Make sure that it is in the same direction as part DA. Point d is where these two lines
intersect.

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 Applied mechanics 6
Step 6:
The nature of the forces at the pin joint ABD can be added to the space diagram
after this step. To determine the nature of the forces, you have to move around the
pin joint in a clockwise manner yet again.
Force AB works downwards. Move on the space diagram from a to b with your
finger or a pencil.
Member BD moves diagonally 30°. Move the force diagram from point b upwards
to point d.
Draw an arrow point on member BD in the space diagram close to pin joint ABD
which points upwards to indicate the force in part BD.
Member DA is at a 30° angle. Move from point d to point a in the space diagram.
The direction is upwards and for that reason an arrowpoint that points upwards is
drawn close to pin joint ABD on the DA member.

Step 7:
Now work with pin joint BCD.
Force BC works upwards at 65 N and is already indicated as bc on the force diagram.
Part CD is horizontal in the space diagram.
Draw a horizontal line from point c so that it is proportional to part CD in the space
diagram until it meets up with point d. Part DB is already indicated on the force
diagram.

Step 8:
The nature of the forces at pin joint BCD can be indicated after this step. Work
clockwise according to the arch’s arrow points yet again. Force BC works upwards.
Move from b to c in the force diagram. Member CD is horizontal. Move the force
diagram horizontally from point c to point d. Draw an arrow point on member
CD in the space diagram to the lef,t close to pin joint BCD to indicate the force in
member CD. Member DB is angled at 30°. Move from point d to point b in the
force diagram. Because the direction is downwards, an arrow point is drawn close
to pin joint BCD on member DA. This arrow point points downwards.

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Step 9:
Now work with pin joint CAD. Force CA works at 65 N upwards and is already
indicated as ca in the force diagram. Member AD is angled at 30° in the space
diagram and is already indicated as ad in the force diagram. Member DC is
horizontal and is already indicated on the force diagram.

Step 10:
The nature of the forces at pin joint CAD can be indicated on the space diagram
after this step. Work clockwise according to the arch’s arrow points yet again. Force
CA works upwards. Move from c to a in the force diagram. Member AD is angled
at 30°. Move diagonally from point a to point d in the force diagram. Draw an
arrow point close to pin joint ADC on part AD in the space diagram to indicate the
force in part AD. The arrow point points downwards. Member DC is horizontal.
Move from point d to point c in the force diagram. The direction is right, therefore
an arrow point is drawn close to pin joint CAD on member DA in the space
diagram. This arrow point points right.

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Step 11:
Tabulate your answers now. Redraw the following table. Measure the lengths of the
members and convert them to determine the size of the force. Consult the space
diagram and complete the nature of the forces.

Member Measurement Force Nature

AD 130 mm 130 N Strut
DB 130 mm 130 N Strut
DC 114 mm 114 N Tie

Example 2
The figure below shows a roof truss with three vertical loads.
Graphically determine the magnitude and nature of the force affecting every
member of the roof truss, using a scale of 5 mm = 1 kN. Tabulate your answers.

20 kN

A
B

60° 30°
C

8m

15 kN 5 kN

Steps to solving problem using the graphic method

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Step Description Graphic solution

no:
1. The space diagram is usually provided on a
sheet of drawing paper.
If it is not provided, it must be drawn.
When you draw the space diagram, ensure
that the degrees of the angles in the sketches
correspond.
Use Bow’s notation and number the spaces.
There are three pin joint: ABD, BCD and
CAD.
Bow’s notation will be used to draw the
vector diagram of each separate pin joint.

2. Draw the force diagram (vector diagram).

Draw a vertical line on the right-hand side
of the drawing paper. (When working
with the roof trusses of roofs that are
supported along the outsides, the vertical
line used to measure the forces is always
drawn on the right-hand side of the page.)
Measure force AB on this line, using a
scale of 5 mm = 1 kN. Make sure that the
position of the point allows enough space
for you to complete the vector diagram.
Illustrate force AB = 20 kN according to
scale by measuring 100 mm downward.
Mark this point b. Only small letters are
used in the vector diagram.
3. Illustrate force BC = 5 kN according to
scale by moving 25 mm upwards from b.
(Force BC works in an upward direction.)
Mark this point c.
Illustrate force CA = 15 kN according to
scale by measuring 75 mm upwards from
point c. (Force CA works in an upward
direction.)
If this point does not meet a, an error has
occurred.

4. Start at pin joint ABD and work in a

clockwise direction.
Force AB has already been indicated as ab
in the vector diagram.
Member BD in the space diagram is
30°.
Draw a 30° line from point b in the vector
diagram so that it lies in the same direction
as BD in the space diagram.

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5. Member DA lies 60° in another direction.
Draw a 60° line from point a.
Make sure that it lies in the same direction
as DA in the space diagram.
Where these two lines intersect, indicate
point d.
All the forces at the pin joint have now been
considered.

6. Now choose pin joint BCD.

Force BC is vertical and has already been
indicated.
Member CD is horizontal.
Draw a horizontal line from point c in the
vector diagram.
This line must meet d.
Member DB is 30° and has already been
drawn.
All the forces at pin joint BCD have now
been considered.

7. Now focus on pin joint CDA.

Force CA lies vertically and has already
been indicated.
Member AD is 60° and has already been
indicated in the vector diagram.
Member DC lies horizontally and has
already been indicated in the vector
diagram.
The vector diagram has been completed.

8. Complete the nature of the forces by

working clockwise from pin joint ABD in
the space diagram.
Follow the direction of the lines in the
vector diagram.
A to B is a downward force and it has
already been indicated.
B moves upwards towards D in the vector
diagram – place an upward-pointing arrow
on line BD at B in the space diagram.
D moves upwards towards A in the vector
diagram – place an arrow pointing upwards
on line AB at B in the space diagram.
Pin joint ABD is now complete.
Repeat the steps for the other pin joints.

9. Tabulate your answer in the given table.

Member Measure- Size Nature
ment
AD 130 mm 130 N Strut
BD 130 mm 130 N Strut
DC 114 mm 114 N Tie

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Example 3
The following two diagrams, not drawn according to scale, show a roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

Scale: 2 mm = 1 N
(Hint: 1 kg = 10 N)

Diagram A

Diagram B

1. Name diagram A.
2. Name diagram B.
3. What is the magnitude of force AB?
4. What is the magnitude of force BC?
5. What is the magnitude of force CD?
6. What is the magnitude of force DE?
7. What is the magnitude of force EA?
8. How many members does the roof truss have?
9. Indicate what the position of the vertical line of the vector diagram would be
if the points of support are not both on the outside, as is the case with this
roof truss.
10. Why is the vertical line drawn in this position?
11. What is measured on the vertical line?
12. What is the angle of member AF of the structure?
13. What is the angle of member GH of the structure?
14. What is the angle of member BC of the structure?
15. Describe the position of member FG.
16. Describe the position of member HI.
17. Describe the position of member EF.
18. Describe the position of member CI.
19. Draw a table with two columns and state the nature of each member of the
roof truss.

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Solution
1. Space diagram
2. Force or vector diagram
3. 15 N
4. 5N
5. 32,5 N
6. 25 N
7. 12,5 N
8. Nine members
9. Approximately in the middle of the page
10. To ensure that the members that appear on both sides of the vertical line will
fit onto the drawing paper.
11. The magnitude of the forces as indicated in the space diagram
12. 60°
13. 28°
14. 30°
15. Vertical
16. Vertical
17. Horizontal
18. Horizontal
19.

Member Nature of force in member

AF Strut
FE Tie
AG Strut
GF Tie
BI Tie
IH Strut
HG Tie
CI Strut
DH Strut

Activity 1
1. The following two diagrams, not drawn to scale, show a roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

Diagram A

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Diagram B

1.1 Name diagram A.

1.2 Name diagram B.
1.3 What is the magnitude of force AB?
1.4 What is the magnitude of force BC?
1.5 What is the magnitude of force CD?
1.6 If the RR = 7 N, what is the magnitude of force DE?
1.7 If the LR = 14 N, what is the magnitude of force EA?
1.8 Test whether the roof truss is in equilibrium.
1.9 How many members does the roof truss have?
1.10 Indicate what the position of the vertical line of the vector diagram would
be if the points of support are both on the outside, as is the case with this
roof truss.
1.11 Why is the vertical line drawn in this position?
1.12 What is measured on the vertical line?
1.13 What is the angle of member AF of the structure?
1.14 What is the angle of member BG of the structure?
1.15 What is the angle of member CH of the structure?
1.16 What is the angle of member FG of the structure?
1.17 What is the angle between member GH and the base of the structure?
1.18 What is the angle of member HI of the structure?
1.19 Describe the position of member EI.
1.20 Describe the position of member EF.
1.21 Draw a table with two columns and state the nature of each member of the
roof truss.

2. The following two diagrams, not drawn according to scale, show a roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.
18 N 10 N

B
A G G
F H
50˚ 30˚ 30˚ 60˚
E D

22 N 10 N 16 N

Diagram A

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Diagram B

2.1 Name diagram A.

2.2 Name diagram B.
2.3 What is the magnitude of force AB?
2.4 What is the magnitude of force BC?
2.5 What is the magnitude of force CD?
2.6 What is the magnitude of force DE?
2.7 What is the magnitude of force EA?
2.8 How many members does the roof truss have?
2.9 Indicate what the position of the vertical line of the vector diagram would
be if the points of support are both on the outside, as is the case with this
roof truss.
2.10 Why is the vertical line drawn in this position?
2.11 What is the angle of member AF of the structure?
2.12 What is the angle of member FG of the structure?
2.13 What is the angle of member CH of the structure?
2.14 Describe the position of member BG.
2.15 Describe the position of member DH.
2.16 Describe the position of member EF.
2.17 Test whether the roof truss is in equilibrium.
2.18 Draw a table with two columns and state the nature of each member of the
roof truss.

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Activity 2
1. The drawings numbered 1 to 13 show trusses or frameworks in a building.
Solve the problems by:
1.1 drawing the space diagrams to a suitable scale
1.2 calculating or deducing the reactive forces, if not supplied
1.3 finding, graphically and to a suitable scale, the size and the nature of the
forces in each of the members of the truss or framework.
1.4 Tabulate your answers under these headings:

Member Measurement Size of force Nature of force

70N
9N

45˚ 45˚

1 2 3 4

20N

25N

55N
5 6 7

26,7N 13,3N

8 9 10

11 12 13

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2. The drawings numbered 1 to 12 show trusses or frameworks in a building.

Solve the problems by:
2.1 drawing the space diagrams to a suitable scal
2.2 calculating or deducing the reactive forces, if not supplied
2.3 finding, graphically and to a suitable scale, the size and the nature of the
forces in each of the members of the truss or framework.
2.4 Tabulate your answers under these headings:

Member Measurement Size of force Nature of force

1 2 3 4

10N

5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12

Cantilever frame structures (cantilever beam frame

structure)
In this section, the magnitude and nature of cantilever roof trusses, such as pent-
roofs, and framed structures that are fixed to walls will be determined using the
graphic method.

In this section:
• The forces acting upon the frame or structure are all downward forces.
• The frame is attached to the wall using pin joints.
• The components are joined using pin joints.
• Lever reaction is not considered.
• The vertical line representing the wall is not viewed as a force or member.

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Example 1
The figure below shows a cantilever framework carrying one vertical load. Using the
graphical method, determine the magnitude and nature of the forces acting on each
of the members of the frame.
Use a scale of 1 mm = 1 N for the force diagram, and tabulate your answer.

C A

60˚ 60˚
5m

B 60 N

Steps to solve the problem regarding cantilever framework graphically

Step Description Solution

1. The space diagram is usually provided on
the drawing paper.
Space diagram
If it is not given, it must be drawn.
Copy the space diagram, using the given
measurements and a scale of
10 mm = 1 m, i.e. measure 50 mm.
Now draw the 60° lines and complete the
diagram.
Use Bow’s notation and number the spaces.

2. Draw the force diagram (vector diagram).

Draw a vertical line on the left-hand side of
the page. (In the case of cantilever frames,
the line is always drawn on the left-hand
side of the page.) a
Make sure that the position of the first
point allows enough space for you to
complete the vector diagram.
Label this point a. Only small letters are
used in vector diagrams.
Use a scale of 1 mm = 1N and measure 60
mm on this line.
b
Measure 60 mm from point a to point b.
This represents force AB = 60 N.
If there were more forces, they would also
have been measured on this vertical line.

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3. Start at pin joint ABD and work in a
clockwise direction.
Force AB has already been indicated as ab
in the vector diagram.
Member BD lies in a horizontal position in
the space diagram.
Draw a horizontal line from b in the same
position as BD in the space diagram.

4. Member DA lies 60° in another direction.

Draw a 60° line from point a.
Make sure to maintain the same slant
(angle) as member DA.
Indicate point d where these two lines
intersect.

5. Now select pin joint DBC.

Member AD lies horizontally and has
already been drawn.
Member DB lies horizontally and has
already been drawn.
Member has an angle of 60°. Draw a line at
a 60º angle.

6. Now select pin joint ADC.

Member has a 60° angle and has already
been drawn.
Member DC has a 60° angle and has
already been drawn.
Member CA lies horizontally and must still
be drawn. Draw a horizontal line starting
at point b.
Where these lines intersect, indicate
point C.
Vector or force diagram

7. Complete the nature of the forces by Space diagram

working in a clockwise direction, starting
at pin joint ABD of the space diagram.
Follow the direction of the lines of the
vector diagram. C
B moves in the direction of D in the vector
diagram – place an arrow pointing to the D A
right at B in the space diagram.
D moves in the direction of A in the
space diagram – place an arrow pointing
upwards at B in the space diagram.
Pin joint ABD is now complete. B
Repeat the steps to calculate the other pin 60 N
joints.

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8. Tabulate your answer by completing the

Member Measure- Size Nature
given table.
ment
DA 70 mm 70 N Tie
BD 36 mm 36 N Strut
DC 70 mm 70 N Strut
AC 70 mm 70 N Tie

Example 2
The following two diagrams, not drawn according to scale, show a cantilever
roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

Diagram A Diagram B

e
E
d

1. Name diagram A.
2. Name diagram B.
3. What is the magnitude of force AB?
4. What is the magnitude of force BC?
5. How many members does the roof truss have?
6. What does the 45-degree line in the diagram represent?
7. What is the angle of member DE of the structure?
8. What is the angle of member CD of the structure?
9. What is the angle of member AF of the structure?
10. Describe the position of member AE.
11. Describe the position of member EF.
12. Describe the position of member BF.
13. Draw a table with two columns and state the nature of each member of the
roof truss.

Solution:
1. Space diagram
2. Force diagram or vector diagram
3. 50 kN
4. 100 kN
5. Six
6. The wall against which the cantilever roof truss is fixed.
7. 60°
8. 60°
9. 30°
10. Horizontal
11. Vertical
12. Horizontal

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13.

Member Nature
AF Tie
FE Strut
EA Tie
BF Strut
CD Strut
DE Tie

Activity 3
1. The following two diagrams, not drawn according to scale, show a cantilever
roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

Diagram A Diagram B

b f

c
a

d
e

1.1 Name diagram A.

1.2 Name diagram B.
1.3 What is the magnitude of force BC?
1.4 What is the magnitude of force CD?
1.5 How many membera does the cantilever roof truss have?
1.6 What does the 45-degree line in the diagram represent?
1.7 What is the angle of member AB of the structure?
1.8 What is the angle between AE and the wall?
1.9 What is the angle between AE and ED?
1.10 Describe the position of member BF.
1.11 Describe the position of member EF.
1.12 Describe the position of member DE.
1.13 An incomplete table is provided. Copy the table and complete it, using
the information provided in diagram A and B. Assume that diagram B is
drawn on a scale of 1 mm = 2 kN.

Member Measurement Magnitude of force Nature

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2. The following two diagrams, not drawn to scale, show a cantilever roof truss.
Analyse the diagrams and answer the questions that follow.

Diagram A

Diagram B

2.1 Name diagram A.

2.2 Name diagram B.
2.3 What is the magnitude of force AB?
2.4 How many members does the cantilever roof truss have?
2.5 What does the 45-degree line in the diagram represent?
2.6 What is the angle of member AE of the structure?
2.7 What is the angle of member AD of the structure?
2.8 What is the angle between BC and the wall?
2.9 Describe the position of member BE.
2.10 Describe the position of member CD.
2.11 Describe the position of member DE.
2.12 Table headings are provided. Copy the table and complete it, using the
information provided in diagram A and B. Assume that diagram B is drawn
on a scale of 5 mm = 1 kN.

Member Measurement Magnitude of force Nature

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 Applied mechanics 6

Activity 4
1. The drawings numbered 1 to 4 show the line diagrams of cantilever
structures. Draw the space diagrams, not to scale, in your answer book in
order to indicate the nature of the forces on them.
1.1 Determine graphically the magnitude and nature of the force in each
member of the framework.
1.2 Use the following scales for the vector diagrams:

Drawing 1: Scale 10 mm = 1N
Drawing 2: Scale 1 mm = 1N
Drawing 3: Scale 30 mm = 1kN
Drawing 4: Scale 10 mm = 1N

1.3 Tabulate your answer under the following headings:

Member Measurement Size of force Nature of force

1 2 3 4

2. The drawings numbered 1 and 2 show line diagrams of cantilever framed

structures. Draw the space diagrams, not to scale, in your exercise book in
order to indicate the nature of the forces on them.
2.1 Determine graphically the magnitude and nature of the force in each
member of the framework.
2.2 Use the following scale to draw the vector diagrams:
Drawing 1: 1 mm = 1 N
Drawing 2: 10 mm = 1 kN
2.3 Tabulate your answers under the following headings:

Member Measurement Size of force Nature of force

1 2

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Beams that carry point loads and evenly distributed

loads
Introduction
Beams can be made of wood, concrete and iron and they are commonly used in
the construction industry. In this course, we are going to focus only on horizontal
beams that are subject to vertical forces and their influence. These vertical forces
that act upon a beam must be considered when beams are designed, because they
will affect the shear forces and bending moments of a beam.

Grades 10 and 11
By now you should be familiar with the terminology and you should have prior
knowledge pertaining to beams, since this work was covered in Grades 10 and 11.

The following was covered in Grade 10:

The reactive forces of simply supported beams with a maximum of two point loads.

In Grade 11, the following was introduced:

• Calculating the reactive forces of simply supported beams carrying a maximum
of three point loads
• Calculating shear forces at point loads
• Calculating bending moments at point loads
• Drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams of point loads
• Calculating the reactive forces of a simply supported beam carrying a maximum
of three point loads and one uniformly distributed load (UDL)
• Calculating shear forces at point loads and of uniformly distributed loads
• Calculating bending moments at point loads and of uniformly distributed loads
• Drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams that carry one
uniformly distributed load and point loads.

In Grade 12, the following Grade 11 work will be revised:

• Calculating the shear forces of a simply supported beam carrying a maximum of
three point loads and one uniformly distributed load (UDL)
• Calculating shear forces at point loads and of uniformly distributed loads
• Calculating bending moments at point loads and of uniformly distributed loads
• Drawing shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams carrying one
uniformly distributed load and point loads.

What is a point load?

This is the load that affects a specific point or small area of a beam.

What is a uniformly distributed load (UDL)?

It is a load that is evenly/uniformly applied along the full length or across a section
of a beam.
Uniformly distributed loads are always indicated numerically:
30 N/m across 4 m.

We read this as 30 N per metre across a distance of 4 m. It means that each metre
carries a load of 30 N.
Since the 30 N stretches along a distance of 4 m, the total weight of the uniformly
distributed load will be equal to:
30 N/m × 4 m = 120 N (the metres (m) cancel each other, hence we are left with
only N).

For the purpose of this course, the uniformly distributed load will always be
converted to a point load. This converted point load is indicated by placing a
broken line and arrowhead at the midpoint of the uniformly distributed load.
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 Applied mechanics 6

Important aspects to bear in mind when working

with beams
Moments
Formula for calculating moments
Moment = force × distance
Distance always refers to the distance from the force to the point of support.

When moments at the points of support are calculated, the magnitude/size of the
reactive forces is determined.
If moments are taken at a point of support, e.g. A of LR, the:
Moments to the left (anticlockwise).
The abbreviations MTL will be used for moments to the left (anticlockwise), and
MTR for moments to the right.
Moments to the left act in the opposite direction to the rotation of the hands of a
clock, i.e. anticlockwise.
Moments to the right act in the same direction as the rotating hands of a clock,
i.e. clockwise.

Shear forces
Shear forces are usually calculated at specific sections on the beam. In the case of
uniformly distributed loads, the shear force should be calculated at each end of the
load. Calculating the shear force at the midpoint of the load, for example, would
serve no purpose since it will be indicated as an inclined line on the shear force
diagram. Shear force at point A will be abbreviated as SFa.

Formula for calculating shear force:

Shear force = Reactive force – point load(s)

If there is no point load acting upon the left reactive force, the shear force on the
left-hand side of the beam will always have the same magnitude as the reactive
force.

Shear force diagrams of point loads are always stepped.

The shear force of a uniformly distributed load is indicated by an inclined line

across the length of the UDL, hence calculating the shear force at intermediate
points along a uniformly distributed load would serve no purpose.

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Shear force should preferably be calculated from the left reactive force (left point of
support).

Uniformly distributed loads are not converted to a point load when calculating
shear forces. This conversion only applies when calculating reactive forces and
bending moments.

Always place a sheet of paper on the point load from which the shear force is to be
calculated to avoid being confused by point loads that are not relevant.

When the shear force diagram intersects with the baseline, the size/magnitude of
the bending moment of the beam is either at its maximum or minimum.

Bending moments
Bending moments are also calculated at a section of a beam. In the case of a
uniformly distributed load, the bending moment must also be calculated at the
converted point load. The bending moment at A will be abbreviated as BMa.

Formula for calculating bending moments:

Bending moment = Reactive moment – moment from point load to specific section

Reactive moment = Reactive force × distance to point load where bending moment
is to be calculated.

Moment at point load = Point load(s) × distance to point load where bending
moment is to be calculated.

Bending moments can be calculated in the same calculations from the left reactive
force (left point of support) and right reactive force (right point of support).
If it forms part of the calculations working from the right reactive force, fewer
operations need to be done.

In order to calculate bending moments, the uniformly distributed load must be

converted to a point load.

If a beam is supported at its ends, the bending moments at the left reactive point
(LR) and right reactive point (RR) will always be zero.

Always place a sheet of paper on the point load of which the bending moments
must be calculated so as not to be confused by the point loads which you do not
have to consider.

If the bending moment of a converted point load has to be calculated,

a NEW point load must be inserted before or after the first converted point load.

The bending moment of a converted point load:

Second converted point load × the distance from the first distributed load
The second converted point load lies in the middle of the first converted point load.

Some problems do not require the calculation of the bending moment at a section
between the initial point and end point of the distributed load. This type of problem
is easier, but does not always provide a perfect curve for the distributed load since
there are too few points to indicate where the curve should be.

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 Applied mechanics 6
Revision of work covering beams carrying point loads and a uniformly
distributed load

Example 1

Theoretical knowledge

Figure 1 shows a simply supported beam with two point loads and a uniformly
distributed load.
Analyse the illustration and answer the questions that follow.

Figure 7.2:

1. What is the diagram used in Figure 7.2 called?

2. Write down the uniformly distributed load as a converted point load.
3. How far is the converted point load from A?
4. How far is the converted point load from G?
5. What is the magnitude/size of the point load at E?
6. What is magnitude/size of the point load at F?
7. What is the length of the beam?
8. What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at B?
9. What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at D?
10. What is the force exerted at A called?
11. What is the force exerted at G called?
12. In which direction do the forces at A and G work?
13. In which direction do the forces at C, E and F work?
14. If the magnitude of the force at A is 49 kN, what is the magnitude of SFa?
15. What is the magnitude of the force at G if A is 49 kN?
16. What is the magnitude of SFg?
17. What would be an appropriate scale to draw this figure?
18. What is the magnitude of BMa?
19. What is the magnitude of BMg?

Solution
1. Space diagram
2. 60 kN
3. 2,5 m
4. 7,5 m
5. 5 kN
6. 10 kN
7. 10 m
8. 0 kN
9. 60 kN
10. Left reactive force
11. Right reactive force
12. Upwards

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13. Downwards
14. 49 kN
15. 26 kN
16. 0 kN
17. Scale of 10 mm = 1 m
18. BMa = 0 kN
19. BMg = 0 kN

Calculating reactive forces at points of support

Example 2
The diagram below shows a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load.

1. Change the distributed load to a point load.

2. Draw the space diagram illustrating the uniformly distributed load as a point
load.
3. Calculate the reactive forces at the points of support.

Solution
1. Distributed load is 2 N/m across 12 m.
Point load is 2 N/m × 12 m = 24 N
2.

3.
Take moments at LR
MTL = MTR
RR × 20 = (24 N × 6 m) + (10 N × 16 m) + ( 7 N × 18 m)
20 RR = 144 Nm + 160 Nm + 126 Nm
20 RR = 430 Nm
RR = 430 Nm
20 m
= 21,5 N

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Take moments at RR
MTL = MTR
RR × 20 = (7 N × 2 m) + (10 N × 4 m) + (24 N × 14 m)
20 RR = 14 Nm + 40 Nm + 336 Nm
20 RR = 390 Nm
RR = 390 Nm
20 m
= 19,5 N

Test:
Downward forces = Upward forces
24 N +10 N + 7 N = 21,5 N + 19,5 N
41 N = 41 N

Shear force and bending moment diagrams of a uniformly distributed load with
two point loads

In this example, a downward and an upward force are affecting the same point.

Example 1
A simply supported beam spanning 10 m carries a uniformly distributed load of
3 N/m across 5 metres from the left-end point of support. The beam also carries a
point load of 5 N 5 metres from the right-end point of support, and a point load of
10 N at the right point of support.
1.1 Calculate the shear forces at A, C and D.
1.2 Calculate the bending moments at A, B, C and D.
1.3 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
1.4 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
1.5 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam using a scale of
1 mm = 2 Nm.

1.1 Calculate shear forces

SFa (0 m from A) = Left reactive force
= 13,75 N
SFc (5 m from A) = Left reactive force – distributed load AC
(distributed load) = 13,75 N – 15 N
= –1,25 N
SFc (5 m from A) = Left reactive force – distributed AC – point load C
(point load) = 13,75 N – 15 N – 5 N or –1,25 – 5 N
= –6,25 N

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To calculate the shear force at D:

There are two forces working in opposite directions at point D, a downward force
and a reactive force.
In this case, the magnitude of the resultant force can always be calculated first, or it
can be omitted.
In this example, the downward force at point D is 10 N and the reactive force
16,25 N.

The magnitude of the resultant force is:

16,25 N – 10 N = 6,25 N upwards

SFd = 13,75 – 15 – 5 + 5,25 N or = –6,25 + 6,25

= 0 =0
OR

SFd = 13,75 – 15 – 5 – 10 N + 16,25 N or –6,25 -10 N + 16,25

=0

Any one of the abovementioned methods is correct. The resultant magnitude

of a force can only be determined in the case of shear forces, not where bending
moments are concerned.

1.2 Calculate the bending moments

BMa (0 m from A) =0

BMb (2,5 m from A) = Left reactive moment – moment of distributed load AB

= (13,75 × 2,5) – (7,5 × 1,25) Nm
= 34,375 – 9,375 Nm
= 25 Nm

BMc (5 m from A) = Left reactive moment – moment of point load AC

= (13,75 × 5) – (15 × 2,5) Nm
= 68,75 – 37,5 Nm
= 31,25 Nm
Or
BMc (5 m from D) = (16,25 × 5) – (10 × 5) Nm
= 81,25 – 50 Nm
= 31,25 Nm

In the second case, the bending moment was calculated by working from the
right point of support. This calculation is much simpler.

BMd (0 m from D) =0

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Maximum bending moment where

shear force diagram crosses baseline

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Activity 5
1. The diagram shows a simply supported beam with one point load and a
uniformly distributed load.
Analyse the drawing and answer the questions that follow.

1.1 What is the diagram above called?

1.2 Write the uniformly distributed load as a converted point load.
1.3 How far is the converted point load from LR?
1.4 How far is the converted point load from RR?
1.5 What is the magnitude of the point load at B?
1.6 How far is point load B from the RR?
1.7 What is the length of the beam?
1.8 What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at B?
1.9 What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at D?
1.10 What is the force at A called?
1.11 What is the force at E called?
1.12 In which direction do the forces at A and E work?
1.13 In which direction does force B work?
1.14 If the magnitude of the force at A is 9 N, what is the magnitude of SFa?
1.15 What is the magnitude of the force at E?
1.16 What is the magnitude of SFe?
1.17 What is a suitable scale to use when drawing the diagram illustrated
here?
1.18 What is the magnitude of BMa?
1.19 What is the magnitude of BMe?
1.20 Prove that LR = 9 N by calculating the moments.
1.21 Determine the magnitude of the RR by calculating the moments.
1.22 Test whether the beam is in equilibrium.
1.23 Prove that SFb = –1 N.
1.24 Prove that SFd = –13 N.
1.25 Prove that SFe = 0 N.
1.26 Prove that BMa = 0 Nm.
1.27 Prove that BMb = 54 Nm.
1.28 Prove that BMc = 46 Nm.
1.29 Prove that BMd = 26 Nm.
1.30 On a sheet of drawing-paper, sketch the space diagram using a scale of
10 mm = 1 m.
1.31 Project and sketch the shear force diagram using a scale of 5 mm = 1 N.
1.32 Project and sketch the bending moment diagram using a scale of
1 mm = 1 Nm.

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2. The diagram shows a simply supported beam carrying two point loads and a
uniformly distributed load.
Analyse the drawing and answer the questions that follow.

2.1 What is the diagram above called?

2.2 Write the uniformly distributed load as a converted point load.
2.3 How far is the converted point load from A?
2.4 How far is the converted point load from F?
2.5 What is the magnitude of the point load at D?
2.6 What is the magnitude of the point load at E?
2.7 How far is point load D from the RR?
2.8 How far is point load E from the LR?
2.9 What is the length of the beam?
2.10 What would be an appropriate scale to use when drawing the diagram
illustrated above?
2.11 What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at A?
2.12 What is the weight of the uniformly distributed load at C?
2.13 What is the force exerted at A called?
2.14 What is the force exerted at F called?
2.15 In which direction do forces A and F work?
2.16 In which direction does force D work?
2.17 If the magnitude of the force at A is 50 N, what is the magnitude of SFa?
2.18 What is the magnitude of the force at E?
2.19 What is the magnitude of SFe?
2.20 What is the magnitude of BMa?
2.21 What is the magnitude of BMf?
2.22 Prove that LR = 50 N by calculating the moments.
2.23 Determine the magnitude of the RR by calculating the moments.
2.24 Test whether the beam is in equilibrium.
2.25 Prove that SFc = 10 N.
2.26 Prove that SFd = –30 N.
2.27 Prove that SFe = –40 N.
2.28 Prove that BMa = 0 Nm.
2.29 Prove that BMb = 100 Nm.
2.30 Prove that BMc = 150 Nm.
2.31 Prove that BMd = 220 Nm.
2.32 Prove that BMe = 40 Nm.
2.33 On a sheet of drawing-paper, draw the space diagram using a scale of
5 mm = 1 m.
2.34 Project and draw the shear force diagram using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
2.35 Project and draw the bending moment diagram using a scale of
1 mm = 2 Nm.

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3. A beam with a length of 10 m is supported by two props. The beam carries a

uniformly distributed load of 4 N/m across its full length.
3.1 Calculate the reactive forces at the points of support.
3.2 Calculate the shear forces at A and D.
3.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, B and D.
3.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
3.5 Draw the shear force diagram using a scale of 2 mm = 1 N.
3.6 Draw the bending moment diagram using a scale of 1 mm = 1 Nm.

4. A beam is 15 m long and is supported by two props, one at the left-hand

end and the other at the right-hand end. The beam carries a uniformly
distributed load of 4 N/m along 10 m from the left-hand end. It also carries
a point load of 10 N, 2 m from the right-hand end.
4.1 Calculate the reactive forces at the points of support.
4.2 Calculate the shear forces at A, C, D and E.
4.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, B, C, D and E.
4.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
4.5 Draw the shear force diagram using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
4.6 Draw the bending moment diagram using a scale of 2 mm = 1 Nm.

5. A beam is 7 m long and is supported by two props. The beam carries a

uniformly distributed load of 5 N/m along 6 metres from the right point of
support. It also carries the following point loads:
13 N, 1 m from the left point of support, and 5 N at the right point of support.
5.1 Calculate the reactive forces at the points of support.
5.2 Calculate the shear forces at A, C and B.
5.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, C, D and B.
5.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
5.5 Draw the shear force diagram using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
5.6 Draw the bending moment diagram using a scale of 2 mm = 1 Nm.

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6. A simply supported beam is 7 m long. The beam carries a uniformly

distributed load of 40 N/m along 3 m, 1 m from the left point of support. It
also carries the following point loads:
20 N, 2 m from the left point of support, and 10 N, 4 m from the left point of
support.
6.1 Calculate the reactive forces at the points of support.
6.2 Calculate the shear forces at A, B, C, D, F and G.
6.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
6.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
6.5 Draw the shear force diagram using a scale of 2 mm = 1 N.
6.6 Draw the bending moment diagram using a scale of 2 mm = 1 Nm.

7. A simply supported beam spanning 10 m carries a uniformly distributed

load of 3 N/m along 5 m from the right point of support. The beam also
carries the following point loads:
10 kN at the left point of support, 8 kN, 2,5 m from the left point of support,
and 5 kN, 5 m from the right point of support.
7.1 Calculate the magnitude of the RR.
7.2 Calculate the magnitude of the LR.
7.3 Calculate the shear forces at by A, B, C and E.
7.4 Calculate the bending moments at A, B, C, D and E.
7.5 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
7.6 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam using a scale of 2 mm = 1 kN.
7.7 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam using a scale of
1 mm = 2 kNm.

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8. A simply supported beam spanning 10 m carries a uniformly distributed

load of 10 N/m along 8 m, from the right point of support. It also carries the
following point loads:
10 N at the left point of support, and 5 N, 2 m from the left point of support.
8.1 Calculate the magnitude of the reactive forces at the points of support.
8.2 Calculate the shear forces at A, C, and B.
8.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, C, D and G.
8.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
8.5 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
8.6 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam using a scale of
1 mm = 2 Nm.

9. A simply supported beam spans 10 000 mm and carries a uniformly

distributed load of 6 N/m along 3 000 mm from the left point of support. It
also carries a point load of 14 N, 6 000 mm from the left point of support.
9.1 Calculate the magnitude of the reactive forces at the points of support.
9.2 Calculate the shear forces at A, C, D and E.
9.3 Calculate the bending moments at A, B, C, D and E.
9.4 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
9.5 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N.
9.6 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam using a scale of
1 mm = 2 Nm.

10. A simply supported beam spanning 15 m carries a uniformly distributed

load measuring 5 kN/m across 6 m, 3 m from the left point of support.
The beam also carries the following point loads:
7 kN, 3 m from the left point of support;
7 kN, 9 m from the left point of support, and
8 kN, 3 m from the right point of support.
10.1 Calculate the magnitude of the RR.
10.2 Calculate the magnitude of the LR.
10.3 Calculate the shear forces at points A, B, D, E and F.
10.4 Calculate the bending moments at points A, B, C, D, E and F.
10.5 Draw the space diagram, using a scale of 5 mm = 1m.
10.6 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam, using a scale of
1 mm = 1 kN.

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10.7 Draw the bending moment diagram, using a scale of 1 mm = 2 kNm.

11. A simply supported beam spanning 22 m carries a uniformly distributed

load measuring 3 N/m across 4 m from the right point of support.
The beam also carries the following point loads:
12 N, 2 m from the left point of support;
5 N, 10 m from the left point of support, and
7 N, 4 m from the right point of support.
11.1 Calculate the magnitude of the RR.
11.2 Calculate the magnitude of the LR.
11.3 Calculate the shear forces at points A, B, C, D and F.
11.4 Calculate the bending moments at points A, B, C, D, E and F.
11.5 Draw the space diagram, using a scale of 5 mm = 1 m.
11.6 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam, using a scale of 2 mm = 1 N.
11.7 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam, using a scale of
1 mm = 1 Nm.

12. A simply supported beam spanning 12 m carries a uniformly distributed

load measuring 15 kN/m across 4 m, 2 m from the left point of support.
The beam also carries the following point loads:
20 kN at the left point of support;
15 kN, 8 m from the left point of support, and
30 kN, 2 m from the right point of support.
12.1 Calculate the magnitude of the RR.
12.2 Calculate the magnitude of the LR.
12.3 Calculate the shear forces at points A, B, D, E, F and G.
12.4 Calculate the bending moments at points A, B, C, D, E, F, and G.
12.5 Draw the space diagram, using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
12.6 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam, using a scale of
1 mm = 2 kN.
12.7 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam, using a scale of
1 mm = 2 kNm.

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13. A simply supported beam spanning 15 m carries a uniformly distributed

load of 5 N/m across 4 m, 2 m from the right point of support.
The beam also carries the following point loads:
8 N, 3 m from the left point of support;
4 N, 9 m from the left point of support, and
5 N, 2 m from the right point of support.
13.1 Calculate the magnitude of the RR.
13.2 Calculate the magnitude of the LR.
13.3 Calculate the sheaf forces at points A, B, C, E and F.
13.4 Calculate the bending moments at points A, B, C, D, E and F.
13.5 Draw the space diagram, using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m.
13.6 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam, using a scale of
2 mm = 1 N.
13.7 Draw the bending moments diagram of the beam, using a scale of
1 mm = 2 Nm.

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Centroids
Introduction
The curriculum for Civil Technology prescribes the calculation of centres of gravity
of objects with two dimensions: length and width. The centre of gravity of an
object of which two measurements are known is called a centroid. A figure that
has only two measurements and a thickness so negligible that it can be ignored,
is called a lamina. In this course, only square, rectangular and triangular laminas
will be studied. In Grade 11, the centroids of only simple laminas were calculated.
In Grade 12, the position of the centroids of irregular shapes consisting of a
combination of laminas will be determined.

Important abbreviations associated with centroids

Abbreviations
Symbol Description Symbol Description Symbol Description
c Centroid h Height s Side
l Length b Breadth A Area or surface area

Formulae used to calculate the position of a centroid

The formulae provided below are used in the calculation of centroids. These
formulae will be provided in any papers and tests involving centroids. Even if you
know the formulae off by heart, you are advised to use the given formula sheet to
ensure that you do not use the wrong formula.

Area of: Formula in Formula in Formula to determine the position of centroids

words symbols
x-axis y-axis
Square Side × side s×s s s
2 2
Rectangle Length × l×b l b
breadth 2 2
Right-angled ½ × base × ½b × h b h
triangle height 3 3
Equilateral ½ × base × ½b × h b h
triangle height 2 3
OR pyramid

Please note: In this course other letters will also be used to indicate the axes,
e.g. instead of referring to the x-axis and y-axis, reference will be made to, e.g. line
A–A, line B–B, line A–B, line C–D, etc.

The following formula for calculating the position of a centroid of a lamina will
be used in this text book:

Formula to determine the centroid

Position of c = (A1 × d) ± (A2 × d) ± (A3 × d)
Total area

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Sketches of laminas and formulae to calculate centroids

that may be included in your tests
The following table indicates the positions of centroids of the laminas that will be
covered in this course.

Geometrical shape Formula in words Formula in Formula to determine the

words position of centroids
x-axis y-axis
Square Side × side s×s s s
2 2

Rectangle Length × breadth l×b l b

2 2

Right-angled triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h

3 3

Right-angled triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h

3 3

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 Applied mechanics 6
Equilateral triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h
2 3

Equilateral triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h

OR pyramid 2 3

To calculate the centroids of a combination of regular

laminas separately from an axis (line)
Example 1
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1 and 2 from
line B–B and line A–A.

Solution
c of square (section 1) from line B–B is 36 mm.
c of square (section 1) from line A–A is 36 mm.

c of square (section 2) from line B–B is 108 mm.

c of square (section 2) from line A–A is 36 mm.

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Example 2
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1 and 2 from
line B–B and line A–A.

Solution
c of square (section 1) from line B–B is 36 mm.
c of square (section 1) from line A–A is 36 mm.

c of square (section 2) from line B–B is 36 mm.

c of square (section 2) from line A–A is 108 mm.

Example 3
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1 and 2 from
line B–B and line A–A.

Solution
c of rectangle (section 1) from line B–B is 50 mm.
c of rectangle (section 1) from line A–A is 36 mm.

c of rectangle (section 2) from line B–B is 140 mm.

c of rectangle (section 2) from line A–A is 36 mm.

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 Applied mechanics 6
Example 4
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1 and 2 from
line D–D and line C–C.

Solution
c of triangle (section 1) from line D–D is 25 mm.
c of triangle (section 1) from line C–C is 25 mm.

c of triangle (section 2) from line D–D is 85 mm.

c of triangle (section 2) from line C–C is 25 mm.

Example 5
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1 and 2 from
line M–N and line K–L.

Solution
c of square from line M–N is 45 mm.
c of square from line K–L is 45 mm.

c of pyramid from line M–N is 140 mm.

c of pyramid from line K–L is 45 mm.

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Example 6
The figure below shows a combination of three laminas.
Calculate and write down the position of the centroid of the individual lamina from
line C–D and line A–B.

Solution
c of square (section 1) from line C–D is 30 mm.
c of square (section 1) from line A–B is 30 mm.

c of rectangle (section 2) from line C–D is 110 mm.

c of rectangle (section 2) from line A–-B is 30 mm.

c of triangle (section 3) from line C–D is 190 mm.

c of triangle (section 3) from line A–B is 30 mm.

Activity 6
To calculate the centroids of a combination of regular laminas separately
from an axis (line)

1. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1
and 2 from line B–B and line A–A.

2. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1
and 2 from line B–B and line A–A.

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 Applied mechanics 6

3. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1
and 2 from line B–B and line A–A.

4. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1
and 2 from line B–B and line A–A.

95

5. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of sections 1
and 2 from line D–D and line C–C.

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6. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of each separate
lamina from line M–N and line K–L.

7. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

Calculate and write down only the positions of the centroid of each separate
lamina from line C–D and line A–B.

To calculate the centroids of a combination of irregular

laminas separately from an axis (line)
Example 1
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
1. Calculate and write down only the position of the centroid of each lamina from
line R–S and line P–Q.
2. Calculate and write down the area of each lamina.
3. Calculate and write down the total area of the combined laminas.

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 Applied mechanics 6
Solution
1. c of square from line R–S is 50 mm.
c of square from line P–Q is 50 mm.

c of triangle from line R–S is 200 mm.

c of triangle from line P–Q is 30 mm.

2. Area of square = 10 000 mm2

Area of triangle = 13 500 mm2

3. Total area = 23 500 mm2

Example 2
The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.
1. Calculate and write down only the position of the centroid of each lamina from
line B–B and line A–A.
2. Calculate and write down the area of each lamina.
3. Calculate and write down the total area of the combined laminas.

Solution
1. c of rectangle (section 1) from line B–B is 22,5 mm.
c of rectangle (section 1) from line A–A is 45 mm.

c of triangle (section 2) from line B–B is 30 mm.

c of triangle (section 2) from line A–A is 115 mm.

2. Area of square = 4 050 mm2

Area of triangle = 1 687,5 mm2

3. Total area = 5 737,5 mm2

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Activity 7
To calculate the centroid of a combination of regular laminas separately from
an axis (line)

1. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

1.1 Calculate and write down only the position of the centroid of each lamina
from line R–S and line P–Q.
1.2 Calculate and write down the area of each lamina.
1.3 Calculate and write down the total area of the combined laminas.

2. The figure below shows a combination of two laminas.

2.1 Calculate and write down only the position of the centroid of each lamina
from line B–B and line A–A.
2.2 Calculate and write down the area of each lamina.
2.3 Calculate and write down the total area of the combined laminas.

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 Applied mechanics 6

3. The figure below shows a combination of three laminas.

3.1 Calculate and write down only the position of the centroid of each lamina
from line B–B and line A–A.
3.2 Calculate and write down the area of each lamina.
3.3 Calculate and write down the total area of the combined laminas.

Calculation of the position of the centroids of a

combination of irregular laminas
In order to determine the position of the centroid, you must know how to:
• calculate the area of a square, rectangle and triangles
• calculate the total area of combined laminas
• determine the position of the centroid of the abovementioned geometrical
shapes
• use the abovementioned values in a formula
• use your calculator to simplify the computations of the formula.

Steps to calculate the position of the centroid of a combination of

laminas
1. Sketch the lamina in your exercisebook, or on the answer sheet when writing a
test or examination. You will find this extremely helpful when you are revising
the work.
2. Divide the body (shape/figure) into separate sections.
3. Label these sections 1, 2, etc. When you start doing the calculations, you can
simply refer to these numbers. The individual laminas may be labelled using
geometrical terms instead of numbers, e.g. square, rectangle, etc. A1 would refer
to the area of section 1, etc.
4. Calculate the area of each section separately.
5. Calculate the total area of the lamina.
6. Determine the position (distance) of each centroid separately.
7. Use the formula and replace the letters with numbers.

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Formula to determine the position of the centroid

Position of c = (A1 × d) ± (A2 × d) ± (A3 × d)
Total area

Where:
c = the abbreviation of centroid
A1 = area of first geometrical lamina
A2 = area of second geometrical lamina
A3 = area of third geometrical lamina
d = the distance between each individual lamina’s centroid and the
given axis

Total area without a hole:

When two or more laminas are combined, the separate areas are added.

Total area with a hole:

In the case of a hole, the separate areas are subtracted.

Example 1
The figure below shows a composite object with a uniform thickness.
1. Calculate the total area of the figure.
2. Write down the position of the centroid of each section from the axes M–N and
K–L.
3. Calculate the position of the centroid from axis M–N.
4. Calculate the position of the centroid from axis K–L.
Round off your answer to the nearest two decimals.

Solution
1.
Area of rectangle (1) = Length × breadth
= 120 mm × 90 mm
= 10 800 mm²

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 Applied mechanics 6
Area of triangle (2) = ½ base × height
= ½ × 90 mm × 150 mm
= 6 750 mm²

Total area = 10 800 mm² + 6 750 mm²

= 17 550 mm2

2.
Section 1: Centroid of line M–N = 45 mm
Section 1: Centroid of line K–L = 60 mm
Section 2: Centroid of line M–N = 140 mm
Section 2: Centroid of line K–L = 45 mm

3.

= (A1 × d) + (A2 × d)
c from M–N
Total area
= (10 800 × 45) + (6 750 × 140) mm3
17 550 mm2
= 486 000 + 945 0002 mm
3

17 550 mm
= 1 431 000 mm3
17 550 mm2
= 81,54 mm

4.

= (10 800 × 60) + (6 750 × 45) mm 3

c from K–L
17 550 mm2
= 648 000 + 303 7502 mm
3

17 550 mm
= 951 750 mm 2
3

17 550 mm
= 54,23 mm

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Example 2
The figure below shows a shaped lamina.
Calculate the position of the centroid from the axes X and Y.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

Solution
Calculation of the position of a centroid

General steps
1. Divide the lamina into separate, geometrical figures if this has not yet been done.
2. Refer to the formulae sheet and use the formulae to determine the areas and the
position of the centroids of the individual geometrical figures.

Steps to calculate the position of a centroid

Step Description Answer/operations

1. Sketch the lamina in your workbook,
or on the answer sheet when writing
a test or exam. You will find this
extremely helpful when you are
revising the work.

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2. Refer to the formulae sheet and use the formulae to determine the area and position of the
centroid from each separate geometrical figure.
3. Write down the formula to calculate c.
c from X = (A1 × d) − (A2 × d)
± changes to – (minus) because there Total area
is a hole in the lamina.
4. Use a calculator to calculate the area = (2 400 × d) − (450 × d)
of section one. (A1 is the rectangle. 1 950
Write the value in the place of A1.)
5. Use a calculator to calculate the area
of section two. (A2 is the triangle.
Write the value in the place of A2.)
6. Calculate the total area of the two
geometrical figures.
7. Determine the distance of c of section = (2 400 × 30) − (450 × d)
one (the rectangle) from the x-axis, 1 950
and write this value in the place of d in
the formula.
8. Determine the distance of c of section = (2 400 × 30) − (450 × 10) mm3
two (the triangle) from the x-axis, and 1 950 mm2
write this value in the place of d in the
formula.

= 72 000 − 4 5002mm
3
9. Multiply the numbers in brackets.
1 950 mm

= 67 500 mm
3
10. Calculate the computations above the
line first. 1 950 mm2

11. Divide the numbers to arrive at an

answer, and round off the answer to = 34,62 mm
two decimals. Add the unit, which is
usually mm.
12. Write down the formula to calculate c. c from Y = (A1 × d) − (A2 × d)
± changes to – (minus) because there Total area
is a hole in the lamina.
13. Write down the abovementioned areas = (2 400 × d) − (450 × d)
in the formula. 1 950

14. Determine the distance of c of section = (2 400 × 20) − (450 × d)

two (the rectangle) from the y-axis 1 950
and write this value in the place of d in
the formula.
15. Determine the distance of c of section = (2 400 × 20) − (450 × 25) mm3
two (the triangle) from the y-axis and 1 950 mm2
write this value in the place of d in the
formula.

= 48 00 − 11 250 2mm
3
16. Multiply the numbers in brackets.
1 950 mm

= 36 750 mm2
3
17. Do the computations above the line.
1 950 mm

18. Divide the numbers to arrive at an

answer, and round off the answer to = 18,85 mm
two decimals. Add the unit, which is
usually mm.
c of lamina (18,85 mm; 34,62 mm)

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Example 3
The figure below shows a shaped lamina.
Analyse the lamina and answer the questions that follow.

1. Calculate and write down the area of the square.

2. Calculate and write down the area of the triangle.
3. Calculate and write down the total area of the lamina.
4. Write down the centroid of the square from A–A.
5. Write down the centroid of the triangle from A–A.
6. Use the above information and the formula given below, and calculate the
position of the centroid from A–A.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

Position of c = (A1 × d) + (A2 × d)

Total area
Solution:
1. 4 900 mm2
2. 288 mm2
3. 4 612 mm2
4. 35 mm
5. 62 mm
6.

c from A–A = (A1 × d) − (A2 × d)

Total area
= (4 900 × 35) − 2(228 × 62) mm
3

4 612 mm
= 171 500 + 17 856 mm3
4 612 mm2
= 153 644 mm
3

4 612 mm 2

= 33,31 mm

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 Applied mechanics 6

Activity 8
1. The figure below shows a shaped lamina.
Analyse the lamina and answer the questions that follow.

1.1 Calculate and write down the area of the rectangle.

1.2 Calculate and write down the area of the triangle.
1.3 Calculate and write down the total area of the lamina.
1.4 Write down the centroid of the rectangle from X–X.
1.5 Write down the centroid of the rectangle from Y–Y.
1.6 Write down the centroid of the triangle from X–X.
1.7 Write down the centroid of the triangle from Y–Y.
1.8 Use the above information and the formula and calculate the position of
the centroid from X–X and Y–Y.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

2. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from line A–A.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

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 6 Civil Technology

3. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from the axes X and Y.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

4. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from the axes X and Y. All
measurements are in metres. Round off your answer to two decimals.

5. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from A–A.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

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 Applied mechanics 6

6. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from A–A and B–B.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

7. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from A–A and B–B.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

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 6 Civil Technology

8. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from the axes X and Y. All measurements
are in metre.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

9. Calculate the position of the centroid of this composite object from line M–N
and line K–L.

10. Calculate the position of the centroid of this composite object from line R–S
and line P–Q.

11. Calculate the position of the centroid of this composite object from line C–D
and line A–B.

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 Applied mechanics 6

12. The figure below shows a shaped lamina of uniform thickness.

Calculate the centroid of the lamina from A-A and B-B.
Round off your answers to two decimals.

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224
 Chapter 7
Construction

Piling Concrete Reinforcement

Formwork Struts and scaffolding

Drywalls Stonework Beam filling

Cavity walls Arches Woodworking Windows

Roofs Waterproofing Finishers

 7 Civil Techology

The construction industry

Houses, factories, offices, schools, roads and bridges are only some of the products
of the construction industry. This industry’s activities include the building of new
structures, including site preparation, as well as additions and modifications to
existing ones. Other activities in the industry include maintenance, repairs and
improvements on these structures.

Construction usually is done or coordinated by general contractors who specialise

in one type of construction, such as residential or commercial buildings. They take
full responsibility for the complete job, except for specified portions of the work that
may be omitted from the general contract. Although general contractors may do a
portion of the work with their own crews, they often sub-contract most of the work
to heavy construction or speciality trade contractors.

Speciality trade contractors usually do the work of only one trade, such as painting,
carpentry or electrical work, or of two or more closely related trades, such as
plumbing and heating. Beyond fitting their work to that of the other trades,
speciality trade contractors have no responsibility for the structure as a whole.
They obtain orders for their work from general contractors, architects or property
owners. Repair work is almost always done on direct order from owners, occupants,
architects or rental agents. In this chapter we will look in more detail at some of the
civil trades in the construction industry.

Foundation piles
Purpose
A pile is a component of the foundation that helps to transfer the weight of a
building to ground that is firmer or more stable. This type of foundation is used
when the soil cannot support ordinary foundations. Foundation piles distribute the
load across more stable ground, whether they are used underground or underwater.
The type of soil in an area and the weight of the structure play a role in the
excavation, drilling and pouring of piles.

When stable soil lies deep below the natural ground level, holes for the foundation
piles can be drilled and filled with reinforced concrete (tarred poles are also
sometimes used); alternatively prefabricated piles can be driven into the ground.
A raft or floating foundation usually rests on the pile foundation system, thus
providing stability.

Figure 7.1: Piling with raft (floating) foundation resting on it

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 Construction 7
The positioning of the foundation piles (i.e. where the piles are used) is
influenced by the following factors:
• Low carrying capacity of the soil
• New filling material that has not been thoroughly compacted
• An exceptionally high water table
• Clay subsoil that is subjected to movement (expanding and shrinking)
• High moisture content in subsoil

Foundation piles (various types) can be divided into the following categories:
• Precast concrete piles
• Steel-driven pile foundation
• Driven displacement piles
• Churn-drill pipe piles
• Swivel auger piles
• Auger-cast piles
• Auger-drilled piling holes

How are piles installed?

Drills, tampers and pile drivers that are used for the installation of piles are
mounted on trucks or cranes and can be used at any site. The following rules
must always be followed during foundation piling in order to ensure a sturdy
construction:
• Piling construction requires a sturdy platform.
• Piles can be used in any type of soil.
• Concrete pouring must be done thoroughly.
• Prescribed joints must be used for extensions.
• SANS quality must be maintained.
• Good reinforcing material must be used.
• A sturdy pile cap must be used for driven piles.
• Make sure that vibrations in the soil do not cause damage.

Advantages of piles
The use of foundation piles is viewed as a specialised design feature since
extraordinary measures are applied in order to ensure a stable construction. The
advantages of using piling rather than other uncommon methods include the
following:
• It can be used in poor soil.
• It can be used anywhere, even in water.
• The larger base ensures stability.
• It is relatively quick and easy to install if the equipment is available.
• If prefabricated piles are used, much time is saved.
• It resists tensile stress well.
• It is quick and less expensive to produce.
• It can be manufactured elsewhere beforehand.
• The installation can continue even when poor weather conditions hamper
the excavations.
• The length of the piles can easily be adjusted, depending on the circumstances.
• It offers sound resistance against moving soil.

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In-situ (driven) foundation piling

Piles that are driven into the ground in-situ are used instead of prefabricated piles in
cases where the length of the piles differs.
• This method entails driving metal pipes filled at the tip with a dry concrete mix
into the ground.
• The pipe is held firmly in position while a drop hammer is used to expel the
previously applied, dry concrete mixture in order to provide an extended
base (toe).
• Concrete is then poured into the pipe and compacted using a drop hammer.
• The steel pipe is gradually extracted as the concrete is poured.

Steel cable

Ground

Steel casing
Steel casing
When solid ground is
Drop hammer reached, the concrete
plug is hammered into
fresh concrete to form an
enlarged base.

Extended base
Plug (dry concrete mixture)

First step Second step

Steel casing is
extracted as concrete
is compacted

Drop hammer that compacts the concrete

Reinforcing

Enlarged base

Third step

Figure 7.2: Steps to drive a pile into the ground in-situ

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 Construction 7
Prefabricated piles
Prefabricated piles are used where inefficient subsoil covers the more stable layers of
soil.

Figure 7.3: Pre-formed piling

A drop hammer is used to drive prefabricated concrete piles into the ground.

Steel casing (protecting pile)

Unstable (soft) soil

Steel cable

Precast concrete pile

Drop hammer

Steel tip

Figure 7.4: Drop hammer piles

Steel pipe casing piles

This method entails driving the steel pipe casing through unstable soil or water until
a stable ground formation is reached.
• The prefabricated casing is partially filled with dry concrete that has low water
content and which acts as a plug.
• The pipe pile is driven into the ground using a drop hammer.
• Some pipe piles do not need reinforcing since the steel casing is strong enough
and forms part of the construction.

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 7 Civil Techology

Steel casing is driven

into the ground

The steel casing is

filled with concrete
Reinforcing is placed in
position in the hole.

Figure 7.5: Steel pipe casing piles

Steel cable

Unstable soft soil

Steel pipe-casing that is driven into the ground

Drop hammer (hammers dry concrete plug)

Plug (dry concrete mixture)

Figure 7.6: A steel pile is driven (drifted) in

Short-hole piles
These piles are most frequently used to counter ground movement (the expanding
and contraction of clay soil).
• Short-drilled piles are usually used for smaller buildings.
• They are round piles that are shaped in holes in the ground.
• An auger drill (large spiral drill bit) is used to drill the holes into the soil.
• It penetrates the soil as soon as it starts rotating and pushes the loose soil to the
surface.
• The drilling process continues until the desired depth to carry the load of the
building has been reached.
• Auger drill can be operated manually or mechanically.
• Hand drills are suitable for smaller jobs.
• A mechanical auger drill that is mounted on a vehicle is used for larger piles that
require deeper holes.
• Enforcing that has been previously prepared is now lowered into the hole.
• The concrete is pumped into the hole using gravity.

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 Construction 7
• Concrete is poured into the hole through a plastic (PVC) or rubber pipe to
prevent any soil from falling into the hole with the concrete, since this will
contaminate and weaken the concrete mixture.
• Auger drills that are used for light loads can drill up to a maximum depth of
15 meters and are 600 mm in diameter.

A large auger is used to

drill holes in the ground

The hole is filled

with concrete
Reinforcing is placed in
position in the hole

Figure 7.7: Positioning of bored (short-drilled) piles

Auger

Shaft

Figure 7.8: An auger drill boring holes for bored (short-drilled) piles

Activity 1
1. What is the purpose of a pile driver?
2. Which factors determine the positioning of the pile driver?
3. Which categories are pile drivers divided into?
4. What are the benefits of pile drivers?
5. Name FOUR types of pile driver constructions.

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Concrete
Ready-mixed concrete
Ready-mixed concrete is often used in the building industry because it is a fast,
cost-effective alternative to mixing concrete on site. Because accurate measurements
are very important when using ready-mixed concrete, it is essential that all
measuring instruments are in good working order and calibrated.

Ready-mixed concrete is fluid concrete that is delivered to the construction site. It is

transported in the familiar, barrel-back trucks and poured into a desired mould.

Ready-mixed concrete is manufactured at concrete plants where raw materials,

especially cement, are stored in silos to protect them against moisture in the air.

Mixing method for ready-mixed concrete

1. Batch the dry ingredients or raw materials.
2. Load the ingredients into a barrel.
3. Mix.
4. Add water.
5. Pour the concrete into the rotating barrel of a truck.
6. Deliver the concrete to the building site for placing.
7. Use concrete pumps to pour the concrete at the site.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Ready-mixed concrete suppliers have the resources and technical • It is very expensive.
know-how to provide a wide range of mixtures. • Delivery and
• The concrete has the same density throughout. pouring delays may
• Concrete can be ordered according to the construction programme. affect quality.
• Delivery schedules can be changed at fairly short notice (avoid • Site batching in
pouring concrete in bad weather). residential areas
• A load of ready-mixed concrete can be cast at various spots on site, raises concerns
which saves time and manpower since the concrete does not have to about noise
be transported in wheelbarrows. levels, duration of
• Casting ready-mixed concrete takes less time than it would to convey operation, soiling
the concrete in wheelbarrows. of house frontages
• Materials do not have to be stored on site. There are thus no and sidewalk and
environmental concerns. contamination of
• No cleaning-up operations are needed after construction. storm-water drains
• Concrete is thoroughly mixed.
• The strength of each batch is the same.
• This method is much faster.
• The strength of each batch can be specified.
• The quality of the concrete is guaranteed.

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 Construction 7
Application and mixing proportions of concrete
Table 1:
Material for a two-bag batch of concrete, using 25,6 mm or 19 mm stone

Category Strength Mixing ratio Use

in MPa
Cement Sand Stone
Low-strength 15 MPa 2 bags 3½ wheelbarrows 3½ Unreinforced foundations (only single-
concrete wheelbarrows storeys) mass filling
Medium- 25 MPa 2 bags 2½ wheelbarrows 2½ Unreinforced slabs or floors; reinforced slabs
strength wheelbarrows and foundations; footpaths and driveways.
concrete

High-strength 30 MPa 2 bags 2 wheelbarrows 2 wheelbarrows Reinforced concrete sections; heavy-duty

concrete floors; precast items such as paving or
flagstones

Table 2:
Material for a two-bag batch of concrete, using 13,2 mm stone

Category Strength Mixing ratio Use

in MPa
Cement Sand Stone
Low-strength 15 MPa 2 bags 3½ wheelbarrows 2½ Unreinforced foundations (only single-
concrete wheelbarrows storeys), mass filling; filling of masonry
Medium- 25 MPa 2 bags 2½ wheelbarrows 2 wheelbarrows Unreinforced slabs or floors; reinforced slabs
strength and foundations; footpaths and driveways
concrete
High-strength 30 MPa 2 bags 2 wheelbarrows 2½ Reinforced concrete sections; heavy-duty
concrete wheelbarrows floors and precast items such as paving or
flagstones

Components of concrete
Purpose of ingredients of concrete

Ingredients (concrete) Purpose Concrete

Concrete is a workable
Riversand • It fills the gaps between crushed stone making concrete more stable or plastic mixture in
solid.
controlled proportions
• It reduces the amount of cement “paste” needed to produce concrete
and reduces the cost.
of cement, water,
• It gives the mixture more substance. riversand and crushed
• It reduces the cost of concrete since it is cheaper than cement. stone which is placed in
a mould and allowed to
Water • It sets in motion the chemical processes responsible for the curing of harden.
concrete.
• It serves as lubricant in the mixing process.
• Too much or too little water reduces the strength of the mixture.
Crushed stone • It provides substance.
• It is more economical since stone is cheaper than cement.
• It makes the mixture less fluid, thus more stable.
• It reduces shrinking and deformation.
Cement • It binds the various aggregates.
• It reacts with water to form a “glue” that binds the aggregates in the
concrete.

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Main objective when mixing concrete

The main objective is to obtain a uniform and close mixture of all the ingredients.
The mixture must be such that the various sizes of aggregates are uniformly
distributed throughout the mass. Each particle of aggregate must be adequately
coated with cement paste of uniform consistency.

The properties of concrete

• Concrete is extremely strong and can withstand very high forces of compression.
• It is not very resistant to tensile forces.
• In order to resist tensile forces, it has to be reinforced with steel.
• It can be cast into any mould design.
• After casting, it can be finished smoothly or left rough to be plastered.
• It is water-resistant.
• It can be made waterproof and is thus suitable for use as roofs, walls and floors.
• Maintenance is easy and inexpensive.
• It is easy to handle.
• It is fireproof, weatherproof and rodent-proof.
• It is durable.

Factors to be considered before mixing concrete

• Always use clean and graded materials.
• Avoid joining new concrete to old.
• When joining new and old concrete, always soak the old concrete thoroughly.
• Dry ingredients must be thoroughly mixed before adding water.
• Do not guess quantities, always measure materials to suit the job.
• Do not prepare more concrete than can be placed within 30 minutes.
• Have protective material on hand in case of inclement weather.

Difference between massive and reinforced concrete

• Mass concrete
Concrete that is not subjected to tensile stress or bending stress is referred to as
mass concrete.
• Reinforced concrete
Concrete that is subjected to tensile stress or bending stress and which is
reinforced with steel rods, stirrups, wire, or drawn-out metal is referred to as
reinforced concrete.
• Precast concrete
Concrete used to manufacture bricks, windowsills, storm-water pipes,
kerbstones, lintels, etc.

Transport, placing, levelling, compacting and curing

concrete
Transport
• There must be no drying out or contamination of the mix.
• Segregation of the ingredients must be prevented.
• The concrete should be tipped vertically and directly over its final position to
prevent dispersal of aggregates.
• The concrete must be well compacted in its final position.

Procedures when placing concrete

The casting of concrete must be planned well in order to ensure that the process
takes place quickly and easily. Bear the following in mind:
• If ramps are needed, they must be constructed before placing the concrete.

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 Construction 7
• Try to pour all the concrete (e.g. an entire foundation or floor) on the same day.
• Always start the pouring process in the corner furthest from the mixer/truck.
• Each batch must be poured near the previous one.
• Pour the concrete higher than required.
• Manual compacting can be done using rods spades and rammers/tampers to
ensure that the concrete is spread into the corners and spaces.
• Use a straightedge to level the surface.
• Allow the concrete to set for seven days before building on it commences.

Methods of levelling concrete

• Level the compacted concrete slab, such as a floor, using a heavy wooden beam
that has a handle at each end.
• Use a chopping action followed by a sawing motion to level the surface in line
with the sides.
• A pipe-roller can be used on thin slabs to compact the concrete and finish the
surface simultaneously.

Reasons for floating concrete

Once the concrete has been levelled, floating is required for the following reasons:
• It creates a smoother surface for the subsequent layers or floors.
• It removes marks left by the straightedge.
• It helps to compact the concrete surface.
• It forces pieces of gravel under the surface.
• Some concrete surfaces require a smoother finish and this is achieved by using a
steel float.

Methods of floating concrete

• After the concrete has been levelled in the normal fashion, it must be left to set.
• The concrete surface is then smoothed to the required finish using a steel trowel.
• The concrete is floated by bearing down on the trowel while it is being moved
about the surface.
• Large areas can be finished using a petrol or an electric power trowel.

Procedures when compacting concrete

• Manual compacting can be done using rods, spades and rammers/tampers. This
ensures that the concrete is forced into all the corners and spaces.
• Mechanical compacting can be done using a compactor/vibrator. This ensures
that the concrete is forced into all the corners and spaces of the slab or beam that
was cast.
• Vibrator operators must be properly trained and the work should be supervised.
• The vibrator must be the right size for the job.
• The concrete must be poured in shallow layers (not exceeding 450 mm) and each
layer should be compacted before the next layer is poured.
• Insert the compactor in sections that are close enough together to allow
thorough compacting of the area.
• Insert the poker into the concrete quickly and withdraw it slowly.
• A little extra vibration is needed in corners and along construction joints.
• Make sure that the poker does not touch the formwork.

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Methods of placing concrete

• Before placing concrete in foundations or against soil or other materials, wet
the area thoroughly. However, water should not be allowed to pool in the area
where the concrete is to be poured.
• Deposit concrete as near as possible to its final position (in layers not exceeding
150 mm for hand compaction, or 450 mm for poker vibration).
• Air becomes trapped in fresh concrete during placing. To ensure that the
concrete attains its full potential strength, pay special attention to the
compacting of the edges of slabs, corners of paving, etc.

Reasons for curing concrete

• Newly placed concrete must be protected against extremely quick drying.
• Sufficient water is needed in the concrete for a considerable time to complete the
hydration (i.e. the complete hardening) of the concrete.
• If concrete is kept moist, it will gain strength for months, even years, after it has
been placed.

Methods of curing concrete

• Excessively quick drying of the concrete is assisted by the sun and wind; thus
after concrete has been cast, it can be kept moist in the following ways:
• Sprinkle or spray water on the concrete regularly to keep it moist.
• Allow water to pool on the concrete surface.
• Wet the surface with a hose as soon as the concrete is hard enough not have its
surface damaged by the spray.
• This process can be repeated for 7 to 10 days, depending on conditions.
• Avoid pouring concrete on very cold days. If it is unavoidable, warm water can
be used to maintain a minimum temperature of 5 °C to ensure proper hardening
of the concrete.

Materials used for curing concrete

• Cover the surface with a water-retaining substance such as sand, earth, straw or
hessian that is kept moist.
• Sprinkle or spray water on the surface often to keep the concrete moist.
• Allow water to pool on the surface.
• Cover the surface with plastic sheeting or waterproof paper. The cover must be
held in place along the edges without damaging the concrete and it must overlap
at the joints.
• Leave the formwork in place and cover any exposed concrete surfaces.
Admixtures in concrete
Admixtures are materials that are added to concrete before or during mixing
to improve its workability, curing, temperature range, setting time or colour.
Admixtures such as calcium chloride have long been used for cold-setting concrete,
while more recent admixtures improve a range of other properties. Some admixtures
may be uneconomical for a particular project, while characteristics, such as low
absorption, can be achieved simply by sound, proven concreting practices.

Admixtures should always only be combined in a concrete mix by competent

persons because some of these admixturesm may interact in undesirable ways.

Admixtures can be classified into five major categories according to their effects:
• Retarded setting
• Accelerated setting or plasticising
• Water reduction, and
• Air-entrapment.
Important admixtures outside these categories include admixtures for improving
bonding, shrinkage reduction, damp-proofing and colouring. These admixtures are
discussed in more detail:
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 Construction 7
Retarding admixtures
• These slow down the hydration of cement by extending setting time.
• They are beneficial in hot weather to overcome the accelerating effects that
higher temperatures and large concrete masses have on setting times.
• Most retarders also act as water reducers.
• Retarding admixtures produce concrete with greater compressive strength
because of the lower water/cement ratio.
• They also slow down the initial setting time by at least one to three hours when
used at temperatures of between 18 and 40 ˚C.
Accelerating admixtures
• Accelerators shorten the setting time of concrete, allowing cold-weather pouring
and the early removal of shuttering, early surface finishing and, in some cases,
early loading.
• Care must be taken in choosing the type and proportion of accelerators, as some
common accelerators may increase the drying shrinkage of concrete.
• Calcium chloride is used to reduce setting time and increase strength gain.
• Excessive amounts of calcium chloride may result in rapid setting, increased
drying shrinkage and corrosion of reinforcement.
• Calcium chloride should not be used as an antifreeze, as the large amount
required to lower the freezing point may weaken the concrete.

Super plasticisers
• Super plasticisers include high-rate water-reducing admixtures that can
maintain a specific consistency and workability for a greatly reduced amount
of water in concrete. High-rate water reducers improve “flowability” without
substantially slowing setting time or increasing air-entrapment and can produce
high-strength concrete.
• Each type of super plasticiser and its dosage must be adapted to particular
concrete mix ingredients to allow for its corresponding effects.
• As with most types of admixtures, super plasticisers may affect other concrete
properties as well.

Water-reducing admixtures
• These admixtures allow less water to be used to make concrete with equal slump,
or increased slump of concrete for the same water content.
• They may affect initial setting times.
• Water reducers are mostly used for hot-weather concrete placing and easier
pumping.
• These plasticisers are hygroscopic, which may entrap more air in the concrete
mix by reducing the water surface tension, with all theits attendant benefits.

Air-entrapment admixtures
• Air entrapment refers to the process by whichcaptures many small air bubbles
are trapped in concrete to become part of the matrix and bind the aggregates
together in the hardened concrete.
• These air bubbles are dispersed throughout the hardened cement paste but do
not form part of the paste.
• Its major benefit is improved durability in freeze-thaw cycles, especially in cold
climates.
• Some strength loss may result from increased air in concrete, which may be
overcome by reducing the water-cement ratio or through other appropriate
admixtures.

Bonding admixtures
• Bonding admixtures, including materials such as polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) and
acetates, acrylics and butadiene-styrene co-polymers, can be used to assist in
bonding new/fresh concrete with old/set concrete.
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Colouring admixtures
• Colouring agents – generally synthetic or natural oxides – are becoming more
common. Most are surface-applied and often have the added the benefit of
promoting surface hardening.
• Such surface-applied colouring admixtures generally should not be used on air-
entrained concrete. These pigments add colour to sidewalks, driveways, patios,
streets, parking lots and other concrete structures.
• Some integral pigments are made with pure, concentrated pigments especially
treated for mixing into concrete and require little additional labour to finish.
• These integral colours extend throughout the slab and show through even if the
slab chips or is exposed.
• They are resistant to light, alkalis and weather, and have a recycled content of
nearly 60%.

Waterproofing and damp-proofing admixtures

• These admixtures, which include soaps, butyl stearate, mineral oil and asphalt
emulsions, are used to decrease the amount of water penetration into the larger
pores of concrete.
• “Antifreeze” admixtures are typically accelerators used in very high doses to
achieve a very fast setting-time. They do not have any anti-freezing properties
and they are generally not used for residential work.

Disadvantages of admixtures in fresh concrete

• A thorough understanding of potentially complex, interrelated side-effects is
required to successfully use a number of admixtures. This is even more critical
when a numbervarious of parties are involved in the manufacture of the
concrete, for example the producer, the placing contractor and the builder, and
where the finished concrete is the result of a number of individual decisions.
• Choosing an appropriate admixture for a specific job should be the responsibility
of an expert and alternatives to admixtures should always be considered first.
• Most organic, chemical-type admixtures are affected by the cement type and
brand, water/cement ratio, aggregate grading, and temperature.
• Damp-proofing and waterproofing admixtures are still of uncertain value and
may have unforeseen side-effects.
• In some cases, supplemental materials must be added as prescribed to avoid
negative or undesirable side-effects.
• Most retarding admixtures may result in rapid concrete setting which, in turn,
results in difficult concrete placement and finishing.

Environmental effects
The environmental impact of certain admixtures isare not fully understood yet.
Some super plasticisers may well pollute ground and surface water. Admixtures
must never be used to compensate for bad practices or low-quality materials.

Testing of concrete
Various tests are performed on concrete to test its quality. In large projects, the
quality and price of concrete are critical factors and regular tests are conducted to
ensure that the concrete is the correct quality without being too expensive.

The two main tests to determine the quality of concrete are the slump test
(performed on fresh concrete) and the compressive test that is performed on sample
cubes of cured concrete.

The slump test is not as accurate as the cube test, but provides immediate results,
unlike the cube test that only produces some results after a week, and the final
results after a month.

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Slump test
Purpose of the slump test
This test is performed using appropriate equipment to test the density of concrete
before it is placed, mainly by determining the percentage of water it contains.
• The purpose is to determine the consistency of the batches that are mixed.
• The purpose is to determine the slump of the mixture.

Apparatus for the slump test

• An open cone, 100 mm in diameter at the top and 200 mm at the bottom, is
used. It has two handles and a square base of 600 × 600 mm.
• Before use, the cone is placed firmly in the centre of the base.
• A tamping rod that is 16 mm in diameter, 600 mm long and which has a
rounded end, is used for tamping the mix.
Ruler or tape measure
Rod or spirit level

Measure this distance

Concrete Mould

Figure 7.9: The slump test

Procedure for conducting the slump test

• The cone must be free of old concrete on the inside.
• Place the base plate on a firm, level surface or floor.
• Place the cone squarely on top of the base plate, with the wide, open end facing
down.
• Overfill the cone with concrete and tamp down 25 times with the rod.
• Repeat three times.
• Scrape excess concrete from the top of the cone using the tamping rod.
• Lift the cone slowly and carefully straight up off the concrete, allowing the
concrete to slide out easily.
• Place the cone upside down on the base plate next to the concrete mass.
• Place the tamper or a spirit level horizontally across the top of the cone so that it
extends over the concrete mass.
• Measure the vertical distance between the rod (level) and the top of the concrete.
• The reading (in mm) is the amount of slump of the concrete.

Figure 7.10: Measuring the slump

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Analysis of the results of the slump test

• Natural or true slump (70 to 100 mm - see Figure 7.11)– just enough water in
the mix.
• Shear slump – not enough water
• Collapse – too much water

75 – 100 mm (manually compacted concrete)

True slump Shear slump Collapse

50 – 75 mm (vibrated concrete)
100 mm

175 mm or more
300 mm

Figure 7.11: Measuring the slump

Cube test
Purpose of the cube test
• To determine the compressive strength or crushing strength of the concrete
• This test is used to enable the architect or civil engineer to specify concrete of
the right compressive strength for a project and to ensure that the concrete is
suitable for the duration of the project.
• Concrete samples are usually taken from every 10 m³ of the mix and after every
new load of aggregate.
• The cube moulds are then filled with fresh concrete, tamped and set aside to set
and cure.
• Six moulds are usually filled, of which three are tested after seven days and the
rest after 28 days. The first three samples are kept damp under hessian and the
others are immersed in water after removal at a temperature of 22 °C to 25 °C.

Apparatus for the cube test

• The moulds must be of cast-iron or steel, with perfectly vertical and parallel
100 mm sides.
• The 100 mm moulds are used for aggregates of not more than 19 mm.
• Moulds of 150 mm are used for aggregates exceeding this figure but not
exceeding 37,5 mm.
• The insides of the moulds are lightly coated with oil.

Figure 7.12: Cube test moulds Figure 7.13: Post-treatment of concrete samples

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Procedure for conducting the cube test
Filling the cubes
• Samples must be representative, i.e. they must be taken from various parts of the
batch, say from every 10 m3 for smaller jobs.
• Samples must be taken immediately after the concrete has been mixed.
• The mixture is placed in the mould in 50 mm layers.
• Each layer must be compacted using a 400 mm rod weighing 1,8 kg with a
tamping pas 35 mm square.
• The number of strokes will vary according to the type of concrete, but for
100 mm cubes at least 38 strokes per layer is required.
• The concrete must be level with the top of the mould.
• The mould must be filled with concrete 30 minutes after the concrete has been
mixed.

Figure 7.14: The cubes are tamped 25 times. Every 50 mm layer of concrete added to
the cube is tamped 25 times and left under a wet cloth for 24 hours

Figure 7.15: The cubes are immersed in water for 28 days and then tested

Testing the cubes

• The cubes must be taken to the laboratory covered in plastic and stowed in crates
of wet sand.
• The cubes must rest in the laboratory for at least 24 hours before being tested.
• A steel press with accurate gauges is used.
• The cubes are subjected to destructive testing, i.e. placed under pressure until
they crack or break and a reading is then taken.
• This reading in kN must comply with the minimum specified by the architect or
engineer.

Figure 7.16: Test apparatus for compressive strength

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Figure 7.17: Schematic representation of crush test

Rib and block / Block and beam construction

A rib or beam floor consists of precast concrete beams or ribs that are spaced
evenly and blocks are placed between these beams/ribs. These units are very strong
and can carry heavy loads or weights. Rib and block constructions include the
following:
• Precast units
• Hollow core units (rib/block)
• Wafer or honeycomb units
• Channel sections
• Compressed units
• Reinforced units
• Pre-stressed units
In-situ concrete layer

In-situ
concrete
layer
Steel mat

Pre-stressed concrete ribs

Pre-cast hollow-core concrete blocks
Props
Figure 7.18: Breakdown of a rib and block floor slab

Figure 7.19: Precast concrete blocks

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Advantages and disadvantages of rib and block structures

Advantages Disadvantages
• The units are cast in exact shapes and exposed to thorough curing • Because the units are
and testing. precast, mechanical
• Inflatable, foam-rubber, plastic-centred, etc. rib moulds are used handling is required on
during the shaping process. site.
• This reduces costs and restricts the weight. Lightweight • The placing of the
components require less support during construction. blocks between the ribs
• This construction can immediately carry a load (no curing is require manual labour.
needed).
• The surface is ready to be plastered or to receive a cover (type of
insulation or other covering).
• Reinforcing can be inserted during construction.
• To ensure effective reinforcing, high-pressure pumps and vibrators
can be used to force concrete into openings and passages.
• Materials are cost-effective.
• There is excellent structural integrity.
• Easy set-up procedures save time.
• No schooled labour is needed.
• There is improved sound and temperature insulation.
• They require minimal formwork.
• There are quality plastered soffits (no joints).
• The units greatly reduce the amount of concrete needed.

Method of installation
• Space the ribs approximately 600 mm apart.
• The spacing can be achieved by placing the precast hollow-core concrete blocks
between consecutive ribs.
• Ensure a minimum bearing of 35 mm of the sides on the load-bearing wall
(concrete beam).
• Ensure a minimum bearing of 90 mm at the rib ends on opposite walls.
• Place props under the ribs (1 500 mm apart) before the rest of the hollow-core
concrete blocks are placed between the ribs.
• Make provision for the prescribed beams and strengthening ribs.
• Plumbing and electrical installations can commence and safety mechanisms
can now be installed. Avoid installing these services on the ribs since this will
reduce the strength of the concrete slab.
• Service holes can now be made in the hollow-core blocks.
• Place the steel mat over the blocks and services.
• Remove any unnecessary material from the slab and wet the slab thoroughly.
• The final 50–80 mm screed coat can now be cast.
• The installations must be checked by an inspector or an engineer before the final
screed coat can be cast.

Precautionary measures before installation

• Make sure that provision has been made for the concrete beams, as prescribed in
the specifications.
• Ensure that at least 35 mm of the rib’s side rests on the load-bearing wall
(concrete beam) and that 90 mm at each rib end rests on opposite walls
• Do not place the plumbing or electrical installations or safety mechanisms on
the ribs.
• Service holes can be made in the hollow-core blocks.
• Place enough props under the ribs to carry the weight of the slab.
• The concrete slab must be poured as a continuous unit to ensure a sturdy
surface.
• The cast concrete must be mechanically vibrated to ensure that it fills the entire
space.

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Precautions following installation

• A minimum strength of 25 Mpa must be used.
• Allow 28 days for the setting of the concrete slab.
• The concrete has to be kept moist for seven days after casting.
• Temporary props can be removed after the concrete slab has reached a strength
of 17 Mpa.

Use of rib and block structures in the construction industry

Rib and block constructions are designed for use in residential, commercial and
industrial developments. This includes the following:
• Townhouses and flats
• Office blocks
• Schools
• Hostels and hotels
• Shopping centres
• Factories and warehouses.

Blocks

Ribs

Figure 7.20: Completed rib and block construction

Services provided by rib and block manufacturers

The manufacturers of rib and block products provide a variety of services to
contractors in order to facilitate this construction method. These services include
the following:
• Engineer-designed ribs and blocks
• Detailed instructions
• On-site assistance and consultation
• Construction contractors for installation
• Prompt and personal attention to any queries and orders
• Engineering certificates.

Figure 7.21: A completed rib and block construction prior to the casting of concrete

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Activity 2
1. Explain what you think “premix” (ready mix concrete) is.
2. Briefly describe the mixing method for premix concrete.
3. Name the advantages and disadvantages of ready concrete.
4. Define “concrete”.
5. Complete the following table by describing the purpose of each ingredient of
concrete.

Ingredient (concrete) Purpose

Riversand
Water
Crushed stones
Cement

6. Describe the properties of concrete.

7. Which factors should you consider when mixing concrete?
8. What is the difference between mass and reinforced concrete?
9. Which procedures have to be following when pouring concrete?
10. List the reasons why concrete has to be cured.
11. Which methods are used to cure concrete?
12. Which materials are used to cure concrete?
13. What is the purpose of the slump test?
14. Briefly describe the steps you would follow when performing the slump test.
15. Describe the results obtained when doing the slump test.
16. What is the purpose of the cube test?
17. Briefly describe the steps you would following when performing the cube
test.

Reinforcement
Introduction
Reinforcement plays an important role in the erection of structures for buildings. If
the reinforcement work is not done properly, the building may collapse. Structural
engineers provide the building contractor with the necessary plans to indicate
the reinforcement layout in order to ensure the erection of a safe structure. These
specifications must be met if accidents are to be avoided.

Function
The function of reinforcement is to increase the carrying capacity of concrete. The
compression strength of concrete is ten times stronger than its tensile strength,
while steel possesses stronger tensile strength than compression strength. By
combining these two materials in concrete, the compression and tensile strength of
reinforced concrete is increased.

The forces that act on structures:

Tensile force: A force that is inclined to stretch a beam

Tensile force

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• Compressive force: A force that is inclined to shorten a beam or column

Compressive force

• Shear force: A horizontal and vertical shear stress that acts at an angle and is
inclined to cause diagonal stress fractures.

Did you know?

The reason why
steel bars are ribbed
or twisted is to ensure
that concrete adheres to
them more firmly, thus The function of any type of foundation is to transfer the load of a structure to the
providing a sturdier underground. Mass concrete strip foundations are suitable for dwellings with a light
construction. load. However, it is uneconomical to use mass concrete foundations when buildings
carry bigger loads or when the load is concentrated on a number of points, as is the
case with framed structures.

The extra thickness and weight of mass concrete foundations overload the subsoil;
reinforced concrete foundations are not only more suitable but also easier to
construct. However, these foundations must be designed by a structural engineer,
who can determine where the tensile force will act on the structure and, thus, where
reinforcement is needed.

Rods are available in the following sizes in the market: 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and
40 mm thickness and come in lengths of up to 13 000 mm.

A designer worth his salt will limit the size of the rods that are to be used in order
to erect an economical structure as well as to facilitate the purchasing, storing and
processing of these rods.

Properties of reinforcement steel

There are strict regulations that determine the condition and placement of
reinforcing steel. Reinforcement steel bars must be:
• free of salt spray, mud, rust, splinters and any oiliness before they are placed in
position
• completely covered in concrete to protect them against rust and fire hazards
• resistant to tensile stress
• easy to bend into any shape
• able to bind firmly with the concrete in order to provide tensile stress – so the
surface of the rods must be correct
• limited expansion ability in order to prevent unnecessary tension when the
temperature fluctuates
• readily available and affordable
• rustproof – a wire brush or scrubber can be used to remove rust, which would
otherwise impair the binding.

The minimum amount of concrete that should cover the steel is also prescribed and
it must always have the same thickness as the bar that is being used; if groups of
bars are used, the cover must be as thick as the thickest bar.

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The types of steel used for reinforcement
There are two types of steel that are used for the reinforcement of concrete:
• Soft or mild steel
• High-tensile steel.

The surface of mild steel provides a sufficient bond (connection) while high-tensile
steel has transverse ribs that provide better bonding. In reinforcement terms, mild
steel bars are referred to as “R” and high-tensile steel bars as “Y”.

Steel reinforcement bars (rolled) with patterns ensure better ability to bind with the
concrete. Here are examples of the most common types of bars:

Did you know?

Twisted, ribbed bar Ribbed bar Steel bars are
ribbed or twisted to
ensure that concrete
adheres to them, thus
guaranteeing a firm,
sturdy construction.
Square, twisted bar Round bar

Figure 7.22: Manipulation of bar surfaces

Flexures and hooks

The ends of steel bars that are used in reinforcement are sometimes bent to form
flexures or hooks to facilitate fixing.

Figure 7.23: Flexures and hooks

Methods of joining steel bars

It is of the utmost importance that the regulations regarding the spacing of steel
bars are adhered to. The spacing is provided on the bar schedule. The sketches
below show three ways in which steel bars can be joined.

Crosswise method Hair knot method Crown method

Figure 7.24: Wire joints

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Spacers
The steel has to be kept in position away from the boxing to ensure that the required
concrete coverage is obtained during the pouring of the concrete. Spacers can be
used to keep the steel the correct distance away from bottom of the boxing. These
can be concrete blocks (separator blocks), steel stands or plastic spacers. Concrete
blocks are supplied with wire for attaching the reinforcement. Plastic spacers are
used to prevent the reinforcement touching the sides of the boxing.

Concrete blocks supplied with wire Steel stands Plastic spacers

Figure 7.25: An example of a plastic spacer

Placing of reinforcement in concrete

In order to place reinforcement correctly, it is necessary to understand the forces
that act on beams, floors and columns.

An engineer determines the reinforcement that will be used by preparing detailed

drawings that would provide the contractor with the necessary information to erect
the structure.

Detailed drawings should contain the following:

• Ample cross referencing to identify one element in relation to the entire
structure
• The necessary measurements for the design and construction of the boxing.
• Reinforcement detail
• Minimum coverage of concrete over the steel
• Concrete mixtures that will be required if this is not mentioned in the
specifications.

Reinforcement is indicated on drawings according to a code to make the reading of

the drawing and the preparation of the steel easier.

Example
9 R 16 01 200 can be interpreted as follows:
9 – amount of rods in the group
R – round soft steel rod
16 – diameter of the rod in mm
01 – rod number
200 – heart spacing

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Activity 3
An example of a typical design and drawing for a specific application is provided
below.

Study the diagram above and identify the codes for the following:
• Amount of rods in the group
• Round soft steel rod
• Diameter of the rod in mm
• Rod number
• Heart spacing

Reinforced concrete floors/slabs

Floors are treated like beams because they react in the same way. The designer or
architect must calculate the loads, bending moments, shear forces and reactions in
order to determine how much steel reinforcement is required for the construction
of the floor. One strip measuring a metre in breadth is usually indicated; this
is called a “mat” and is used most generally. For light loads, each mat is usually
welded.

There are three reinforced concrete floor types, namely:

• horizontal level top for floors and roofs
• beam and top floors
• rib floors and roofs.

The thicknesses that are usually specified for a concrete top or floor are:
• Mass concrete (no reinforcement) 100 – 150 mm
• Reinforced concrete floor 150 mm

Suitable concrete mixtures are as follows:

• Mass concrete 1:3:6
• Reinforced concrete floor 1:2:4

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Reinforced concrete beams

Shear force Compressive force

Division line

Tear line

Figure 7.26: The forces that act upon a beam

Three different types of beams are used in the building industry:

• Simply supported beams
• Continuously supported beams
• Cantilevers.

Simply supported beams are only supported at the ends by struts or props such as
concrete columns or brick walls. The support provided by a brick wall is illustrated
below.

Figure 7.27: Simply supported beam

Continuously supported beams are not only supported at the ends, but also between
these points of support. This may be achieved by using a cast beam, as indicated in
the illustration below.

Figure 7.28: Continuously supported beam

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A cantilever is only supported at one end by either brickwork or concrete columns.

Figure 7.29: Cantilever

Reinforced concrete beams

To prevent beams from caving in, steel reinforcement is inserted in specific areas.
The concrete is able to bear heavier loads when steel reinforcements are used. The
expansion of the reinforcing depends on the nature and position of the load.

Advantages of reinforcement:
• The size of the beam or column can be reduced.
• The beam can carry heavier loads.

Disadvantages of reinforcement:
• It is time-consuming.
• It is more expensive.

The reinforcement of a concrete beam consists chiefly of the following:

• Main bar – to counteract tensile forces
• Pressure bars (anchor bars) – to counteract compressive forces (A short beam,
measuring up to 6 m, does not need a pressure bar. However, a pressure bar will
strengthen of the beam.)
• Shear bars (crutch bars) – to counteract shear forces
• Stirrups – to join main bars and help to counteract shear forces

Tear bar: prevents concrete from tearing

Stirrups: support tear bars Pressure bars (anchor bar)

Prevent the tearing of Placed in compressive face for
concrete extra strength
Space main bars

Figure 7.30: Typically reinforced concrete beam

Concrete beams can differ in reinforcement and complexity, from simple beams
that are used over doors and windows to more complicated beams that carry the
load across columns.

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2/Ø9 Ø6
Ø 6 Stirrups
Stirrups

2 / Ø 20 Main bars Concrete cover = Ø of bar

minimum of 12 mm
4 m and shorter

Figure 7.31: Beam measuring four metres or less

Reinforced concrete beams must be designed correctly to ensure that they will be
strong enough to resist both pressure and tensile forces. Vertical braces are spaced
closer to one another at the ends of the beam closer to the slide line. Fewer braces
are used in the centre of the beam.
2/Ø9 Ø 6 Stirrups Ø 6 Stirrups

3 / Ø 20 Anchor bar Concrete cover = Ø of bar

minimum of 12 mm
4,5 m and longer

Figure 7.32: Beam that is longer than four metres

Anchor bar
Tear force bar
Method
of
fastening

Tear force
stirrups Stirrups Column bar
Concrete column
Concrete column

Main bar Stirrups

Figure 7.33: Concrete beam with ends resting on columns

Figure 7.34: Reinforcement bars in a simply supported beam

Figure 7.35: Reinforcement bars in a continuously supported beam

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Figure 7.36: Reinforcement bars in a cantilever

Reinforced concrete columns

A column is a vertical structure that transfers the floor and beam loads to the
foundations and it is always subjected to compression stress. The minimum number
of bars per column should not be fewer than four in square or rectangular columns,
or five in round columns. The total cross-sectional area of the bars must not be
more than 1% of the cross-sectional area of the column.

The bars must have a minimum diameter of 12 mm. To prevent the bending of the
main bars, which may cause a wave-breaking effect in the concrete, stirrups and ties
are used. The diameter of the stirrups/ties must be ¼ the diameter of the thickest bar.

The centre-to-centre spacing of the stirrups must not be more than 12 times the
diameter of the thickest bar. All bars that are subjected to compression stress must
be joined by ties so that they will be inclined to move inwards.

Forces that act on concrete columns

There are three forces that act on concrete columns:
• compression forces
• tensile forces
• lateral forces

These forces must be considered during the fixing of the steel bars in the concrete
columns.

Tensile and compression forces

These occur when the column bends as the result of an off-centre load. The
downward load is placed on only one side of the column, which causes the bending
of the column to the other side. This results in tensile and shear stress. Elongated,
thin columns bend more easily than short columns.
Eccentric load

Compressive force
Tensile force

Figure 7.37: Forces that act on a column

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Lateral forces
These are the result of downward loads that cause the column to become fatter and
shorter. Lateral movement causes a lateral force. These forces attempt to bend, move
or snap the concrete, or to cause a crack in the space between the reinforcements
and the sides of the concrete structure.

Lateral tension

Figure 7.38: Lateral forces in a column

Pouring of concrete
In order to ensure a safe, strong construction, the following questions must be asked
before concrete is poured into the formwork of a beam or column:
• Have the correct bars been used?
• Does the thickness of the bars meet the specifications?
• Are the bars fixed as prescribed?
• Have the correct spacers been used to ensure minimum concrete cover?
• Have you ensure that there are two stirrups to cover the tear line.
• Do the corners of the shear bar cover the tear line at a 45˚ angle.

Column with 4 main bars Column with 6 main bars

The stirrups must be tightened around the main bars. The stirrups are tightened in pairs.
The stirrups are placed around the centre bars.

Column with 8 main bars L-shaped column with 8 main bars

Two types of stirrups are used: Single stirrup joins all the bars.
Stirrups are tightened around the corner bars.
Stirrups are tightened around the centre bars.

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Round column
Helical stirrups are
used in round columns.

Figure 7.39: Stirrup arrangements in reinforced columns

Activity 4
1. Describe the requirements that must be met by reinforcing steel.
2. Name the two types of steel that can be used in reinforcement.
3. Explain the term “minimum concrete cover”.
4. Name the forces that act on a beam.
5. Name three different types of beams.
6. Make simple, freehand sketches to illustrate the following types of beams:
6.1 Simply supported beam
6.2 Continuously supported beam
6.3 Cantilever
7. The description below is found on the reinforcement schedule. Explain the
meaning briefly: 6 R 22 05 300
8. Spacers are used to ensure the minimum concrete cover. Name three types
of spacers.
9. Name three ways in which steel bars can be joined.
10. Make a simple sketch to illustrate the position of main bars in a square and
a round column.

Formwork and shuttering

Bricks are no longer the only material used for construction work in the building
industry. Modern architectural designs require formwork for concrete structures in
order to enhance the features of buildings.

Formwork enables a builder to incorporate elements which could previously not

be used, in the construction of contemporary buildings: organic shapes, domes,
intermediate or mezzanine floors, etc.The aesthetic features of modern buildings
are achieved as a result of formwork. The substructures and frames of modern
buildings are cast in massive concrete, with columns and beams to provide stability
and durability.

Formwork enables construction companies to substitute ordinary stonework with

concrete structures by providing temporary support for concrete work of any shape,
pattern or size. The mould or container into which the wet concrete is poured
and compacted is constructed to ensure that the concrete takes on the shape of the
required structure when it hardens or sets.

Materials to be used for shuttering

• Wood is still the best shuttering material.
• It can be in the shape of boards (planed or rough), depending on the final
surface finish required.

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• Softwood boards used for the sides of concrete beams or columns may be
reinforced with battens.
• Plywood is often used because it is available in large sheets and is strong. It
should be exterior grade and thick enough for the estimated load.
• Chipboard is also used, but more reinforcement is needed due to its lower
strength. Chipboard is also not as reusable as plywood, solid wood or steel.
• Steel shuttering is one of the best materials, but is often subject to patents. It has
a longer useful life than wood, but is not as versatile.
• Fibreglass and moulded plastic are also used to construct distinctive shapes.

Ideal shuttering should be:

• strong enough to bear the mass of the concrete (1m³ = 2 400 kg)
• able to bear the mass of people and equipment working on it
• able to be nailed together accurately according to the intended size and shape
• watertight so that mortar does not leak out and cause honeycombing or fins that
need fettling afterwards
• designed to be easily placed in position by hand or lifting equipment
• made of material that is easily nailed together or assembled
• designed to be easily erected and dismantled without replacing any parts
• strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete
• have joints that are thoroughly sealed
• made of timber that has been treated to prevent it from adhering to the
concrete.

Types of shuttering
Column shuttering
• Because column shuttering is vertical, it must bear considerable pressure during
the casting process.
• It is advisable for column shuttering to be located by means of a 75 mm “kicker”,
which is cast into or onto the floor.
• This will limit to a minimum mortar leaking from where the shuttering rests on
the floor.
• Horizontal and vertical battens can be used to reinforce the sides across the
whole length of the floor.
• It is common to cast columns up to the soffit height of concrete beam, which
means that the tops of columns and beams are cast as a unit.
• Column shuttering is held together by a yoke (a wooden or metal collar). Yokes
are usually custom-made for a particular column, while steel yokes, being
adjustable, can be used for various sizes of column.
• The spacing of the yokes up the column will be determined by the weight of the
wet concrete, with the greatest pressure being at the bottom of the column.

The pressure will vary according to:

• the speed at which the concrete is cast
• the amount of mixture used – the more mixture, the heavier
• the casting method – if vibrators are used the pressure may be 50% higher
than with hand casting
• air temperature – the lower the temperature, the slower the hydration process
and the longer the pressure is exerted.

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Rectangular columns
The shuttering consists of four sides as indicated in Figure 7.40. The four sides are
made up of vertical boards (25 mm or 38 mm thick) nailed to clamps (50 mm ×
76 mm). The cross clamps are spaced at 300 mm to 600 mm centres. The sides are
securely held by yokes (50 mm × 76 mm or 76 mm × 100 mm) with holes near the
ends, through which 16 mm diameter bolts threaded at both ends are passed and
bolted together. Wedges are driven between the bolts and clamps to hold the sides
securely together. The shuttering is removed by knocking out the wedges, from one
to four days after casting.

16 mm diameter bolt

Yoke 76 × 50 mm

Tongue and groove joint

planks 100 × 22 mm

Clamp 76 × 50 mm

Wedges

Figure 7.40: Shuttering for square/rectangular columns

Figure 7.41: Shuttering for Figure 7.42: Shuttering for rectangular columns
square columns

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16 mm diameter bolt

Yoke 76 × 50 mm

Clamp 50 × 22 mm

Clamp 76 × 50 mm

Wedges

Figure 7.43: Shuttering for octagonal columns

Figure 7.44 shows shuttering for a round column. The battens are attached in
bands, the width of which is determined by the circumference of the column. The
shuttering as well as the yoke is designed in two half-sections. Each half is sawn
from two pieces (50 mm thick) reinforced at the joints on both sides with 25 mm
clamps. The ends, where the two collars fit together, are drilled and bolted together
with 16 mm bolts. A smoother finish can be achieved by lining the inside of the
shuttering with hardboard.

Vertical clamps

Laggings
50 × 25 mm

Collar 38 mm

Bolt 16 mm

Figure 7.44: Shuttering for round concrete columns

Figure 7.44 shows shuttering designed in two halves for a round column.

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Thick clamps

Laggings
25 × 50 mm

Collar 50 mm

Bolt 16 mm

Figure 7.45: Shuttering for a round concrete column

Figure 7.46: Shuttering Figure 7.47: Round concrete columns on a construction site
for a round concrete
column

Stairs
Stairs are used to move people between floors/storeys or up and down changing
levels of a structure. A typical staircase comprises a number of steps/treads that are
cast as a unit or fastened to a frame. Safety aspects in this regard are of the utmost
importance and all the regulations stipulated by local authorities and/or SANS must
be observed when staircases are constructed or cast.

Material customarily used for the construction of stairs is:

• timber/wood
• steel
• concrete.

The formwork for a concrete staircase, as illustrated in Figure 7.48, is constructed as

follows:
• The measurements of the riser (stair rise) and run (going) must be calculated
accurately.
• The landing must be constructed first.
• The bearer beams are then placed in position, followed by the beams.

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• The soffit boards, with the bridgeboard, wall string and riser, are completed next.
• The riser boards are then nailed to the wall string using clamps.
• The bearer beams are supported by props that rest on the base plate.
• The base plate must always be supported against a sturdy construction or the
nearest wall to prevent it from slipping.
• The head of the strut is fixed to the bearer beam using a fishplate.

Clamp
Riser boards

Joist
Bearer
Soffit boards

Strings

Tread

Struts
Diagonal
Riser
bracing

Figure 7.48: Formwork of a staircase

1st floor
Precast concrete slab landing
Handrail
Finished floor level
Slab

Finished floor level

Figure 7.49: Sectional view of a concrete staircase

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Figure 7.50: Front view of formwork Figure 7.51: End-elevation of formwork

Regulations regarding stairs

• The headroom, measured from the flight line, must be at least 1,2 m at any point
on the staircase.
• The steps must be at least 750 mm wide.
• Each run must be at least 250 mm deep.
• The vertical distance between two consecutive landings must not exceed 3 m;
and there should not be more than 16 treads between landings.
• The risers must be at least 75 mm high and should never exceed 200 mm. Did you know?
• Stairs must have railings. A stairway that
• The height of the risers and the width of the runs must be uniform. has an open side(s) must
• The flight line (pitch) of public stairways must not exceed 38° and those in be provided with any
private use must not exceed 42°. one the following safety
• Stairways must have side rails (guard rails) to prevent users from falling off the features:
sides of the stairs. • a railing
• a banister
• a wall
Beam shuttering
• a balustrade.
• Beam shuttering consists of a three-sided box held in position by cross beams.
• These are also called head beams and are held against the bottom of the soffit by
supports.
• The soffit board must always be thicker than the sides because it supports
the full load until the concrete beam is strong enough to bear the load itself.
• The soffit boards are nailed to the inside of the side board so that the latter can
be removed first to speed up drying and can also be used again elsewhere.
• Beam shuttering helps to support floor shuttering, which also means the two
parts can be cast as a unit.

Three panels, the soffit and two sides, are illustrated in Figure 7.52.
• The boards (38 mm thick) are nailed to supports (50 mm × 76 mm) that are
spaced at 100 mm centres, which may differ depending on the thickness of the
material used.
• The props are usually spaced 1 000 mm apart, but the distance may vary
depending on the thickness of the soffits and the sides that are used.

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150 mm concrete
38 mm × 225 mm boards
38 mm × 114 mm beams
50 mm × 76 mm clamps

22 mm × 76 mm struts

50 mm × 76 mm fixing plate
50 mm × 76 mm head tree

22 mm × 76 mm struts

38 mm thick, soffit and sides

76 × 114 mm struts
against 1 000 mm centres

Folding wedge
76 × 228 mm sole plate

Figure 7.52: Shuttering for a concrete beam and concrete floor

Figure 7.52 shows the shuttering supported by a support with a double head bearer
and two bearers. The supports may even be spaced at two metres in this case. A
beam soffit must be erected with a positive arc of ±10 mm per 6 metre span to
allow for settling during the casting process. It may leave a slightly positive arc
after building is finished. Shuttering for beams must always be designed for the
sides to be removed without disturbing the soffit and the temporary function of the
supports.

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50 × 76 mm
head tree at
500 mm
centres

76 × 114 mm
bearers

76 × 114 mm
head tree

All shuttering out of 22 mm thick

tongue-and-groove boards

76 × 114 mm struts at
2 000 mm centres

Folding wedges
Sole plate

Figure 7.53: Shuttering for a concrete beam 300 mm × 450 mm with a 100 mm concrete
floor at both ends

Formwork oil
Concrete is prone to cling to formwork as it hardens or cures. There are products
on the market today that can prevent this adhesion of concrete. These are oils that
are applied to the interior surfaces of the formwork. They must not be used on or
near reinforcing steel sections, since this will weaken the bond between the steel
and concrete. Shuttering oils are available as oil or as an emulsion.

Defects in reinforced concrete

Various defects may occur during the pouring of the concrete into the formwork as
well as after the pouring has been completed:
• Blowholes – small holes that are caused by the air that is trapped between the
concrete and the formwork. They can affect the strength of the beam or column.
It can be prevented by compacting the concrete thoroughly, either manually or
by using a portable concrete vibrator, while it is poured.
• Uneven colour (discolouration) – caused when old boards and new boards are
used jointly to construct the formwork. The uneven absorption of water by the
old and new timber leads to the discolouration of the concrete.

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• Dismantling formwork too soon – Formwork must not be removed too soon,
since the concrete will dry too quickly and this will weaken its structure. A beam
or column can collapse if the formwork is removed too soon. Concrete only
reaches its full strength after 28 days. (Refer to Dismantling formwork that is
discussed later in this chapter.)

Activity 5
1. What is formwork?
2. Name three structural requirements that must be observed regarding
formwork.
3. Which materials are suitable to be used as formwork?
4. Name the defects that may be found in formwork.
5. Use sketches to illustrate square, rectangular and round formwork.
6. Briefly discuss the regulations that must be observed during the construction
of stairs.

Removing shuttering
Shuttering must be removed with great care and attention. The decision to remove
shuttering rests with the architect and engineer and is done in conjunction with the
builder. It is important to consider the setting qualities of concrete, temperature
during pouring and also the nature and purpose of the sections. The following
factors must be considered:
• The type of formwork used (pillar, beam or concrete slab; horizontal or vertical)
• The average temperature while the concrete is poured and after it has been
poured
• The setting properties of the concrete
• The nature and function of the various components.

The following time schedule can safely be accepted:

• Concrete floors – soffit boards used for floors spanning 3 m can be removed
after seven days; decking must be kept in place for two weeks should the span
exceed 3 m.
• Concrete beams – sides can be removed after three days; the soffit and props
must remain for three weeks.
• Concrete column – sides can be removed after three days (even earlier) if the
column is not subjected to horizontal or vertical pressure.

Struts and props

Struts and props offer the most economical and safe support for formwork, floor
slabs, beams, walls and pillars. They are also useful when building repair work is
being done.

Using vertically adjustable steel struts or props eliminates the expensive, time-
consuming labour associated with wooden structures (such as sawing, assembling
and inserting wedges) and a wide variety of struts, with different heads, is available.

Supports
These support the shuttering for beams and floors. Supports must be spaced closely
enough to avoid distortion and sagging. The material used for supports must be
carefully selected so that it does not fracture under the load and tension applied to
it.

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Figure 7.54: Supports

Concrete

Soffit board
Bearer
Clamp

Pole

Strut

Wedges
Base plate

Figure 7.55: Sectional view of formwork for floors

Types of struts
Clevis-ended-head
• They are used to keep bearer beams in position.
• They prevent the sides of formwork from slanting.

Figure 7.56: Clevis-ended-head strut

Flat-head struts
• Flat-head struts are used to provide temporary
support together with bearer beams under concrete
slabs.
• They may also be used with other types of struts.

Figure 7.57: Adjustment device of a flat-head strut

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Adjustable push-pull steel props

• They are used to keep formwork level.
• The bottom base plate is anchored to the ground.
• The top is attached to the formwork.

Multi-prop
• The multi-prop is made of an aluminium alloy and can be used individually or
with scaffolding to support various types of formwork.
• The multi-prop is light and can be erected by one person.
• Fewer multi-props are needed for formwork, which cuts the costs of decking.
• Multi-prop post shores have a built-in tape measure, which facilitates
adjustments beforehand and a self-cleaning, free-running nut thread on the strut
for easy adjustment.

Figure 7.58: Built-in tape measure and free-running nut

• Because of its self-cleaning thread, the adjusting nut always runs free, even if the
prop itself is dirty or covered in concrete.

Figure 7.59: Self-cleaning thread

• Every multi-prop can be adjusted continuously without first having to place a

pin in position, even if it is carrying weight.
• The multi-prop has a safety-stop mechanism that prevents the inner pipe from
slipping out during handling or when unscrewed accidentally.
• A universal tripod is used as an erecting aid.
• Different types of head can be used with the multi-prop.

Multi-prop accessories
Chuck
• Used to support bearer beams without nails
• Has a self-locking connection

Transverse head
• Also has a self-locking device
• Keeps structures, especially beams, in position
• Prevents sides of beam formwork from bulging

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Prop head
• The head is equipped with a self-locking device.
• It provides support for panels, bearer beams and timber.

Figure 7.60: Multi-prop with self-locking bearers with collapsible head

• The collapsible head is hit with a hammer to release it, which will cause the
entire formwork structure to drop 60 mm.
• The collapsible head enables construction workers to dismantle formwork after
just one or two days.
• It makes it possible for the contractor to stock less formwork equipment on site.
• Bearer beams and panels are now ready for the next formwork job.
• Shorter periods of use make formwork panels easier to clean since the concrete
can be removed easily.
• The collapsible head is adaptable and can be installed in inclement weather or
poor light.
• Panels and girders can be removed quickly and easily while the collapsible-head
props continue supporting the shuttering panels.

Figure 7.61: Multi-props with collapsible heads that remained after formwork sheets
had been removed

Main and secondary bearer beams

• Bearer beams are used with collapsible-head props.
• They fit onto prop heads and serve as supports for decking.
• Formwork construction has a high accident rate since bearer beams break due to
damage or aging.
• Modern bearer beams are supplied with a safety date, manufacturing date,
uniformity and length details.

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Requirements for erecting and dismantling formwork

The distance between the props and the number of props required, is usually
specified by the structural engineer according to the type of formwork that will
be erected. The period of waiting between the pouring of the concrete and the
removal of the formwork must be determined by a qualified person – the architect
or engineer in conjunction with the builder.

Activity 6
1. Name four different types of modern props and provide the uses of each type.
2. The multi-prop can be fitted with different types of heads. Name and discuss
the various types.
3. The dismantling of formwork under concrete floors depends on certain
conditions. Name them.
4. Discuss the uses of a bearer beam, as well as the safety measures involved.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary platform or gantry that is erected to reach those parts
of a building that cannot be reached from ground level. These gantries support
material, tools and workers during construction work, maintenance work and when
demolition takes place. Scaffolding is made of steel alloy pipes that are fitted or
jambed together.

Requirements for scaffolding

• Scaffolding must be safe for workers working on it as well as for people who pass
underneath or work in close proximity to them.
• There must enough space for materials, tools and the workers, who must be able
to move safely.
• It must be strong enough to carry the weight of the workers, materials and tools.
• Workers must be able to move freely in order to do the work comfortably.

The strength and condition of the pipes are mainly responsible for the stability and
sturdiness of the scaffolding. Consequently, the pipes have to be inspected regularly
in order to identify any defect, for example:
• The pipe must be straight along its entire length.
• The ends must always be clean and square, otherwise the pipes may crack when
they are used as stands.
• Make sure that the pipes remain free of rust, weak spots, tears, dents and other
defects.
• Ensure that the pipes are covered with protective coating.

Types of scaffolding
Trestle scaffold
This scaffolding comprises light, movable trestles on which
scaffold boards are placed. The legs of the trestles can fold
in and runners can slide in and out, which makes handling
easier. Use three trestles under one length of scaffold board.
Trestles can be used effectively in small spaces and can be
erected easily. They are limited to heights below two metres
and do not need safety railings.

Figure 7.62: Working platform and trestles

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Tower-type scaffolds
These scaffolds consist of frames (modules or sections) that can be assembled and
dismantled quickly. Different types and sizes are available, but each module is 2 m
high.

Tower frames are manufactured from lightweight steel pipes that are self-locking to
ensure a firm structure. The modular components can be connected to reach the
required height and width and comprise:
• self-locking frames, diagonal bracing and steel scaffold boards
• pipe couplers that are used to connect the pipes in order to reach the required
height.

Portable platform
This is a scaffold that comprises various fixed
sections of 900 mm. These sections fit into each
other and can be assembled to reach the
required height. A protective railing is required
along the top of the platform to prevent
workers from falling. Wheels or gussets
(foot plates) can be attached to the bottom
of the corner pipes. The terrain
will determine which of these will be used.

Figure 7.63: Tower-type scaffolding

Lightweight platforms
Lightweight platforms are used in places where ordinary
scaffolding and platforms cannot be used due to the limited
space available. The lightweight platform is assembled
beforehand and is simply unfolded at the site, immediately
ready to be hoisted up for use. These scaffolds are fixed to
the building for safety, using a clamp (anchor stay).

Figure 7.64: Lightweight platform

Pipe scaffold
Pipes of various lengths and accessories are assembled to form a pipe scaffold. The
pipes are clamped together to reach any height and width that is needed for the
specific job.

Platforms are then placed two metres apart as the height of the building
increases, to allow a workspace that is comfortable and safe for the workers.
Workers must feel safe at all times in order to do their jobs properly. Two types of
pipe scaffolds are used in the building industry:
• Separate scaffolds
• Short-railing scaffolds.

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Guard rail

Close-boarded
platform
Kickboard

Diagonal brace

Vertical standards

Horizontal transoms
Sole plate

Base plate

Figure 7.65: Scaffolding with short guardrails

Scaffolding accessories
Scaffolding accessories are made of steel, aluminium alloys and timber. The
following components are used:
• Pipe connectors
• Rectangular clamps
• Rotating joints
• Base plate
• Scaffold pipes
• U-plate (head)
• Wooden beams
• Ties.

Pipe connector
It is used to connect vertical stands (scaffold pipes) with one another.

Figure 7.66: Pipe connector

Rectangular clamps
They are used to connect vertical and horizontal scaffold pipes.

Figure 7.67: Rectangular clamps

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Rotating joints
They connect scaffold pipes at various angles.

Figure 7.68: Rotating joints

Base plate
It is used under the stands to prevent the scaffold pipes from
sinking into the ground.
Figure 7.69: Base plate

Scaffold pipes
These are the steel pipes that are used for scaffolding.

Figure 7.70: Scaffold pipes

U-plate (head)
A beam is placed into this angled plate for stability (must be
able to carry maximum weight).

Figure 7.71: U-plate

Base wheels
They are placed under the scaffold pipes to facilitate easy movement
of the scaffold tower.

Figure 7.72: Base wheels

Scaffold boards
• Scaffold boards can be made of steel or SA Pine.
• Timber scaffold boards must meet the SANS requirements.
• The measurements of a timber scaffold board is 228 × 83 mm and it may not
exceed 4,8 m in length.
• The ends must be be reinforced with a 25 mm hoop iron strap that is placed
150 mm from each end.
• They must be able to carry a load of 6,5 kN.
• They must rest on three supports and not protrude more than 230 mm over the
end piece.
• They must be secured firmly so that they do not move about.

Safety measures
• Under no circumstances must the scaffold be moved or adjusted while workers
are using it, or without permission from the responsible individual.
• The parts of the framework must be made of the same material.
• Never use unsafe supports such as drums, loose bricks or crates.
• Remove protruding corners and sharp objects.
• Always affix separately standing scaffolds to the buildings.
• When working on swing and roof scaffolds, workers have to wear safety belts.
• Make sure that the work surface is safe.
• No workers may be allowed on scaffolding during bad weather.
• Do not allow more than two workers on swing scaffolds.
• Always ensure that material and equipment are hoisted safely.
• Never overload scaffolds.
• Always wear protective gear – goggles, boots, gloves and belts.
• Remove rubbish and unnecessary tools from the scaffold.

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Activity 7
1. What is chiefly responsible for the strength and stability of a scaffold?
2. Name and describe three types of scaffolding.
3. Name three requirements that a scaffold must meet.
4. What is the function of each of the following scaffolding accessories?
4.1 Pipe connector
4.2 Rectangular clamps
4.3 Rotating joint
4.4 Base plate
4.5 Base wheel
4.6 Scaffold pipes
4.7 U-plate head
5. Which safety measures must be considered when workers are using a
scaffold?

Drywall
Drywall construction
Drywalls (the installation is referred to as drywalling) are the lightweight partitions
used to create subdivisions in a building. These dividers are called ‘drywalls’ since
no wet cement or mortar are used in the construction or installation process, i.e. the
walls do not need time to dry. They are basically immediately ready for use. These
walls are used globally for the installation of internal walls and ceilings and they
usually consist of any of the following types of covering materials:
• Gypsum board
• Decorative plywood
• Decorative hardboard
• Chipboard
• Supawood
• Fibro (fibrous asbestos cement board).

The advantages and disadvantages of drywalls

Advantages Disadvantages
• Drywalling prevents delays during construction since the internal walls do not have to dry • They are less soundproof than
before the work can continue. brickwork.
• Wallboards are manufactured with either a finished or an unfinished surface. • They are less fire-resistant than
• Boards that have finished surfaces are covered with vinyl or other material. brickwork.
• They are available in a vast variety of colours and textures and thus do not require • Drywalls must be joined
painting. together or attached to existing
• Because the drywalls are attached to the building using a framework, the wood/boards that walls to ensure sturdiness.
are used must be straight in order to ensure a neat, flush wall. • Drywalls cannot carry heavy
• The wood/boards must be dry to prevent it/them from warping and to prevent the nails loads.
from falling out.
• The installation is a dry process.
• Drywalls are adaptable and can thus be installed in awkward or hard-to-reach places.
• The material is easy to handle and also requires less storage space than bricks.
• Drywalls are not as heavy as brick walls.
• Drywalls are cheaper to install.

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Drywall products and their applications

Product Application
Edging strips Pre-glued 0,6 mm galvanised edging strips used to protect the outside
edges of dry walls
Drywall screwdriver bit for A special device fitted to an electric drill to drive drywall screws into
electric drill steel or wood (not recommended for series production)
Screwdriver bits Used in electric screwdrivers to drive in drywall screws
Drywall door frames Steel doorframes (900 mm aperture) with tags for attaching to floor
studs
Sealing layer Used for sealing drywall board in bathrooms and kitchens before tiling
Adhesive fibreglass mesh Used for filling drywall joints, wall repairs and as a substitute for wire
mesh on plastered walls
Joint filler Used for filling gypsum board when finishing joints by hand
Drywall screws 25 mm “Streaker” screws – for attaching 12,5 mm gypsum board to
channel strips
32 mm “‘Grabber” screws – for attaching board to wood
41 mm “Streaker” screw – for attaching double 12,5 mm gypsum
board to channel strips
Partition standards 0,5 mm galvanised steel channels used as vertical elements in drywall
structures
Channel strips 0,5 mm galvanised steel channels used as floor and ceiling channels to
which partition standards are attached

Gypsum board
This building material is made mainly from gypsum and consists of a gypsum core
sandwiched between firm cardboard covers. It is used for drywalls and non-load
bearing interior partition walls in office buildings that can be easily dismantled or
moved.

Figure 7.73: A stack of gypsum boards

These large, stiff boards are attached directly to the framework that is attached to
the building using nails, screws or fittings. They may also be attached to wooden
framing battens attached to partitions, joists, purlins or walls.

The following special equipment is needed in drywall construction:

• A drywall hammer
• A jointing tool (similar to a gauging trowel, but more flexible and slightly
concave) is used to apply smooth jointing compound to the joints to make them
invisible after painting. Nail heads are also countersunk slightly and hidden by
the same method.

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Installing wallboard
• Wallboard can be installed vertically or horizontally.
• Cut the board to size with a carpet cutter. First, cut the face, snap the board and
cut through the back.
• The board must be 10 cm above floor level.
• Whichever way the board is installed, horizontally or vertically, the edges of
alternate layers must not overlap.
• See that vertical joints do not create straight lines parallel to doorframes and
openings. Boards must meet at the centre above doors and openings.
• Where two superimposed layers are used, both must be installed vertically and
their joints may not coincide.
• Wallboard is attached by screws at 220 mm centres using a drywall screwdriver.
A drywall screw attachment is also available.
• Insert the screw until it’s head is just below the board surface, not deep enough
to tear the paper.
• Unless required, do not attach wallboard to floor or ceiling channel sections.
• Apply edging strip – coat inside with jointing compound and press firmly into
position. Clean off and finish.

Centre line

Drywall screw

Drywall screw
Drywall screw

Drywall partition
standard

Figure 7.74: Attach partition standards at corner Figure 7.75: Attach partition standards at T-junction
of drywall

Checklist
• Board is correctly attached to partition standards.
• No screws are standing out.
• Screws are 9 mm from the edges.
• Door frames and openings are still plumb and in line.
• Wallboard surface is not damaged, all joints fit closely and they are staggered.

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Steel frames
• Work according to plan, but leave an opening in the bottom channel strips for
doorframes. Attach drywall channel strips firmly to the floor and ceiling with
attachment points at 600 mm centres.
• The drywall standards are inserted into the floor and ceiling channels with a
twisting action. There must be a 100 mm gap between the top of the standard
and the ceiling channel strip. Partition standards are spaced at 400–600 mm
centres.

Steel rail

Insert standard with twisting action

Sole plate

Boards

Filler piece

Figure 7.76: Steel frames for drywall construction

Ceiling batten
Drywall screw Ceiling board
Steel ceiling rail Crown moulding/cornice

Gypsum board

Steel prop

Skirting board
aluminium /wood
Steel floor rail
Hilty Screed
Concrete floor

Figure 7.77: Sectional view of a drywall with a steel frame construction

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Drywall screw
Ceiling batten
Ceiling board
Steel ceiling rail Crown moulding/cornice

Gypsum board

Steel prop

Skirting board
aluminium/wood
Steel floor rail
Screed
Hilty
Concrete floor

Figure 7.78: Sectional view of a drywall with a steel frame construction (alternative
method)

Hand finishing method

• Check board surface; all faults and joints bigger than 5 mm must be filled first.
• Apply adhesive tape across centre of the joint.
• Apply first layer of jointing compound with a 125 mm spatula. Clean the edges.
• Apply second layer of jointing compound with 300 mm trowel. Clean edges and
let dry.
• Adhesive tape is also applied in the usual fashion. When dry, apply the second
layer of jointing compound to either side of the tape with a 300 mm trowel.
When dry, apply the third layer of jointing compound over the centre of the joint
and let dry.
• Apply adhesive tape evenly to the inside corner, leaving equal widths on either
side and let dry.
• Apply a layer of jointing compound to one side with a spatula. Let the first side
dry before starting on the other.
• Outside edge – apply a layer of jointing compound to both sides of the corner
standard with a 125 mm spatula. Let dry and apply a second and third layer of
compound on either side with a 250 mm trowel.
• Use a 125 mm spatula to fill screw head holes. Apply a bit of compound in one
direction, then smooth off in an opposite direction. Apply another layer in the
same way. Remember to let dry after each application.
• Where the dry wall meets a brick wall in line, a control joint must be inserted.
There must also be joints to control expansion in long dry walls. Walls above
10 m must have an expansion joint every 5 m. A full-length door can act as a
joint. Leave a 1 cm opening between the wallboard/gypsum board and the brick
wall. Apply jointing compound to joint and push the control joint firmly into
position. Fill the joint in the usual fashion.

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• When all layers have dried, sand lightly with fine sandpaper (100 grit). Do not
sand too deeply.

Jointing compound

52 mm

Adhesive
tape

2nd layer

Final layer

Figure 7.79: Hand finishing method

Precautions
• Remember to remove all excess compound after each application and sure that
the material is smoothed off.
• Remove all powder/dust from the surface with a damp cloth before starting to
decorate.

Decorating
• Primer coat – good quality acrylic PVA must be applied to the whole surface of
the board.
• Do not use oil- or solvent-based primer.
• Topcoat – any quality paint.

Checklist
Check that:
• the jointing compound has dried properly after each application before applying
the next layer
• all screws and metal fittings are covered
• joints are neatly finished and dry
• the surface is free from uneven or unfinished spots.

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When the surfaces are joined (broadened), the seams have to be patched to
provide a neat finish. A joint compound “mud” is applied in and along the length
of the seams. Gauze drywall tape is placed along the length of the seam, using a
second coat of joint compound as bonding material. A sealing coat/block coat of
joint compound is applied over the seam and left to cure. A thin layer of plaster
(skimming coat) is applied to the board and, when it has dried, sanded to provide
an even, smooth surface.

Tape coat
Using a 150 mm putty knife,
spread a 100 mm wide layer of
joint compound along the seam

Drywall tape Block coat

Apply drywall tape Apply a second layer of
along the joints compound on top of the
tape

Skim coat Sanding

Use a 300 mm putty Wait 24 hours and use
knife to apply a 120-grit sandpaper to
thin and smooth ensure a smooth finish
final layer of joint
compound

Figure 7.80: Drywall – finish

Laminated
veneer panel
Master plate

Recessed joint
Bolt
casing

Cover strip

Figure 7.81: Alternative method of joining Figure 7.82: Cover strip

struts/railings to main plate and base plates

Bolt casing

Bolt casing
Board

Rebate
Base plate

Epistyle Skirting board

Figure 7.83: Door frame

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 Construction 7
Ceiling batten
Ceiling board
Main board Crown moulding/
cornice

Gypsum board

Prop/Railing

Base board
Skirting board
Screed
Concrete floor

Figure 7.84: Section of a drywall with a wooden frame

Main board Ceiling batten

Ceiling board
Crown moulding/
cornice

Gypsum board

Prop/Railing

Base board Skirting board

Screed
Concrete floor

Figure 7.85: Section of a drywall with a wooden frame (alternative method)

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Drywalling in moist areas

When installing a shower set against drywalls:
• Use a prefabricated shower unit.
• Refrain from using joints/seams in the shower cubicle.
• Use full-sized, waterproof boards.
• Use glazed tiles in the shower cubicle.
• If tiles are not the preferred finish, use waterproof paint.
• Use rivets to fix the shower unit to the steel props.
• The shower cubicle must be supported by a mixture of dry cement and river
sand.
• Seal the joint between the shower cubicle and the tiles with a layer of silicon
sealant.
Drywall screw
Ceiling batten
Ceiling board
Steel ceiling rail
Cornice

Crown moulding/
cornice

Gypsum board
Tile
Steel prop
Silicon sealant
Rivet
Shower cubicle
Cement and sand filling
Skirting board –
Shower trap aluminium/wood
Base board
Screed
Hilty
Concrete floor

Figure 7.86: Installation of a shower set against drywalls

Mounting a hand basin onto a drywall

• The gypsum board must first be tiled.
• The hand basin can then be mounted against the gypsum board by placing a
wooden brace behind the board to ensure a rigid fixing.
• The hand basin can also be placed on a pedestal.
• Seal the gap between the basin and the tiles with silicon.
• Waterproof boards must always be used when a hand basin is installed.

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Drywall screw
Ceiling batten
Ceiling board
Steel ceiling rail Cornice

Crown moulding/cornice

Gypsum board
Silicon sealant Steel prop
Tile
Bolt and nut
Hand basin Rivet
Bath trap Wooden brace

Skirting board –
aluminium/wood
Base board
Screed
Hilty
Concrete floor

Figure 7.87: Installation of a hand basin against drywalls

Activity 8
1. Name the materials used in drywall construction.
2. Name the advantages and disadvantages of drywall constructions.
3. Briefly describe the drywall installation method.

Brickwork
In this chapter, the various types of general bricklaying methods used in the
building industry will be studied. The focus will be on how bricks are laid at
junctions and in corners, how beam filling is completed and on the construction of
cavity walls, including the advantages and disadvantages of these walls.

In conclusion, various types of brick arches will also be studied: the advantages
and disadvantages that are associated with each type and how each type of arch is
supported during construction.

T-junctions in half-brick, stretcher bond walls

Two types of courses are alternated to form a T-junction between two single-brick
walls:

Figure 7.88: Consecutive courses for a T-junction in half-brick stretcher bond

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Figure 7.89: Consecutive courses for corners in one-brick stretcher bond

Figure 7.90: Consecutive courses for corners in half-brick stretcher bond

Figure 7.91: Consecutive courses for corners in one brick English bond

Figure 7.92: Corner junction in English bond

Queen closer

Figure 7.93: Front elevation of a corner junction in English bond

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Layer 1 Layer 2

Figure 7.94: Consecutive courses of a corner junction in English bond

Figure 7.95: T-junction in English bond

Layer 1 Layer 2

Figure 7.96: Consecutive courses of a T-junction in English bond

Activity 9
Draw basic diagrams to illustrate the sequential plan levels for the following
walls:
1. T-joints for half-brick walls in stretcher bonds
2. T-joints for one-brick walls in stretcher bonds
3. Corner joints for half-brick walls in stretcher bonds
4. Corner joints for one-brick walls in stretcher bonds
5. Corner joint in English bond
6. T-joint in English bond

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Beam filling
Beam filling refers to brickwork that is used on the exterior half of the external wall
of a building when the final height has been reached. This brickwork is laid between
the lower sides of the roof trusses up to the roof covering.
• Beam filling refers to the brickwork between the rafters and roof trusses.
• The construction follows after the roof trusses have been placed in position.
• The brickwork is the same height as the roof batten.
• It is usually a half-brick wall (110 mm).
• The height of the beam filling is indicated by the number of layers – two, three,
etc. – or by the height: 75 mm, 150 mm and 225 mm.
Ridge plate

Roof rafter Galvanised zinc sheet

(114 × 38)
Purlins
Principal/king post (76 × 50)
(114 × 38)
Wall plate
Beam filling

Facia board Square gutter

(228 × 28) (100 × 100)
75 mm crown moulding Ceiling battens
(38 × 38)

Downpipe (75 × 75)

Downpipe 100 mm concrete floor VVV

NGL NGL
Undisturbed soil
Hardcore Wearing course
600 × 250 Section BB 600 × 250
(1 : 3 : 6) Scale 1:50 (1 : 3 : 6)
Ridge plate

Galvanised zinc sheets

Purlins (76 × 50)

Beam filling
Square gutter (100 × 100)
75 mm crown moulding Ceiling batten
(38 × 38)

Downpipe (75 × 75)

Section BB
Scale 1:50 75 mm Concrete floor VVV

DPC

Undisturbed soil
Hard-core filling
Wearing course 600 × 250
(1 : 3 : 6)

Figure 7.97: Sectional views of a house to indicate beam filling

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Purpose of beam filling
The purpose of beam filling is to fill the spaces between the roofing rafters/principal
rafters from the wall plate up to the roof covering with brickwork. This is done for
the following reasons:
• To keep out birds and insects
• To prevent wind from blowing in under the roof
• To prevent birds from nesting/perching in the roof
• To improve the stability of the roofing rafters

Advantages Disadvantages
• Prevents wind from penetrating the building. • The construction
• Provides good insulation. is time-consuming
• Keeps warmth or coolness inside the building. work. It is an
• Prevents perching and breeding spots for birds should building have uncomfortable
open eaves. area in which to
• Prevents insects from entering the roof area and attacking the roof truss work.
timber.
• Prevents dust from entering the building.

Roof batten

Roofing rafter

Beam filling Tie beam

Wall plate Ceiling batten

Ceiling cornice

Fascia board

Gutter Plaster

Figure 7.98: Detailed illustration of beam filling

Beam filling

Figure 7.99: Beam filling as viewed from the inside

Activity 10
1. What is meant by beam filling?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of beam filling?

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Cavity walls
A cavity wall consists of two separate brick walls (slabs) that are built next to each
other, with a 50 mm space (cavity) between them and connected by wall ties.

The purpose of a cavity wall

Because solid walls are not entirely capable of preventing the penetration of water,
cavity walls are used since they have better waterproofing properties.
Cavity walls help to protect a house against moisture, extreme temperatures and
noise; and it is cheaper to construct than a solid, double wall.

Advantages of cavity walls

Cavity walls:
• prevent rainwater from penetrating the interior wall surface
• provide good heat, cold and sound insulation
• facilitate the use of cheaper materials for the internal walls
• prevent expensive exterior finishes (plastering).

Disadvantages of cavity walls

Cavity walls:
• require expert designs/higher design standards
• require highly skilled workmanship
• need constant supervision during construction
• are fitted with vertical damp-proof coursing in the cavities
• are more expensive than solid wall constructions
• cause the loss of 50–100 mm internal floor space.

Construction
The following construction regulations must be met when cavity walls are built:
• The space between the two walls must be 50 mm wide and may never exceed
100 mm.
• The individual walls must be 110 mm thick.
• The walls must be built in a firm bond and the layers must be bound using
mortar.
• The walls must be connected using wall ties that are set 900 mm horizontally and
450 mm vertically apart, as closely as possible to any opening. Wall ties must also
be placed at 300 mm intervals along the junctions and openings of the wall.
• Except for the wall ties, any contact between the two walls must be avoided.
• Weep holes must be inserted under the horizontal damp-proof coursing as well
as above the damp-proof coursing over the opening.
• Wall ties must be rust-free and must prevent the penetration of rainwater.
• When wall ties are used on inner and outer walls that have uneven joints
(mortar joints), they may cause rainwater to run down to the inner wall.
• The cavity between the walls must be kept clear of mortar when bricks are laid.
Mortar must be removed from the wall ties, since it may cause seepage of water
to the internal wall (capillary action).
• In parapet walls, the cavity must be maintained right up to the coping.
• Cavity walls must be restricted to a length of 8 m and height of 3 m. This has to
be considered in the design.
• Restrict gables to a height of 5 m.
• During construction, provision must be made for inspection holes to allow the
removal of wasted mortar. These holes have to be sealed when the construction
is complete.

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• Openings that are connected by brick bonds do not require wall ties.
• Any bridging of the cavity, excluding the wall ties, must be provided with damp-
proof coursing.
• No wall ties may be placed on the damp-proof coursing.
• Damp-proof coursing must be laid 150 mm above ground level.
• Use lateral supports along long cavity walls during construction.
• Ventilating bricks must be placed at the bottom in the external walls in very wet
regions.
• In ordinary weather conditions, a butt joint must be inserted at 1 m intervals.

Plaster inside
Facebrick outer wall 75 mm Meranti skirting
Weep holes every 15 mm quarter round
30 mm screed
5th butt joint
100 mm concrete slab
50 mm sand bed
250 mm hardcore
filling
Minimum 200 mm
Damp-proof coursing
Grout: cement and sand
Strip foundation

230 × 740 mm mass concrete foundation

Figure 7.100: Construction of a cavity wall

Front elevation Left elevation

Figure 7.101: The front and left elevation of a cavity wall

Layer 1 Layer 2

Figure 7.102: Consecutive courses of a dead-end in a cavity wall

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Butterfly pattern Nylon wall tie

Twisted pattern Double triangular pattern

Figure 7.103: Different types of wall ties

Figure 7.104: Placing of wall ties in a cavity wall

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Rafter

Tie beam
Beam filling
Wall plate
One or two header courses (seal
hole and spread evenly)

Wall tie

Plaster

Weep hole Damp-proof coursing (DPC)

Wooden window frame

Outer reveal Inner reveal

Bottom rail of window

Threshold
Windowsill Damp-proof coursing (DPC)

Cover over opening

Wall tie

Damp-proof coursing (DPC)

Screed
Weep hole
Concrete slab
Min 150 mm

Sand
Earth filling
Hardcore filling
NGV
Undisturbed
earth

Strip foundation
630 × 220 mm

Figure 7.105: Sectional view of a cavity wall

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Activity 11
1. Briefly describe the purpose of a cavity wall.
2. Name THREE advantages and THREE disadvantages of a cavity wall.
3. In your own words, briefly explain the regulations that must be considered
when constructing a cavity wall.
4. Name FOUR types of wall ties that are used in cavity walls.

Arches
Arches as a form of construction have been used by mankind for centuries. Not
only are arches sturdy constructions, they also serve to visually enhance the
appearance of buildings. Arches vary from country to country and, as a result,
certain styles have come to be associated with specific countries.

Function of arches
An arch is a curved construction for spanning an opening and it consists of a
number of wedge-shaped units (bricks, stones) that are joined using mortar. It
carries the mass by transferring the downward forces on the keystone to the
adjacent arch stones (voussoirs) in the form of lateral stress and eventually to the
arch closer and wange.

An arch is the strongest structure that can be used to span an opening. It is not
necessarily rounded – it can also be flat. Arches do not only serve to carry the
weight of the constructions above them; they also enhance the appearance of
the walls. An arch can be arched, round or flat (straight). Arches are classified
according to their shapes and finish.

Arch shapes
The three basic shapes are:
• Semi-circular arch
• Segmental arch
• Flat arch

Finish
Arches can be subdivided further according to the types of finish, namely:
• Rough arches – bricks are placed in wedge-shaped mortar joints and plastered.
• Gauged arches – special, wedge-shaped bricks with uniform mortar joints are
laid and not plastered. (Gauged arches are chiefly used for face brick structures.)

Figure 7.106: A rough,

double ring semi-circular
arch

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Construction
As soon as the walls reach the height of the arch, a turning piece/profile has to be
constructed. Construction of the arch begins with a brick course that is laid on edge across
the turning piece. The rest of the construction then proceeds according to the plan.

Turning piece/profile
This consists of a timber construction that serves as temporary strut/support. It can
be used repeatedly or once-off. The turning piece supports the wet masonry until the
arch has set or can support itself. The arch is finally able to carry the load on top of it.

75 × 38 mm

Principal post 75 × 38 mm
Strut 75 × 38 mm
Segments 75 × 38 mm

75 × 38 mm Hardboard

Centering pieces (boarding) 75 × 25 mm

50 × 38 mm

75 × 38 mm 75 × 38 mm Carrier 75 mm × 38 mm

Folding wedges

Strut 4 × 75 mm of 075

Figure 7.107: Construction of a timber turning point for a half-round gauged arch

Figure 7.108: Turning point and construction of a segmented gauged arch

Exposition of arches:
• Complete/round arch: the radius is equal to half the span.
• Segmental arch: Step 1 – Choose an appropriate scale.
Step 2 – Draw a horizontal line according to scale and
determine the centre point.
Step 3 – Draw a vertical (perpendicular) line on the centre
point of the span.

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Step 4 – Join the centre point of the span and the height
(diagonally).
Step 5 – Halve the diagonal line and draw a perpendicular
line towards the vertical line. The point of
intersection of the perpendicular line and the
diametral line indicates the original radius.

• Flat arch: A flat arch may create the illusion that it is sagging. This can be
rectified by raising the soffit of the arch slightly in the middle. A suggested ratio
of 10:1 is recommended.

Figure 7.109: Flat arch turning piece Figure 7.110: Building in a flat arch

Figure 7.111: Segmental arch Figure 7.112: Building in a segmental arch

Figure 7.113: Complete/round arch Figure 7.114: Building in a complete arch

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Key brick English bond

Extrados

Toothing

Intrados
Voussoirs

Springer

Abutment
Span

Figure 7.115: Semi-circular gauged arch

Gauged arches
Gauged arches are constructed from bricks or blocks that are cut into the shape of
wedges before they are used in the arch. The wedges can be shaped in one of three
ways:
• Bricks are pressed or moulded to form wedges (done at the brickyard).
• Bricks are rubbed down or grinded on a rough or fine-grained surface.
• Bricks are cut into shape using a special saw, an axe or a scotch.

If many arches of the same size are needed for the construction of a building,
the bricks should be pressed or moulded at a brickyard. This will ensure both a
uniform appearance of the arches and good quality.
Key brick Extrados

Voussoirs

Rise 225mm
Skewback
Springing

Abutment
Span

Springing line

Centre of percussion

Figure 7.116: Segmental gauged arch

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Figure 7.117: Turning point and construction Figure 7.118: Completed segmental gauged arch

Rough arches
Rough arches are built using standard (i.e. not wedge-shaped), common bricks that
have wedge-shaped mortar joints between them. These types of arches are usually
used in areas where they will be completely plastered, e.g. relieving (discharging)
arches. A relieving arch is used on the internal surface of a wall to support and
carry the mass of the wall above the opening (lintel) and it is usually plastered. An
unplastered (naked) rough arch on the exterior of a wall is really unsightly. These
arches are not recommended for facebrick walls. The advantage of this type of arch
is that it is inexpensive and thus economical.

Flemish bond
Stretcher bond

Rise of arch
225 mm

Voussoirs

Radius

Figure 7.119: Illustration of a segmental rough arch Figure 7.120: Illustration of a semi-circular rough arch
with double rings/arches

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Figure 7.121: Rough, double ring semi-circular arch

75 × 38

Principal post 75 mm × 38 mm
Strut 75 mm × 38 mm

Segments 75 mm × 38 mm

Hardboard
75 × 38
Centering pieces (boarding)
50 × 38 75 mm × 25 mm

Carrier 75 mm × 38 mm
75 × 38 50 × 38

Folding wedges

Strut aa 4 × 75 mm
of 075 mm

Figure 7.122: Detail of a wooden turning piece

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Lag

Formwork board

Folding wedges Bearers 114 mm × 52 mm

Wooden prop
114 mm × 38 mm

Figure 7.123: Wooden turning piece for a segmental gauged arch (open lags)

Open lags
Closed lags
Top of formwork and battens
can also be covered in
hardboard
Formwork board
Bearers 114 mm × 52 mm
Folding wedges
Wooden prop
114 mm × 38 mm

Figure 7.124: Wooden turning piece for a semi-circular gauged arch (open and closed
lags)

Activity 12
1. What is your understanding of the term ‘arches’?
2. What is the function of an arch?
3. Name the different types of arches.
4. Briefly describe the steps that you would follow when setting out a segmental
arch.
5. What is a turning piece/profile?
6. Use sketches to illustrate the following gauged arches:
• Semi-circular gauged arch
• Segmental gauged arch.
7. Gauged arches are constructed using bricks that are cut into wedges. Which
methods can be used to produce these wedge-shaped bricks?
8. Name one advantage of rough arches.
9. Use a sketch to illustrate the structure of a wooden turning piece.

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Woodworking
Ceilings
Ceilings are installed beneath the roofing timber for aesthetic reasons – to conceal
the unsightly timber and lend an attractive appearance to the room. They also
prevent dust falling from the roof structure and serve to insulate sound between
rooms. A variety of materials for ceiling construction is available on the market.
However, the material and accessories supplied by the various manufacturers may
differ as to measurements (or dimension) and composition.

Requisites for a ceiling

The following types of materials are commonly used in the construction of ceilings:

Name Position/place Length Thickness and Purpose

breadth
Wooden cover Where two ceiling 3 000 mm and increases 8 × 32 To close the opening between
strips boards meet in multiples of 300 mm to 8 × 44 ceiling boards
4 200 mm 16 × 44
Metal cover strips Where two ceiling To close the opening between
boards meet ceiling boards
Half-round Where two ceiling 3 000 mm and increases 8 × 13; To close the opening between
mouldings boards meet in multiples of 300 mm to 10 × 19 ceiling boards
4 200 mm 14 × 32
Branderings Nailed at the bottom 1800 mm and increases 38 × 38 Ceiling boards are nailed to
of tie beams at right in multiples of 300 mm 38 × 50 ceiling beams
angles to 6,6 m 50 × 50

Wooden crown Under the ceiling 3 000 mm ain increases in 14 × 67 To close the gap (corner)
mouldings board and against the multiples of 300 mm to 22 × 63 between the wall and the
(cornices) internal walls 4 200 mm 22 × 44 ceiling in order to prevent dust
from falling from the roof
Gypsum crown Under the ceiling 2 700 mm and increases 75 × 75 To close the gap (corner)
mouldings board and against the in multiples of 300 mm to between the wall and the
(cornices) internal walls 4 800 mm ceiling in order to prevent dust
from falling from the roof
Gypsum crown Under the ceiling Only 3 000 mm 75 × 125 To close the gap (corner)
mouldings board and against the between the wall and the
(cornices) internal walls ceiling in order to prevent dust
from falling from the roof
Skirting boards Can be fixed to screed 3 000 mm and increases 13 × 44 To close the gap between the
coat or floor covering in multiples of 300 mm to 13 × 67 wall and the floor or floor
along the walls. 4 200 mm 13 × 94 covering and to provide a neat
19 × 70 finish
22 × 69
22 × 94
22 × 144
Gypsum ceiling Are nailed to ceiling 2 700 mm and increases 6,4 × 900 As ceilings to finish rooms and
boards beams in multiples of 300 mm to 6,4 × 1 200 to cover electric wiring
4 800 mm 9,5 × 900
9,5 × 1 200

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Knotty pine Nailed to the ceiling 3 000 mm and increases 13 × 65 As ceilings to provide a
V-tongue and beams in multiples of 300 mm to 13 × 100 decorative and durable
groove ceiling 5 400 mm 22 × 63 appearance
boards 22 × 100

Insulation ceiling Nailed to ceiling beams 1 200 mm and increases 25, 30, 40 and To keep heat in rooms/to
board in multiples of 600 mm increases in provide thermal insulation
to 7 200 mm, the longest multiples of 10
being 8 000 mm mm to 80 mm.
Breadth is always
600 mm
Fibre-cement Nailed to ceiling beams 4-mm board is available 4 × 900 As waterproof ceilings for
ceiling boards in lengths of 2 400 mm, 4 × 1 200 rooms and used outdoors
3 000 mm, 3 300 mm and 6 × 900 under verandas and eaves
3 600 mm. 6 × 1 200
6-mm board is available
in 2 400 mm, 3 000 mm
and 3 600 mm lengths

Roof timber
This timber is usually used in areas where it will not be visible. The most common
format used to indicate the measurements and lengths of such timber is the
following:

Thickness Width (depth) Quantity/length

50 mm 152 mm 5 /3,6 m
It is abbreviated as follows: 50 mm × 152 mm × 6/3,6 m

Measurements of roof timber

The nominal thickness and width (depth) of the timber is:
38 mm × 114 mm; 38 mm × 152 mm; 38 mm × 228 mm.
50 mm × 114 mm; 50 mm × 152 mm; 50 mm × 228 mm.
76 mm × 114 mm; 76 mm × 152 mm; 76 mm × 228 mm.
Roof timber lengths start at 1,8 m and increases in multiples of 300 mm to
6,6 m.

Nominal measurements
Nominal thickness and depth refer to the measurements provided by the sawmills.

Measuring size
Roofing contractors also use timber that has been machined to specific sizes. The
Nominal size of the coarse-cut wood provided by the sawmills is, e.g. 50 mm ×
152 mm, but if it is machined for use by roofing contractors, the actual size will be
48 mm × 148 mm.

The advantage of using timber that is machined after it has come from the sawmills
is that all the timber can be finished to the exact same size.

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The position and placing of timber for roofs

Name Position/place Purpose

Rafter Lateral component on the outside of the truss to which Roof battens/purlins are nailed to it
all the components of the truss are attached
Tie beam Horizontal beam to which all the truss components are Forms the span of the roof truss; rests on the
attached; forms the span of the roof truss; rests on the wall plate
wall plate
Principal/King post Vertical components in the middle of the roof truss It determines the height of the roof truss
Attached to rafter and tie beam
Queen post Vertical components between principal (king) post and For sturdiness
hak of a roof; attached to rafter and tie beam
Roof tie Lateral components that join the rafters and tie beams To provide solidity to the trusses
and/or posts
Purlins/roof battens The maximum centre-to-centre spacing of purlins must Roof cover is nailed to purlins/roof battens.
be 1 200 mm. Purlins are nailed to the top of the rafter. The ridge plate is nailed to the ridge purlin

Wall plate Usually attached to the inside of the (load-bearing) To spread the load of the trusses more evenly
external walls along the upper levels of the external walls
The ends of the tie beams rest on it
Used to attache roof trusses
Facia boards Attached to the roof rafters; usually laminated wood To affix gutters
and are available in lengths of 600 mm to 12 000 mm To finish eaves neatly
Bargeboard Attached to purlin To provide a finish to eaves of gable walls

Layout of a ceiling for a room

The minimum height for all rooms, from the completed ground level to the
underside of the ceiling, is 2,4 m. The minimum height for entrance halls, passages
and bathrooms is 2,1 m.

At least one trapdoor of 650 × 650 mm must provide access to the roof to allow the
installation of the geyser or other electrical work.

Steps for the layout of the ceiling lathing

1. Ceiling laths are nailed at right (90°) angles to the tie beams of roof trusses/
principals. The distance between the tie beams determine the size of the ceiling
laths.
The sizes of the ceiling laths:
• 38 × 38 mm if the centres of the tie beams are up to 1 000 mm
• 38 × 50 mm if the centres of the tie beams are between 1 001 mm
and 1 200 mm
• 50 × 50 mm if the centres of the tie beams are between 1 201 mm
and 1 400 mm
2. Ceiling laths are nailed at centres of 38 mm from the walls if the cornice measures
75 mm and at 86 mm if the cornice measures 125 mm. The laths must not be
nailed to the walls, since provision has to be made for expansion, contraction and
movement of walls resulting from ground movements.
3. Use a pipe level or spirit level to check that the ceiling laths are level, by inserting
wedges between the opening where the ceiling laths and the tie beams meet.
4. Ceiling laths must be skew-nailed to the tie beams with round wire nails of
75 mm to 100 mm.
5. The centres of ceiling boards that are 900 mm wide must not be more than
450 mm and for 1 200 mm boards, the centres must not be more than 600 mm.
6. If the ceiling boards are going to be plastered, the centres must not be more than
400 mm in order to carry the heavier board.
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External wall

Tie beam

Interior wall
110 mm

Interior wall 110 mm

Wall plate 114 × 38 mm

Tie beams
114 × 38 mm

Ceiling batten
Wall plate Ceiling battens 38 × 38 mm
114 × 38 mm
Tie beam

Ceiling battens

Figure 7.125: The construction of a ceiling for a room

Various types of materials used for ceilings

Ceiling boards
When the ceiling laths are in place, they have to be covered by ceiling boards.
Various types of ceiling boards, such as gypsum, knotty-pine and fibre-cement
(NUTEC) boards, are available on the market today.

Gypsum ceiling boards are commonly used, because they are:

• cheaper
• fire-resistant
• durable
• easy to handle.

Gypsum board is available in widths of 900 mm and 1 200 mm and thickness of

6,4 mm. The minimum length of a board is 2 700 mm and the length increases by
multiples of 300 mm up to 4 800 mm.

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 Construction 7
Gypsum board must always be fixed to the ceiling laths at a right (90˚) angle. The
boards must be fitted with the clean side (side that contains no writing) facing down
if it is going to be painted. If the ceiling is going to be plastered, the boards must be
fitted with the dull side, which has a rougher finish, facing down since the plaster
adheres more readily to the rough surface.

The gap between the boards must not exceed 2 mm. Wooden cover strips, metal
cover strips, joining tape and plaster, paper gaffer tape and half-round mouldings
can be used to cover the opening between two ceiling boards. Galvanised nails,
38 mm in length, with large, flat heads, are used to nail the ceiling boards to the
laths. The centres of the nailing on the inside of the ceiling board must be 300 mm
maximum.

Scaffold trestles of 228 × 38 mm, planks that are suspended between two ladders or
even drums on which 228 × 38 mm planks are balanced, can be used as scaffolds
when the ceiling is fitted.

Ceiling beams
The dimensions of ceiling beams are determined by the spacing of the roof trusses.
Ceiling beams are nailed to the tie beams with 75 mm to 100 mm nails.

Measurements of ceiling beams

Spacing of roof trusses Measurements of ceiling beams

Under 1 000 mm 38 × 38 mm
1 001 to 1 200 mm 38 × 50 mm (50 mm vertical measurement)
1 201 to 1 400 mm 50 × 50 mm

Spacing of ceiling beams

The spacing of the ceiling beams is determined by the thickness of the ceiling board
and on whether it will be plastered or not.

Types of gypsum ceiling boards Width of ceiling board Spacing of ceiling

beams
Gypsum ceiling board 6,4 mm 900 mm 450 mm
Gypsum ceiling board 6,4 mm 1 200 mm 600 mm
Gypsum ceiling board and plaster 6,4 mm 900 mm 300 mm
Gypsum ceiling board and plaster 6,4 mm 1 200 mm 400 mm

Gypsum ceiling boards with plaster finish

Gypsum ceiling board is finished using gypsum plaster, such as Cretestone or
Rhinolite, which not only gives the ceiling a smooth finish but also serves to
enhance its aesthetic value. The gypsum ceiling board must be laid with the rough,
‘dull side’ facing down since the plaster clings to this surface more readily. To
accommodate the weight of the plaster, 9 mm boards must be used.

Sagging may occur after some time if 6 mm boards are used because they cannot
carry the weight of the plaster. The centres used to nail the ceiling boards to the
beams must be 100 mm at the most.

Ceiling tiles
Lightweight tiles are made of polystyrene and fitted using tongue-and-groove joints.
They can be pasted onto existing ceilings or attached to the ceiling beams using
clips.
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Properties of ceiling tiles

They:
• can be used to create patterns on the ceiling
• are available in various colours
• are maintenance-free and easy to install
• are easy to clean
• serve as insulation against heat and sound
• are light because of their hollow cores

Knotty pine ceiling

Planks of SA pine that have many knots are used for ceilings. The tongue-and-
groove joints allow the planks to slot into one another easily and firmly.

Properties of knotty pine

It:
• creates a durable finish
• looks attractive because of the knots
• shows the natural grain when finished
• is easy to clean after it has been varnished
• shows no nails

Insulating ceiling boards

Insulating board does not heat or cool a building as such but merely delays the
transfer of heat or cold from the outside to the inside of the building or vice versa.
In South Africa, it will keep buildings cooler in summer and warmer in winter
months.

Insulating board is made of polystyrene foam that has excellent thermal insulating
properties. Tongue-and-groove joints are used to fit the boards. For a ceiling that is
100 mm thick, two 50 mm boards can be place over each other. Clips and glue are
used to attach the board.

Properties of insulating boards

They are:
• excellent thermal insulators
• durable and guaranteed to last
• light and very strong
• available in long lengths and great thicknesses
• easy to install
• cost-effective
• imporous and resistant to moisture
• fire and flame-resistant – boards in contact with fire simply melt
• not good at muffling sound.

Fibre-cement ceiling boards

Fibre-cement ceiling boards are made of cement and organic fibres. They are
environmentally friendly and contain no asbestos fibres.

Properties of fibre-cement ceiling boards

They:
• are available in shades of natural grey
• need no pre-treatment before being painted
• are suitable for use with all water-based paints
• moisture-resistant
• suitable to use for eaves and verandas
• do not rot and are resistant to termites
• are brittle and break or snap easily
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Ceiling beams
The measurements of ceiling beams are determined by the spacing of the roof trusses.

The table below indicates the measurements of the ceiling beams

Spacing of roof trusses Size of ceiling beams

Under 1 050 mm 38 × 38 mm
1 001 to 1 500 mm 38 × 50 mm (50 mm vertical measurement)

Spacing of ceiling beams

The spacing of the ceiling beams is determined by the thickness of the ceiling board

Types of gypsum ceiling boards Width of ceiling board Spacing of ceiling beams
Fibre-cement ceiling boards 4,0 mm 900 mm and 1 200 mm 450 mm
Fibre-cement ceiling boards 6,0 mm 900 mm and 1 200 mm 600 mm

Cornices (crown mouldings)

The cornices (crown mouldings) used will depend on the type of ceiling, as the
material used for cornices is determined by the type of ceiling. Wooden cornices
are used for wooden ceilings, while gypsum cornices are used for gypsum ceiling
boards. Homemade mitre boxes are used to saw the corners of the cornices.

A coped joint is used for walls with interior angles, while a mitre joint is used for
coign walls (walls with external angles). The cornices that are used for walls with
interior angles are sawed at right angles. Other cornices are cut at a 45° angle using
a mitre box, after which the reverse sides of the mitre angles are skewed using a saw.
This joint is called a coped or scribed joint.

Gypsum cornices are available in widths of 75 mm and 125 mm. 75 mm gypsum

cornices are available in lengths of 2 700 mm, which increase in multiples of
300 mm up to 4 800 mm. 125 mm gypsum cornices are available in lengths of
3 000 mm. A splayed heading joint is used to join cornices where walls are longer
than 4 800 mm.

Steel nails are used to fix the cornice to the walls and galvanised nails with large
heads are used to fix it to the ceiling boards. The heads of the nails must always be
level with the surface.

Finishing methods used for the ceiling of a room

Ceiling boards can be painted, plastered or finished using wallpaper. A special type
of plaster, like Crestestone or Rhinolite, is generally used and is readily available.
The plaster must be applied in the same direction as the ceiling board.

Metal strips are used to join ceiling boards along their lengths if the room is longer
than 4 800 mm. The ceiling boards must be staggered in order for the joints to be at
various places.

Finish
• Fill all nail and screw holes with filler.
• Sand all the filled holes until smooth after the filler has dried.
• Ensure that the surface is free of dust.
• Apply the base coat.
• Apply two coats of paint as final layers.
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Ceiling insulation
Insulation is installed if it is specified on the plans. It is commonly used in areas that
are either very hot or very cold. This material is placed on top of the ceiling boards
to trap the heat inside during winter, but also to prevent the heat from penetrating
through the roof in summer.

Pink insulation material made of fibre-glass is available in rolls and it is laid in the
ceiling like blankets to regulate the inside temperature. Fire-resistant polystyrene
can also be used.

Activity 13
1. Name the function of the following ceiling components:
1.1 Cornices
1.2 Cover strip
1.3 Ceiling beams
2. Copy the table below into your workbook and complete it by filling in two
advantages and disadvantages of the following types of ceilings:

Type of ceiling board Advantage Disadvantage

Gypsum ceiling board
Gypsum ceiling board with a plaster finish

Ceiling tiles
Knotty pine ceiling
Insulating ceiling board
Fibre-cement ceiling board

3. 3.1 What is the function of facia boards and to what are they attached?
3.2 What is the function of bargeboards and to what are they attached?
4. The distance between the roof trusses determines the size of the ceiling
beams – what will the size of the ceiling beams be if the spacing between roof
trusses is:
4.1 up to 1 000 mm,
4.2 between 1 001 mm and 1 200 mm and
4.3 between 1 201 mm and 1 400 mm?
5. What determines the centres between ceiling beams?
6. What type of nail is used to:
6.1 nail ceiling beams to tie beams?
6.2 nail ceiling board to ceiling beams?
7. Why is it advantageous to use screws in gypsum ceiling boards?
8. You are expected to order ceiling board for the rooms listed below. What
would be the width of the boards if the measurements of the rooms are:
8.1 2 400 mm
8.2 2 700 mm
8.3 3 000 mm?
9. In a 3 600 mm room, four ceiling boards that are 900 mm wide or three
ceiling boards that are 1 200 mm wide can be used. How many ceiling
boards would you use? Explain your choice.
10. Name three precautionary measures that must be taken before the
application of the first coat of a finish.
11. Name three ways in which gypsum ceiling boards can be finished.
12. What type of finish would be used for knotty pine ceilings?
13. Make a two-dimensional sketch and indicate how the heads of two cornices
are joined.
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Windows
Windows are installed to allow light and air into a room and they usually open
either horizontally or vertically towards the outside. Nowadays most new windows
are fitted with pivoted lever hinges rather than the older, ‘book’ or butt hinges. A
vast variety of windows framed in an assortment of materials is available. However,
only windows that have wooden (timber) frames will be discussed in this section,
more specifically double casement windows without fanlights.

Timber windows are usually manufactured using meranti or other hardwood and
the panes can be either large or small. Timber frames give windows a natural,
attractive appearance, especially when varnish rather than paint is used as finish.

The advantages of windows with timber frames Did you know?

They: Glazier’s putty
• look stylish, natural and attractive has to be painted or
• are durable if properly painted or varnished varnished approximately
• can be custom-made to suit individual tastes 48 hours after it has
been applied in order
• can have panes inserted into the timber frame using glazier’s putty.
to protect it against
desiccation, shrinking
The disadvantages of timber windows: and cracking.
They:
• need regular maintenance.
• cannot be effectively burglar-proofed because the burglar bars are screwed to the
window frame and
• are expensive since imported hardwood is scarce.

Purchasing windows
Windows complete with frames are available on the market. Manufacturers
usually have catalogues displaying their windows and suitable windows can be
ordered according to their codes, which indicate the type and measurements of the
windows.

Window frame
• Frame head/head: 44 mm × 90 mm – has a throat at the top
• Frame sill/windowsill: 44 × 90 mm – has a throat and a groove for a metal bar
that prevents water from damming up between the casement and the window
at the sill and the rebated sill slants towards the outside to allow rainwater to run
off it
• Throats in the head, sill and style prevent rain from being blown in by the wind.
They also prevent water running down the windowsill from penetrating the wall
• Stopwater groove: groove into which metal strip is placed to prevent water from
penetrating the walls
• Straps/Flanges: metal straps built into the wall opening to secure the frame
• Two jambs: 44 mm × 68 mm
• Mullion: 44 mm × 68 mm

Window frames have a rebate of 22 mm × 12 mm along the outside into which the
sash frame fits.

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Example of a window frame

Sash frame
Each sash frame has:
• two window styles: 44 mm × 54 mm
• a top rail: 44 mm × 54 mm
• a bottom rail: 44 × 54 mm – breadth may be increased to prevent sagging and to
carry the weight of the sash frame
• glazing bar: 22 mm × 44 mm – can be horizontal or vertical, depending on the
design (number of smaller panes).

The rebates of sash frames are 20 mm × 10 mm to allow the fixing of the
windowpanes using putty or wooden glazing strips.

Glazing bars are finished by machining mouldings into them to provide a

decorative appearance. The two rebates on either side are 20 mm × 7 mm.

Window frame 44 × 90 mm

Rebate 12 × 22 mm

Jamb 44 × 68 mm
Rebate 12 × 22 mm
Mullion/muntin 44 × 68 mm
Rebate 12 × 22 mm
Rebate 12 × 22 mm

Frame sill 44 × 90 mm
Horne

Figure 7.126: Example of a window frame

Double casement windows without fanlights

The sketch below illustrates various designs of standard double casement windows
with one pane. The same basic designs that have smaller glass panes are also
available.

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Frame head 44 × 90 mm

Top rail 44 × 54 mm

Mullion/muntin 44 × 68 mm

Window pane

Jamb 44 × 68 mm

Stile of frame 44 × 54 mm
Bottom rail 44 × 54 mm

Windowsill 44 × 90 mm
Horne

Figure 7.127: Outside elevation: double casement window with full glass pane

A A B B

Figure 7.128: Outside elevation: double casement window with one fanligtht

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Stop-water grove

Jamb 44 × 68 mm
Stile of window 44 × 54 mm
Ovolo moulding
Throat
Window pane
Planted/wooden moulding

Figure 7.129: Horizontal section of the jamb and post (A–A)

Sash mullion 44 × 68 mm

Glass

Glass

Planted/wooden
moulding
Glazier’s putty
Stile of window 44 × 54 mm

Figure 7.130: Horizontal section of the mullion and post (B–B)

Glass

Glazier’s putty

Bottom rail 44 × 54 mm

Frame sill 44 × 90 mm

Water-stop groove

Throat

Figure 7.131: Vertical section of bottom rail and sill (C-C)

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(Planted) moulding 18 × 22 mm

Throat
Frame head 44 × 68 mm

Top rail 44 × 54 mm

Glazier’s putty

Glass

Figure 7.132: Vertical section of frame head and top rail

Frame head 70 × 110 mm

Top rail 84 × 60 mm
Jamb 70 × 110 mm
Stile of window 44 × 60 mm

Sash mullion/muntin 70 × 110 mm

Glazing bar 22 × 44 mm

Window pane
Bottom rail 44 × 110 mm

Frame sill 70 × 110 mm

Figure 7.133: Double casement window with three panes/windows

Jamb 70 × 110 mm

Stile of window 44 × 60 mm

Glass
Glazier’s putty

Figure 7.134: Horizontal section of jamb and post

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Mullion (muntin) 70 × 110 mm

Ovolo moulding

Glass
Glazier’s putty

Stile of window 44 × 60 mm

Figure 7.135: Horizontal section of mullion and adjacent post

Glass
Planted/wooden moulding
Bottom rail 44 × 60 mm

Throat

Windowsill 70 × 110 mm

Water-stop groove
Throat

Figure 7.136: Vertical section of bottom rail and windowsill

Frame head 70 × 110 mm

Throat

Top rail 44 × 60 mm

Planted moulding

Glass

44

Jamb

Figure 7.137: Vertical section of top rail and head

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Figure 7.138: Vertical section of a sash bar

Activity 14
1. What information must be supplied when windows are ordered?
2. Why should glazier’s putty be painted 48 hours after application?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of choosing timber windows for
a house?

Drawings:
1. Sketch a glazing bar and provide the sketch with a title and the necessary
measurements.
2. Copy the drawing below into your workbook and provide a title and the
necessary measurements.

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3. The frames of a double casement window have one full window pane
each. Sketch and name the components of the double casement window with
a centrelight.
4. A double casement window is shown in the figure below.

4.1 Identify the window and the members A-H.

4.2 Sketch section A–A.
4.3 Sketch section B–B.
4.4 Sketch section C–C.
4.5 Sketch section D–D.
4.6 Sketch section E–E.

Roof trusses
Introduction
Roof trusses are one of the most important as well as the most expensive components
of the timberwork of a house and their design must ensure that they are:
• waterproof and do not collect water
• sturdy enough to carry the roof cover safely
• able to withstand wind and other forces that act on them
• neat and solid to enhance the appearance of the building.

Types of roofs
Various types of roofs are used, among which flat and pitched roofs are the most
popular. The type of roof needed for a building will depend on:
• the size and shape of the building
• the type of roof – flat or pitched
• the affordability of the roof.

National Building Regulations applicable to roofs – Part 1

In order to design, manufacture and erect roofs, the abovementioned regulations
must be considered. They contain clear instructions that must be followed to
ensure that roofs are erected according to the given standards. An extract of the
said regulations is as follows:
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Dimensions of roof
The first consideration when designing any type of roof will be the type of roofing
that is going to be used. There are three types of roofing:
• Class A: Metal and fibre-cement – these materials are lightweight
• Class B: Tiles of stone, clay or cement, or other similar materials and thatch – of
these, thatch is the heaviest
• Class C: metal roof tiles – the heaviest of all roofing materials.

The size of the roofing rafter/rafter

The following sizes for determining the maximum span of up to 10 m are stipulated
in the regulations: 38 mm × 114 mm; 38 mm × 152 mm and
38 mm × 228 mm.

The dimensions of the tie beam

The following sizes for a span of up to 10 m are stipulated in the regulations:
• 38 mm × 114 mm
• 38 mm × 152 mm
• 38 mm × 228 mm

The pitch of the roof

The dimensions of the rafter and tie beam for Class A and C roofing are determined
by the pitch of the roof, which must be pitched at a minimum of 15° and not
exceeding 30°. The dimensions for the rafter and tie beam for Class B roofing are
also determined by the pitch of the roof truss, which must be pitched at a minimum
of 17° and not exceeding 35°.

One may deviate from these dimensions as long as the pitch still meets the
requirements mentioned on above. The design of the truss as well as the necessary
calculations must be submitted to the local authorities in the event of any deviation.

The grading of the timber that is used

Industrial wood of grades 4, 6 and 8 are used for roof trusses; grade 4 is rated lower
than grade 6, while grade 8 offers the best quality.

Maximum span of timber

Timber has a maximum span that it can cover without support and without its
snapping. The maximum span depends on the load that the timber has to carry.

The weight that timber must carry is determined by:

• the size and spacing of the roof battens
• the type of roof covering
• the dimensions and spacing of the ceiling beams
• the type of ceiling board
• the pitch of the roof
• the spacing of the roof trusses.

Maximum distance between roof trusses

The centre line to centre line measurement (distance between centres) of roof
trusses should not exceed the following distances:
Metal or fibre-cement sheets: 1 400 mm
Concrete tiles, clay tiles or such similar materials: 760 mm
Metal tiles 1 060 mm

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Construction at the ridge of the roof

E

D

Figure 7.139: Construction at the ridge of a roof

Components:
A Rafter
B King (principal) post
C Galvanised zinc sheet
D Ridge purlin/roof batten
E Ridge plate

Construction of the roof

The components of a roof must be accurately sawn to ensure that they fit closely
together. The rafter serves as support for the purlins and roofing; the king post,
which determines the height of the truss, is positioned in the middle of the roof
truss and fixed to the rafter and tie beam.
• Purlins/roof battens must have a nominal breadth of 50 mm and depth of
76 mm to accommodate metal roof covering.
• The maximum centre-to-centre spacing of purlins must be 1 200 mm.
• The roofing is nailed to the purlins.
• The ridge purlin must be specifically positioned to facilitate the fixing or the
ridge plate.
• Purlins are fixed on top of the rafters.
• If a purlin must be joined, the joints on the abutting beams must be staggered.

Joining the components of a pitched roof truss

Nails
Nailing is the traditional method of fixing the components of a roof to the trusses.
This remains the fastest, simplest, cheapest and safest method if the instructions are
followed closely:
• Nails must be approximately 25 mm longer than the combined thickness of the
components so that they can be finished at the back.
• They can only be used if the components are placed one on top of the other.
• Nails alone will not hold firmly enough and must be complemented by nuts and
bolts.

Bolts
Bolts are commonly used with nails because:
• they ensure a more solid construction than would have been the case had only
nails been used
• the components can be kept compactly together
• they are easy to use and last long.

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Fish/fishplate
This joint component comprises pressed galvanised rectangles of various sizes
that have sharp, nail-like points on one or both sides. Combed washers are bolted
between the timber components. Fishplates are used:
• when the roof components are joined using butt-joints
• on building sites where a beater is used to drive the fishplate into the component,
and thereafter a hammer is used to complete the process
• on both sides of the purlin/truss joint.

Figure 7.140: Example of a fishplate

Wall plate
It is usually fixed to the inside of external walls and measures 38 mm × 114 mm.
The purpose of the wall plate is to:
• spread the load of the trusses more evenly across the top levels of the external
walls
• serve as fixing point for tie beams and rafters
• have the roofing rafter is fixed to it using a twisted clamping plate.

Anchorage (staying) of roof trusses, rafters and beams

The type of anchorage that is used will depend in the pitch of the roof and the
spacing of the roof trusses. The following instructions must be followed:
• All the roof trusses and beams that are supported by a brick or concrete block
(or even a stone) must be securely mortared (plastered) into the wall.
• In the case of heavy roofing, such as concrete, clay or slate tiles, two 4 mm loops
of galvanised steel wire must be built at least 300 mm into the wall.
• For roofs that have a sheet-metal cover, galvanised steel ribbon of 30 mm × 1,2
mm or 30 mm × 1,6 mm or loops of 4 mm galvanised steel wire must be inserted
at least 600 mm into the wall and sealed in.
• Galvanised steel ribbon or galvanised steel wire is anchored in suitable spots.
• The steel ribbon (hoops) or steel wire is bent on both sides of the rafter or tie
beam, after which it is nailed to the timber.

Roofs comprised of rafters

If a roof is constructed using only roofing rafters, as is the case with lean-tos and a
couple (span) roof/couple truss, the following regulations must be met:
• The spacing between the rafters is usually 600 mm, 760 mm, 1 050 mm or
1 400 mm in the case of Class A and C roofing.
• The spacing between the rafters is usually 600 mm and 760 mm in the case of
Class B roofing.
• Grades 4, 6 or 8 timber is used.

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• The nominal depth and breadth of the rafters must be:

38 mm × 114 mm; 38 mm × 152 mm; 38 mm × 228 mm.
50 mm × 114 mm; 50 mm × 152 mm; 50 mm × 228 mm.
76 mm × 114 mm; 76 mm × 152 mm; 76 mm×x 228 mm.
• The nominal depth and breadth of the rafters depend on the class of the roofing,
the spacing between rafters and the span of the rafter.
• The rafters must preferably be pitched at less than 10°.

Roofing rafter 114 x 38 mm

Wall plate 114 x 38 mm

Wall 220 mm
Couple truss

Figure 7.141: Example of a roof comprised only of rafters

Couple (span) roof/couple truss

Couple roofs fall under the category of “pitched roofs”. These roof trusses comprise
a few (two) rafters with or without a ridge purlin between them.

Ridge purlin

Purlin 76 x 50 mm King post

Corrugated zinc Rafter 114 x 38 mm

Tie beam 114 x 38 mm

Foot purlin 76 x 50 mm Wall plate 114 x 38 mm
Wall 220 mm
Fascia board
228 x 32 mm Plaster 12 mm thick Scale 1:10
Soffit board 6mm
Soffit hanger 38 x 38 mm
Quarter round (moulding) 20 mm

Figure 7.142: Principal post roof truss with closed brow

Another example of the group of pitched roofs – as the name suggests, these roof
trusses consist of a few (two) roofing rafters, one king (principal) post and a tie
beam.

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South African roof truss (SA roof truss) or Howe roof truss
This is another example of a pitched roof and it is a very popular when houses are
built.

Construction
The roof truss comprises:
• a principal rafter and hangers with oblique struts between the rafters
• tie beams that are the same length as the span of the roof truss; the tie beam is
divided into equal braizes to determine the position of the principal rafter and
hangers
• two rafters that are divided in half by the number of sections on the tie beam: if
there are two parts on the tie beam, each rafter is divided into two equal parts.

Rafter 114 x 38 mm
King post 114 x 38 mm

Strut 114 x 38 mm
Queen post 114 x 38 mm

Wall plate 114 x 38 mm

Tie beam 114 x 38 mm
A
Wall 220 mm

A = Eaves projection

Figure 7.143: Howe roof truss

The W-roof truss

This is another example belonging to the group of pitched roofs.

Construction:
• It has no posts.
• The struts are W-shaped, hence the name.
• The tie beam is divided into three equal braizes to position the struts.
• Each rafter is divided into two equal sections.

A = Maximum spacing Ridge plate

(corner to corner) for Class Ridge purlin 76 x 50 mm
A roofing is 1 200 mm Corrugated zinc sheeting
Rafter 114 x 50 mm
Purlin 76 x 50mm
Fascia board 228 x 28 mm Strut 114 x 38 mm
Foot Strut 114 x 38 mm
Gutter purlin
Plaster

Beam filling
Wall plate 114 x 30 mm Tie beam 114 x 38 mm
Plaster 12 mm

Downpipe Wall 220 mm

Figure 7.144: W-roof truss

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Examples of a roof consisting only of rafters

Lean-to
Lean-tos fall into the flat roof category and their construction may differ, but these
lean-tos look more attractive and use less wood.

Construction
• Lean-tos have no posts or struts and consist only of rafters.
• The purlins of conventional lean-tos are nailed to the tops of the rafters.
• The purlins of modern lean-tos, as illustrated in the drawing below, are fixed
between the rafters.
Waterproofing of flat roofs
• Flashing is used at the junction between a roof, such as a lean-to and a parapet
wall.
• Flashings must be embedded at least two brick layers above the level of the roof
into the horizontal frame of the brickwork.
Attaching the components of a lean-to
A variety of galvanised steel connection plates is available and these plates are
sturdy because they are joined using bolts.

Truss hangers
• They are U-shaped and the roof timber rests in the “U”.
• They are suitable for T-junctions where beams are affixed to a wall or when two
beams are joined.
Corner metal connectors
• They are rectangular.
• They are suitable for use in T-junctions where two beams must be joined.
Metal clamping
• is twisted at a 90° angle to point in two directions
• is suitable for joining components that rest on each other, e.g. the wall plate and
tie beam.
Scale 1:25

Roof pitch 5o Plaster 12 mm

Parapet wall 220 mm

Sqaure gutter Corrugated zinc sheet Flashing

100 x 100 mm

Purlins 152 x 50 mm

Rafter 228 x 50 mm
Downpipe 76 x 76 mm

Pillar 350 x 350 mm

Super structure 220 mm

Cement screed coat 30 mm

Concrete slab 75 mm

Sectional view/vertical sectional elevation

Figure 7.145: Lean-to roof

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Framed lean-to
These lean-tos fall into the flat roof category.

Construction
• They have only one rafter.
• They are constructed in the same way as half of an SA roof truss.
• They also use less timber.
Ridge purlin

Flashing

Hanger 114 x 38

Strut 114 x 38 150

Galvanised zinc sheeting

Roofing rafter 114 x 38

Roof batten
76 x 50

Foot purlin 76 x 50

Wall plate 114 x 76 Tie beam 114 x 38

Fascia board

Gutter Span 6000

Figure 7.146: Framed lean-to-roof

Eave projection/brow of roof

The section of the roof that protrudes past the walls is called the eave or the brow.
The brow can be closed or open. Brows vary between 300 mm and 900 mm.

Open eave projection

• Roof timber is visible and appears unfinished.
• Birds nest under the open eaves.
• Beam filling is compulsory to prevent birds from entering the roof area.

1. Corrugated zinc sheeting

2. Roofing rafter 114 × 38 mm
3. Tie beam 114 × 38 mm
4. Wall plate 114 × 38 mm
5. Wall 220 mm
6. Gutter
7. Fascia board 228 × 28 mm
8. Foot purlin 76 × 50 mm
9. Downpipe
10. Beam filling
11. Plaster/Plaster filling
12. Purlin 76 × 50 mm

Figure 7.147: Open eave projection

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Closed eaves
• These provide a more attractive and finished appearance to the overhang of the
roof because the roof timber is invisible.
• They prevent birds from nesting there.
• Beam filling is not compulsory.
• 6 mm soffit board is generally used.
• Wire netting fixed with 50 mm × 16 mm soffit battens is suitable for areas where
the wood has to be kept dry.

Figure 7.148: Closed eaves

1. Corrugated zinc sheeting

2. Roofing rafter 114 × 38 mm
3. Tie beam 114 × 38 mm
4. Wall plate 114 × 38 mm
5. Plaster 12 mm
6. Wall 220 mm
7. Downpipe
8. Quarter-round (moulding) 18 mm
9. Soffit hanger 38 × 38 mm
10. Soffit board/Fibre-cement board 6 mm
11. Gutter
12. Fascia board 228 × 28 mm
13. Foot purlin 76 × 50 mm
14. Purlin 76 × 50 mm

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Activity 15
1. Name one advantage of both a gable-end and a hipped-end roof.
2. Describe the function of the wall plate.
3. Explain how the roof trusses of a sheet-metal roof will be anchored.
4. Name the factors that determine the depth and breadth of the roofing rafters
for a lean-to.
5. A South African-type king post roof truss spans seven metres and is pitched
at 30°.
Draw a little more than half of the roof truss that has been nailed, using a
scale of 1 : 20.
Use the following specifications:
Tie beam: 152 mm × 38 mm
Rafter: 114 mm × 38 mm
Hangers: 114 mm × 38 mm
Struts: 114 mm × 38 mm
Wall plate: 114 mm × 38 mm
King post: 114 mm × 38 mm
Eave projection: 500 mm and open
Provide a title, the scale and all the necessary labels.
6. A king (principal) post, single-rafter roof truss spans seven metres and is
pitched at 30°.
Draw a little more than half of the roof truss that has been nailed and bolted,
using a scale of 1 : 20.
Use the following specifications:
Wall: 220 mm
Wall plate: 14 mm × 38 mm
Tie beam: 114 mm × 38 mm
King post: 114 mm × 38 mm
Rafter: 114 mm × 38 mm
Hanger: 114 mm × 38 mm
Strut: 114 mm × 38 mm
Ridge purlin: 75 mm × 50 mm
Roof batten: 75 mm × 50 mm
Base shoe: 75 mm × 50 mm
Facia board: 230 mm × 30 mm
Eave projection: 400 mm and open
Roofing: Fibre cement sheet
Half-round gutter: 150 mm diameter
Downpipe: 80 mm diameter
Plaster : 12 mm
Ridge plate:
Ceiling beam: 38 m × 38 mm
Soft ceiling board (gypsum board): 6 mm
Cornice: 75 × 75 mm

The following must also be illustrated:

• Beam filling
• The distance of the end lap of the asbestos-cement sheets
• The spacing between the base shoe, roof batten and ridge purlin.

Provide a title, the scale and the necessary labels and dimensions.

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7. A framed lean-to spans two metres and is pitched at 15°.

Draw the framed lean-to, that has been nailed and bolted, using a scale of
1 : 10.
Use the following specifications:
Wall: 220 mm
Wall plate: 14 mm by 38 mm
Tie beam: 114 mm by 38 mm
Rafter: 114 mm by 38 mm
Hanger: 114 mm by 38 mm
Strut: 114 mm by 38 mm
Ridge purlin: 75 mm by 50 mm
Roof batten: 75 mm by 50 mm
Base shoe: 75 mm by 50 mm
Facia board: 230 mm by 30 mm
Eave projection: 300 mm and open
Roofing: galvanised, corrugated zinc
Square gutter: 100 mm by 100 mm
Downpipe: 75 mm by 75 mm
Plaster: 12 mm
Indicate the flashing.
Indicate the spacing between the base shoe, roof batten and ridge purlin.
Provide a title, the scale and the necessary labels and dimensions.
8. Using a scale of 1 : 5, draw a vertical sectional elevation of the closed eave/
brow of a king post roof truss pitched at 30 degrees to illustrate the
following:
Use the following specifications:
Rafter: 114 mm by 38 mm
Tie beam: 114 mm by 38 mm
Wall plate: 114 mm by 38 mm
Facia board: 230 mm by 30 mm
Soffit hangers: 38 mm by 38 mm
Soffit: 4 mm asbestos finished with 18 mm quarter-rounds
Roof batten: 75 mm by 50 mm
Roofing: Corrugated iron
King post: 114 mm by 38 mm
Eave projection: 400 mm
Provide a title, the scale and the necessary labels and dimensions. Use the
information that has already been provided and draw, on a scale of 1 : 25, a
vertical sectional elevation of a carport. The following must be illustrated:
Wall 220 mm
Plaster on both sides of the wall 12 mm
Inside measurement between pillars and wall
(western side) 3 000 mm
Concrete slab 75 mm
Cement screed coat 30 mm
Square stone pillars 350 × 350 mm
Height of face-brick pillars above concrete slab 2 550 mm (30 layers
of bricks) high
Height from the top of the concrete floor slab to
below the bearer beam against the wall 2 840 mm
Pitch of roof 5°
Height of wall from top of concrete floor slab 2 805 mm (33 layers
of bricks) high

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Height of parapet wall 1 020 mm (12 layers

of bricks) high
Rafters 228 × 50 mm
Square gutter 100 × 100 mm
Square downpipe 76 × 76 mm
Flashing
Provide a title, the scale and the necessary labels and dimensions.
The concrete foundations for the pillars and the wall do not have to be shown.

Setting out roof trusses for a gable-end roof

Advantages
Roof trusses for gable-end roofs are:
• easier to manufacture and can be manufactured more quickly
• safe if the gable end does not exceed 6 m
• use less timber in the construction of roof trusses
• cheaper because they are less labour-intensive.

Ridge

Verge board

Gable wall

Fascia board

Figure 7.149: Gable-end roof

Verge board
Wall
Wall plate

Roofing rafters – max. spacing 1 400 mm

Fascia board Fascia board

A = Eaves projection
B = Eaves projection – usually smaller than A
Rafter 75 mm from wall due to moisture

Roofing rafters – max. spacing 1 200 mm

Figure 7.150: Plan to show the top elevation of a gabled roof

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Setting out a hipped roof

A hipped roof has a durable appearance. The timberwork is complex, but this is
what makes the roof all the stronger.

Ridge

IBR sheeting

Fascia board
Hipped end

Fascia board
Hip
Hipped roof

Figure 7.151: Setting out a hipped roof

Setting out roof trusses for a hipped roof

Construction to
determine the true length Scale 1:50
of (hip) corner rafter

Front view
True length of (hip)
corner rafter

True length of
Jack truss A
and B Jack truss B Full truss
Jack truss A Top view

Half truss Hip truss Jack truss A Jack truss B

Figure 7.152 (a): Setting out roof trusses for a hipped roof

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Jack rafter Valley rafter

Ridge
Principal rafters
Hip/corner rafter
Verge
Roof batten

Hipped end Gabled end

Overhangs
Fascia board

Figure 7.152 (b): Setting out roof trusses for a hipped roof with a valley

Jack truss Corner rafter Ridge

Dorhang

220 wall

Verge board

Gable end

Full truss
Purlin
Ridge

Jack rafter

Corner rafter
Ceiling
joist

Half truss
Hipped end
Wall plate

Figure 7.153: Top elevation of a hipped roof Rafter joist

Hip rafter

Figure 7.154: Construction details

of the corner of a hipped end

The lengths of the short rafters differ because the corner (hip) rafter is connected to
the ridge at an angle.
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Details regarding the various roof trusses used in the construction of a hipped roof.

Full truss Half truss

Hip corner truss Jack rafter

Figure 7.155: Roof trusses of a hipped roof

To determine the true lengths of the hip (corner) rafters of a hipped roof
1. Draw a line diagram of the top elevation of the roof, including the overhang,
according to scale.
2. Measure the rise of the roof on a line that runs perpendicular to one of the hip
(corner) rafters.
3. Connect the points to find the true length.
4. The plumb cut and the tail cut can also be deduced from this drawing.

Ridge

Plumb cut
Rise of beam

True length of
hip corner truss

Hip corner truss

Tail cut Hipped end

Figure 7.156: Top elevation of roof with hipped end

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To determine true lengths of the short rafters

Front elevation

True length

Jack truss

Hip corner truss

Top elevation

True length of Jack truss

True form of
hipped-end

True length of Jack truss

True length of
hip corner truss

True length of Jack truss

Figure 7.157: How to determine the true lengths of the Jack rafters

A list of terms relating to roofs

Hipped-end roof: A roof with two slanting ends, sometimes across a short, flat
gable.
Gabled roof: A roof that ends against one or between two triangular gables.
Hip (corner) rafter: Roofing rafters on the external angles of a hipped-end roof.
Valley: The internal angle created when two sloping sections of the
roof meet.
Valley rafter: The hip (corner) rafter of a valley.
Jack rafter: The short rafter that run from the corner rafter to the wall
plate, or from the ridge to the valley rafters.

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Wall plate: A board that is situated on top of the wall, level with the
inside edge.The roof trusses rest on the wall plate and are
attached to it. The wall plate distributes the weight or
load across the full length of the wall.
Roofing rafter: The longest, slanting legs of a truss, also called principal
rafters.
Verge: The edge of the roofing that projects over the gable of a
roof.
King (principal) post: The vertical post in the middle of the truss, attached to
the roofing rafters and the tie beam.
Queen post: The vertical posts on both sides of the king post.
Strut: The sloping legs of the truss between the tie beam and the
rafters.
Purlins: Horizontal timbers that strengthen the roof structure and
to which the roof is attached.
Fascia board: A board that covers the rafters along the outside edge of
the roof.
Verge board/
barge board: A board that covers the projecting edge of a gabled roof.
Span: The horizontal distance between two external walls.
Tie beam span: The horizontal distance between the outer edges of the
wall plate. To ensure accuracy, the measurement must be
taken on the building site by measuring the distance
between the edges of the actual wall plates.
It can also be calculated as follows:
Length of tie beam
Distance between the internal walls of the building
+ 2 times the width of the wall plate.

Example
Calculate the length of the tie beam if the span (internal measurements of the walls)
of a building is 8 700 mm and the wall plate is 114 mm wide.
Span = 8 700 mm + 114 mm + 114 mm
= 8 928 mm
Ridge: Highest point of the roof where the slanting rafters
intersect.
Plumb cut: The corner at the apex of the roof where the rafters
intersect. If the rafters are laid at the right angle, the
section will be vertical.
Heel: Where the roofing rafter and the tie beam intersect or
overlap.
Tail cut: The corner at the heel of the roof truss where the roofing
rafter and tie beam meet.
Pitch: The incline of the roof; equal to the angle between the
rafter and the tie beam.
Rise: The vertical distance from the underside of the tie beam
to the ridge.

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The layout of roofing rafters for a lean-to

1 = Rafter 228 x 50 mm
2 = Purlin 152 x 50 mm
3 = Drabalk 228 x 50 mm
4 = Verge board 228 x 50 mm
5 = Fascia board 228 x 50 mm
6 = Hipped roof
7 = Hipped end

Figure 7.158: The layout of roofing rafters for a lean-to

Layout of roof trusses for a roof with parapet walls

Purlin 76 x 50 mm

Roofing rafter 152 x 50 mm

Wall 220 mm

Purlin 76 x 50 mm

Roofing rafter 152 x 50 mm

Wall plate 114 x 76 mm

Wall 220 mm

Figure 7.159: Layout of roof trusses for a Figure 7.160: Attaching

roof with parapet walls rafters to a wall

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Activity 16
1. A rectangular building has to be fitted with a gabled roof. Draw the
external walls and indicate the top view of the roof using broken lines.
2. Use cardboard and build a scale model of a gabled roof.
2.1 A rectangular building has to be fitted with a hipped roof. Draw the
external walls and indicate the top view of the roof using broken lines.
2.2 Use cardboard and build a scale model of a hipped roof.
3. 3.1 A rectangular building has te be fitted with a hipped roof with a valley.
Draw the external walls and indicate the top view of the roof using
broken lines.
3.2 Use cardboard and build a scale model of a gabled roof.
4. The ground plan of a dwelling, not drawn according to scale, is shown.
Draw the ground plan of the dwelling using a
scale of 1 : 100. Only the walls must be shown. The windows and doors do
not have to be indicated.
4.2 Design a gabled roof for the dwelling based on this ground plan. The
roof has an overhang of 600 mm.
4.3 Design a hipped roof for the dwelling based on this ground plan. The
roof has an overhang of 600 mm.

5. The ground plan of a dwelling, not drawn according to scale, is shown.

5.1 Draw the ground plan of the dwelling using a scale of 1 : 100.
Only the walls must be shown. The windows and doors
do not have to be indicated.
5.2 Design a gabled roof for the dwelling based on this ground plan.
The roof has an overhang of 600 mm.

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5.3 Design a hipped roof for the dwelling based on this ground plan. The
roof has an overhang of 600 mm.

Roofing
There are various materials that are used as roofing but in this course, only the
following will be considered:
• Sheet metal (zinc or corrugated sheets)
• Concrete roofing tiles
• Thatch

Regulations concerning roofing

The general regulations that govern the specifications regarding the installation and
functionality of roofing are listed below. More specific regulations that apply to
each type of roofing will also be provided:
• No employee is allowed to work on a roof in inclement weather conditions that
pose a threat to his/her health and safety.
• Effective and sufficient precautionary measures must be taken in order to
prevent, as far as possible, a person, material or equipment from falling from the
roof.
• Devices used to affix roofing must be corrosion resistant.

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The functionality of roofing

Ideally, roofing must be designed to ensure that it:
• can resist weather conditions such as wind and rain
• looks durable and enhances the appearance of the building
• fire resistant
• provides insulation against heat and cold.

Installation methods
Steel roofing
The installation of steel roofing, such as corrugated or square-section zinc sheets
(IBR), is faster, simpler and more economical than the installation of tiles or other
roofing material.

Installation of steel roofing

• Space the purlins by calculating the centres between them. Purlins are usually
fixed approximately 900 mm between centres. The length of the principal rafter
is then divided by the number of purlins, determined beforehand, to ensure that
the distances between them remain the same.
• Always start at the brow of the roof and place the first sheet into position.
• Holes for the roofing screws are drilled through the crests of the corrugations
• The holes along the sides of the roofing sheet must be at least 75 mm from the
outer edge to accommodate the necessary end lap.
• Screw the sheets to the purlins using roofing screws. Each rustproof screw must
be fitted with a neoprene washer to prevent leakage at the screws.
• Each sheet that is laid must overlap (end lap) the previous one along the length
of one full corrugation.
• Repeat until all the sheets have been laid.
• Attach the ridge capping.
• Add flashing where necessary.
• In the case of gable-end roofs, the barge boards must be nailed to the purlins.
• Nail the fascia boards to the rafters.
• Affix the gutter hangers, gutters and downpipes.
• Where necessary, install wire netting to keep out birds.

If square-section zinc sheets are used, horizontal joints are unnecessary since the
sheets are available in continuous lengths. This roofing material requires a pitch of
at least 30°. These types of roofs are economical since they require fewer purlins.

Installation of concrete roof tiles

• Nail sheets of underlay (PVC-material) to the roofing rafters, making sure that
the sheets overlap by at least 300 mm. Start at the brow of the roof and work
towards the top.
• This layer of plastic allows rainwater that is blown in under the tiles to flow to
the gutters.
• The tile purlin at the ridge is usually 50 mm × 38 mm; one side is angled to serve
as support for the fascia board. It is also higher than the other purlins, that
measures 38 mm × 38 mm, to facilitate the fixing of the plastic underlayment
that prevents water from leaking into the roof. This ridge purlin is also called an
eaves board/lath (or an arris fillet).
• The topmost purlin is fixed 25 mm from the roof crown.
• The rest of the purlins are evenly spaced between the two distances.

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The spacing between the purlins can be calculated as follows:

For ordinary tiles:

Spacing = Length of tile – overhang

2

Example
An ordinary tile is 405 mm in length and has an overhang of 60 mm. Calculate the
distance between the centres of the purlins.

Spacing of an ordinary tile = 405 – 60

2

= 172,5 mm
Spacing of interlocking roof tiles = length of tiles – overhang

Example
Calculate the distance between the centres of the purlin/purlins if the tile is 420 mm
long and has an overhang of 75 mm.

Spacing = 420 – 75 mm
= 345 mm

Start at the lowest point of the roof:

• Lay the first tile at the bottom, right-hand side of the roof and work from right to
left.
• Lay the tiles in rows by first placing three tiles horizontally along the brow of the
roof, for example.
• Allow a 50 mm overhang at the brow to prevent rainwater from running directly
into the gutter.
• Use chalk line to transfer a line from the third tile to the summit of the roof.
• Lay the top row of three tiles, working from the chalk line.
• Attach the tiles mechanically to the eaves and gables.
• Lay the rest of the tiles between the top and bottom rows.
• Start at the bottom with the next row of three tiles and repeat the steps until all
the tiles have been laid.
• Place a strip of damp-proof coursing (DPC) along the length of the ridge.
• Apply a layer of mortar (dagha), approximately 50 mm thick, on top of the DPC
on both sides of the ridge to lay the ridge capping.
• Soak the ridge tiles in water, position them correctly on the strip of mortar and
press them firmly into place. Repeat this process and ensure that the overlaps of
the ridge tiles are suitable.
• Fix the flashing and brow finishes as required.

Installation of thatched roofs

• Nail the rafter poles to the roof trusses. The roof poles must be at least 100 mm
in diameter and the rafter poles must be 38 mm in diameter.
• Place a layer of special aluminium foil or other fireproof material on top of the
rafter poles to delay the spread of a fire.
• Use bundles of clean, dry, high-quality thatch measuring at least 150 mm thick
and fix them to the rafter poles using baling or tie wire. The thatched roof
overhangs must be constructed at least three metres from any neighbouring
property in order to reduce the fire hazard.
• Finish the ridge capping.

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• A lightning conductor (a wooden pole with a copper-wire core) must be mounted

in the ground approximately one metre from the building and it must extend
approximately one metre above the highest point of the building. Since the
conductor is positioned next to the building, the length may vary considerably.

Spacing of the roof trusses and purlins

The type of roofing determines the minimum pitch and the spacing between the
roof trusses and the purlins . The table below provides specifications regarding the
most commonly used roofing:

Roofing Minimum Maximum distance Maximum distance Dimensions of

pitch in between roof between purlins purlin
degrees (°) trusses
CLASS 1
Corrugated zinc, square-section
(IBR) zinc sheets, transparent sheets

Corrugated fibre-cement roof sheets 5 1 400 mm 1 200 mm 50 × 76 mm

1

76 × 76 mm
CLASS 2 Type and size of
Concrete and clay tiles 17 tiles determine the
calculation of centres; 38 × 38 mm
Fibre-cement tiles 10 760 mm usually 350 mm

CLASS 3
Thatched roof: 45 38 mm round
Thatch thickness 150 mm 760 mm 300 mm poles

Thatch thickness 300 mm 35

Metal roofing 10 1 050 mm As above 38 × 38 mm

Concrete roof tiles

Specifications
• The colour of each tile must be such that, regardless of weathering, it will not
look out of place among the rest of the tiles covering the roof surface.
• Tiles must overlap by at least 100 mm for pitches varying between 17½° and 25°;
a 75 mm overlap is required for a pitch in excess of 26°.

Advantages
• Concrete roof tiles are the most economical roofing material.
• They are durable and aesthetically pleasing.
• The tiles are available in various colours and profiles.

Composition
A strong concrete mixture is compressed into aluminium moulds under high
pressure and thereafter sawn into the required lengths. Curing takes 24 hours given
normal conditions and 7 to 8 hours if heat is applied. After this process, the tiles are
removed from the moulds and kept moist to ensure further hydration before they
are distributed for use.

Advantages
• Available in a wide variety of shapes
• Affordable
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• Can enhance the appearance of a dwelling
• Are available in various colour shades and shapes
• Require no maintenance and material is rustproof
• Are warm in winter and cool in summer
• Environmentally friendly – no health risks
• Are waterproof and durable.

Disadvantages
• Quite prone to chemical weathering
• Fragile and must be handled with care
• Heavier than most other roofing materials
• Not always uniform in colour
• Not able to resist extreme weather conditions if they are made of inferior
concrete
• More expensive because more roof battens (purlins) are needed than for sheet
metal roofing
• More labour intensive
• Porous AT times

Fixing
The tiles must each be nailed into position in the following ways, using copper,
aluminium or stainless steel nails:
• Each third tile in every layer
• All tiles in the ridge layer
• All cut tiles along each side of the corner (hip) rafter and the valleys
• All tiles along open brows and bargeboards
• All the tiles of roofs in coastal regions must be nailed to the purlins using
approved, nylon storm clips. These clips must be adapted to suit the tile profile.
• Hip ridge and ridge tiles must be laid in solid, pigmented, 3 : 1 mortar and
• Each tile must be tested to ensure firm placement.

Sheet metal roofing using IBR sheets

Specifications
• Metal roofing sheets must run continuously across the roof.
• Roofing sheets used inland must be galvanised.
• Roofing sheets used in coastal regions must be galvanised and painted at the
factory using approved paint.
• IBR roofing sheets must be raised above the ground and ventilated well before
they are installed.

Properties
These roofing sheets are especially suitable for commercial and industrial use. The
890 and 686 roofing sheets are available on the market; IBR 686 is most commonly
used.

Technical details regarding IBR 686 metal roofing

• Manufacturers must specify their products according to the official requirements
for roofing sheets.
• Profiled metal roofing sheets must be galvanised.
• A sheet consists of five trapezoid corrugations .
• Corrugations are 37 mm deep across 171,5 mm centres.
• The general width is 740 mm.
• The effective width is five corrugations across 171,5 mm centres for a width of
686 mm.

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Fixing
• The roofing sheets are screwed into position.
• Holes for the screws are drilled into the roofing sheets, not punched.
• Threaded spikes may not be used.
• Special weatherproof timber screws with proper, sharp screw threads must be
used in combination with neoprene and metal washers.
• Hooked hold-downs fasteners must be provided with neoprene and metal
washers under each bolt.
• Sheets must be laid with one corrugation overlap along both sides.
• Sheets must be laid according to the manufacturer’s directions.

Advantages
The roofing sheets are:
• easy to handle and not excessively heavy
• rigid and strong because of the angled sections
• extremely suitable for drainage of rainwater
• durable
• available in any length, only limited by the availability of transport
• rustproof if galvanised
• suitable for covering large areas
• can be bent at radii of 600 mm and more
• relatively easy to cut.

Disadvantages
• Sharp edges can be dangerous.
• Gloves must be worn when sheets are handled in order to prevent cuts.
• If the sheets are too thin, they may bend or crack when stepped upon.
• The sheets can rust along the edges if they have been cut using an angle grinder
rather than a pair of tin snips or a nibbler.

Corrugated zinc sheet roofing

Regulations
• Metal roofing sheets must run continuously across the roof.
• Roofing sheets used inland must be galvanised.
• Sheets used in coastal regions must be galvanised and painted at the factory
using approved paint.

Properties
• This is the most common, traditional type of profiled, galvanised roofing that is
used in South Africa.

Composition
• The quality of the steel is prescribed and manufacturers must certify that they
have met the specified requirements.
• Roofing sheets must be 0,8 mm thick for roof pitches between 8° and 14°; and
0,6 mm for roof pitches in excess of 15°.
• Corrugations must be 17,5 mm deep across 76 mm centres.
• The effective covering width must be between 601 mm and 672 mm.

Method of fixing
• The roofing sheets are screwed into position.
• Holes for the screws in the roofing sheets must be drilled, not punched.
• Threaded spikes may not be used.
• Special, weatherproof timber screws with proper, sharp screw threads must be
used in combination with neoprene and metal washers.
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• Hooked hold-down fasteners must be provided with neoprene and metal
washers under each bolt.
• The side laps of the sheets must not be fewer than 1½ flutes.
• Sheets must be laid according to the manufacturer’s directions.
• The end laps depend on the pitch of the roof: the steeper the incline, the shorter
the end laps:

Roof pitch End lap

More than 30° 150 mm
30° 175 mm
25° 200 mm
20° 225 mm
15° and less 300 mm

Advantages
Corrugated zinc sheeting:
• is relatively affordable and durable
• is available in various standard lengths
• is rigid during use and handling because of its profile
• is also available in various alloys or in aluminium, copper and stainless steel
• is manageable because it is not excessively heavy
• is rustproof because of the galvanisation process
• can cover large areas easily and quickly
• is easy to cut
• is resistant to lateral bending.

Disadvantages
• Sharp edges can be dangerous.
• Gloves must be worn when sheets are handled in order to prevent cuts.
• If the sheets are too thin, they may bend or crack when stepped upon.
• The sheets can rust along the edges if they have been cut using an angle grinder
rather than a pair of tin snips or nibbler.

Thatched roofs
Regulations:
The SANS 0040:1990, Part T, does not elaborate on thatched roofs. It merely
refers to the fact that should the area of the roof exceed 20 m2, the roof must be
constructed at least 4,5 metres from any boundary or neighbouring structures.
Insurers, however, have strict directives that must be obeyed before a thatched roof
can be insured. The directives are often adapted and are available upon request.

Properties
Thatching grass is a natural, ecologically advantageous material that comes from a
renewable source. Different types of reeds and grass are used, e.g. Cape thatching
reed and red grass found in the Bushveld and Lowveld regions. This very old
method of roofing is aesthetically pleasing, cool in summer and moderate in
winter. Thatched roofs are laid thickly enough and at the right pitch to ensure that
rainwater cannot penetrate the thatch.

Thatching grass is available in bundles that are laid over timber structures by
schooled workers. Thatch must be harvested after the rainy season and must be
completely dry before it is used as roofing.

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Only straight pieces of grass 760 mm to 1 020 mm in length with ends ranging from
120 mm to 150 mm in diameter must be used. The grass must be well combed and
cleaned of all loose leaves.

Method of fixing
Skilled thatchers must be employed to lay and fix the thatch on roofs. A team
usually comprises four workers – one to throw the bundles to the two workers on
the roof and another on the inside to attach the thatch using baling wire or twine
which he then pushes back up to the workers on the outside surface of the roof.

The best bundles are used as the bottom layer (spray layer) to ensure that the
exposed interior appears neat and clean. The butt ends of the bundle must be
evened out by butting the bundle on a butting board; this action also ensures that
any sharp ends are blunted. The thatch bundles are laid, starting at the verge with
the butt ends at the lowest end, parallel with the roofing rafters.

Each bundle in the first course at eaves level is secured to the second batten with
thatching twine at 75 mm intervals. Subsequent courses are secured to the roof
batten with thatching twine or sways.
Where the trusses (principals) – usually round, treated poles – meet, they are bolted
down, as are the horizontal collar beams (purlins). Thatchers usually prefer to nail
the battens to the purlins personally in order to ensure the best possible spacing for
the specific lengths of thatch used.

Advantages
• Cool in summer and warm in winter
• Ideally suited for roofs that have irregular profiles and compilations and appear
more “organic”
• Require less timber for the roof structure
• Do not need ceilings.

Disadvantages
• Extremely vulnerable to fire and must be treated with fireproof chemicals before
use
• More expensive to install than ordinary roofs because thatching is a labour-
intensive activity
• Demand more maintenance
• Susceptible to decay because thatch is an organic material
• Ridge capping need to have to be re-thatched every four to six years.

Figure 7.161: The interior of a thatched roof (Source: Thatch guide: CSIR)

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Activity 17
1. Name the hand tools needed to install square-fluted profile sheeting (IBR)
on a roof. Explain the use of each piece of equipment.
2. Which safety measures must be considered when sheeting is hoisted?
3. 3.1 What type of roofing would suit a rondavel?
3.2 Why would this roofing be suitable?
4. A roof is pitched at seven degrees. What type of roofing is available for this
pitch?
4. Why must the ridge tile batten be nailed 25 mm from the ridge?
5. Why is the batten higher than the other tile battens of a tiled roof?
6. What is the purpose of the neoprene washers affixed to roofing screws?
7. Where is flashing mounted when steel roofing is used?
8. The measurements of a clay tile is 405 mm × 280 mm. The manufacturers
indicate that an overhang of 75 mm must be used. Calculate the distance
between the centres of the tile battens.
9. The measurements of the tile battens is 420 mm × 333 mm. When they are
installed, the overhang should be 60 mm. Calculate the distance between
the centres of the tile battens.
10. What type of ridge capping is used for a rondavel?
11. Name two advantages and two disadvantages of:
11.1 concrete tiles.
11.2 IBR sheeting.
11.3 corrugated zinc sheeting.
11.4 thatched roofs.

Waterproofing
Introduction
A large amount of water is present underground, especially during the rainy season.
When it rains, rainwater penetrates the tops of walls or seeps through cracks, screw
holes or crevices. Parts of buildings that lie underground are in direct contact with
the groundwater and this may cause water to move up into the walls due to capillary
action.

In most buildings, rising damp in walls is prevented by a layer of plastic known as

damp-proof coursing (DPC), which is positioned under the walls before they are
constructed.

Damp-proof coursing must:

• be durable
• be completely waterproof
• be strong enough to carry weight without tearing or leaking
• be corrosion resistant
• be resistant to termites, rodents, bacteria and fungi
• not have an adverse effect on the stability of the building

Material used as DPC:

• Polythene – a very strong plastic, usually black; must not be thinner than
0,38 mm

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• Tar – bitumen DPC is available in rolls of varying widths; paper, felt and hessian
fabric are soaked in tar; it tears easily
• Malthoid (asphalt) – rolls of membrane that have been treated with a type
of pitch; cracks if it is bent and is very expensive; SANS 298 specifies mastic
asphalt(us) for water tanks
• Sheets of lead of various thickness; sold in bulk; flexible and commonly used to
seal roofs; very expensive
• Copper sheets – very expensive and sold in sheets; used on roofs for an
exceptional finish; rarely used because of the expense
• PermaFlex – liquid polymer that sets to form an elastic substance when mixed
with a catalyst
• Submersible pumps – used in areas where there are large amounts of groundwater

Waterproofing concrete floors

Insulate a concrete floor at ground level by using a good-quality DPC (0,25 mm)
immediately below the floor slab – it prevents the capillary rise of damp from the soil.
• The figure below indicates the position of the DPC in relation to the floor.

Damp Damp
proof proof
course course

Double Storey Double Wall Strip Foundation

Strip Foundation

Water proofing on
top of parapet
Weak Filler
concrete
G3 waterproofing
Brick wall

Concrete

Plaster

Cavity Wall Foundation

Figure 7.162: Waterproofing of concrete floors

• On drenched or soaked soil, the joints of the DPC sheets must always be sealed.
• Collect information on very wet conditions where the foundation will lie under
the natural ground level.

Damp-proofing walls at ground level

• DPC must be used in all external walls.
• Place it between two layers of plaster, not between the bricks.
• Lay it horizontally to extend at least 5 mm over the external walls.
• DPC must be laid at least 200 mm above the finished floor level and even higher
if soil can pile up against the walls.
• The sides of the DPC must never be covered with plaster or dagha (mortar).
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Regulations regarding DPC in cavity walls
• The DPC must be placed along the tops of window and door recesses if the eave’s
projection is less than 750 mm and the distance between the wall plate and the
top edge of the window or doorframe is less than 700 mm.
• The DPC must be placed under all the windowsills.
• The DPC must cover the entire width of the wall, including the cavities.
• The DPC must extend 100 mm beyond the reveals.
• The cavities immediately below the DPC must be filled with mortar.
• The DPC on the interior wall should be higher than the DPC on the outside
(stepped).
• The cavity must be 150 mm below the DPC.
• Weep holes should be inserted in the outside wall, at intervals not exceeding
1 m, where necessary.
• Care must be taken not to tear or damage the DPC.

Waterproofing roofs (parapet walls)

Sealoflex
This waterproofing system consists of a membrane and a polyester.
• The membrane is laid and coated with acrylic emulsion paint.
• The acrylic penetrates deep into the grooves and pores.
• A lighter membrane can be used to seal cracks in walls.
• A thicker membrane can be used along the sides of parapet walls.

Fibreglass (GRP)
• Place woven fibreglass cloth on top of the dry parapet wall.
• Make sure to cover the entire top surface of the wall.
• Mix resin with a catalyst and soak the fibreglass cloth in it.
• Repeat on the sides of the parapet, but embed the fibreglass cloth in the mortar
two bricklayers from the top.
• The fibreglass cloth must stretch down and across the roofing tiles or zinc sheets
and must be soaked in resin.

Fibre glass
membrane

Fibre glass ornamental flashing

Truss

Mono-pitched roof
and fibre glass
membrabe to parapet

Figure 7.163: Fibreglass waterproofing

Pre-cast concrete trusses

• Place a layer of DPC on the parapet wall first.
• Apply a layer of strong mortar on top of the DPC.
• Press the concrete truss, which is as broad as the wall, into the wet mortar.
• The concrete trusses are available in widths of 370 mm and 222 mm.

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Figure 7.164: Waterproofing roofs

The Torch-On system

• This system is used for parapet walls and even for flat roofs. It contains
polymers, pigments, processed bitumen and weatherproof polyester
reinforcements and can accommodate structural movements.
• A membrane soaked in bitumen (pitch) is draped over the parapet wall up to the
roofing tiles or sheets.
• The membrane is heated using a blow lamp and spread using a trowel.
• The heated pitch penetrates the pores and clings to the tiles or sheeting.
• Paint the membrane white or silver to protect the pitch after application.

Figure 7.165: Painting of bitumen

membrane

Lead sheets
Lead sheets bend easily around sides into corners and this makes it ideal for
waterproofing roofs and parapets. In the past, entire roofs used to be covered in
lead sheets because of its corrosion-resistant properties. Today, however, it is rarely
used, not only because of the expense, but also because of its toxic properties and
the pollution threat to the environment.

Lead sheets are joined by soldering, which is a difficult and dangerous process.

Waterproofing a cellar
A cellar that is built in an area that has a high water table can easily be drenched in
seepage water and it is, therefore, very difficult to make and keep it waterproof and
water-free. When constructing a building on soil that has a high water table, special
care must be taken to waterproof the structure from the outset.

Rising damp can cause problems such as damp spots against walls, the peeling of
paint or wall paper and, eventually, it may result in plaster dropping from the walls.
In the long run, it may even cause structural damage. Because the cellar usually
forms part of the foundation of a building, it must be built to withstand the effects
of groundwater, which may weaken the entire structure.

Salts and acids in groundwater attack the cement and mortar located between the
bricks as well as in the plaster. These salts combine with the moisture in the air and
cause masonry to crumble, which weakens structures.
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There are a number of reasons why cellars are not waterproof, among which the
following are the most common:
• DPC layers were not installed properly.
• The builder forgot to install DPC.
• The original DPC has sprung leaks because of the sagging of the building,
vibrations of passing traffic or general bottoming.

The first step is to keep water as far away from the foundation of the building as possible:
• Dig a trench directly under the discharge pipes or connect the pipes to a 110 mm
PVC pipe located approximately 1,5 metres from the wall.
• Fill cracks and holes in the concrete walls and floors with hydraulic cement.
• Use waterproof cement plaster to coat the insides of the cellar walls.
• Build the cellar with a structural wall on the outside and a retaining wall on the
inside.
• Use a channel between the walls to get rid of moisture that has penetrated the walls.
• Lead water to the outside or pump it out using an electric, submersible pump in
a waterproof sump.
• Use membrane sheets on the exterior of the retaining wall or cellar wall and
under the cellar floor.
• Prevent back fill from damaging the membrane.
• Discharge pipes must lead outpour well away from the building and underdrains
(subsurface drains) can be dug to carry off rainwater.
• Sub-soil filling must be placed in trenches and subsurface drainpipes can also
be laid in the trenches.

Cellar

DPC

Damp-proofing Cavity filling

Ground level

Bricks
Subsoil filling

Sand layer

Hard-core filling

Sub-surface drain Plaster

Back filling
Bricks

DPC

DPC

DPC

Figure 7.166: Waterproofing the exterior of a cellar wall

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Waterproofing can also be applied to the interior, but this is difficult if the cellar
walls are already damp. PermaFlex – a liquid rubber that solidifies when a catalyst
is added – is extremely effective and can be applied as follows:
• Relieve hydrostatic pressure by drilling holes in the bases of cement blocks.
• Remove paint that has peeled or any loose material in cracks, or scrub the walls
using a wire brush.
• Fill the seams or joints, cracks, holes and rough areas using liquid PermaFlex
rubber.
• The rubber base is mixed with an activator and then solidifies in the holes and
cracks.
• Place a PermaFlex layer where the cellar wall meets the floor.
• Concrete block walls must be covered with three layers of PermaFlex because
they are very porous.

Advantages of PermaFlex
• It is easy to mix.
• It is fluid and easy to apply.
• When it sets, it bonds with cement, concrete, wood, plastic and metal.
• It can be rubbed, rolled or sprayed onto the chosen surface.
• It remains flexible and does not desiccate.
• It is sticky and penetrates deep into the cracks.
• It’s disadvantage is that it is inflammable in any form.

Activity 18
Explain how you would waterproof a cellar that is constantly wet. Consult the
builders in your area and do further research on the topic.

Test to determine the most suitable material for waterproofing.

1. Place a cement brick in a bowl, laying it on its flat side.
2. Fill the bowl with water until it reaches to just below the top of the brick.
3. Weigh a second brick and write down its weight.
4. Place various waterproofing materials on top of the brick in the bowl and
then place the dry brick on the waterproofing material. Leave it for 24 hours.
5. Weigh the brick and write down the weight.
6. The test must be repeated using all the waterproofing materials.
7. Which material allowed through the least moisture?
8. Explain how you arrived at your answer.

Material Dry weight of brick Weight of brick after 24 hours

Paper

Cardboard

Leather

Plastic

Lowest weight of brick Proofing material

Use this table for your experiment.

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Finishing
Tiling
Tiling was studied in Grade 11. In this section, wall and floor tiling will be
discussed. (Read more about tiling in the Grade 11 book on pages 257–261.)

The patterns according to which tiles are laid depend on the owner of the building,
but the actual tiling process remains the responsibility of the builder.

Tiles can be used indoors or outdoors, but the right material must be chosen and
they must be laid using appropriate adhesives.

Here are some of the most common materials used for tiles:
• PVC, vinyl or other types of plastic
• Ceramics (baked clay)
• Wood block/wood mosaic flooring
• Textiles (carpet) and cut or natural stone.

The tiling process

The proper preparation of the substrate (floor surface) on which the tiles are to be
laid is of the utmost importance. Assuming that the builder has provided a smooth,
sturdy and even floor slab, proceed as follows:

Step 1
Clean the floor surface thoroughly. All dust, building rubble and other material
must be hosed, brushed, scraped or swept away to provide a suitable surface for the
tiling to commence.

Step 2
Determine the centre of the room by connecting opposite corners using chalk line.
Snap the diagonal chalk lines – the centre of the room (midpoint) is where the lines
intersect.

Step 3
Lay the tiles without using any adhesive or cement. This so-called ‘dry run’
determines the line along which the first row of tiles will be laid and the spacing of
the grout lines.

Step 4
Snap an additional chalk line the width of a tile from each wall. This will help keep
the tile placement perfectly straight. Continue laying out tiles and spacers until
placement is correct.

Step 5
Mix the tile cement. Use a self-mix mortar for the tile installation. Pour water into
a bucket, add the mortar and begin mixing. Continue to mix until the texture is
creamy. Then let the mortar stand for about 10 minutes to get tacky.

Step 6
Apply the creamy mortar mixture. Spread the mixture on the floor and use a
notched trowel to obtain an even layer of mortar. Work in small sections to keep
the mortar from drying before the tile is in position.

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Step 7
Place or press the tiles into position. Use a rubber hammer to ensure that the tile
surface is level. Lay one tile at a time on either side of the first one. Space them
exactly for even grouting. Use spacers if necessary to ensure even spacing between
the tiles.

Step 8
When you reach a wall where a standard tile will not fit, mark the tile and make cuts
with a standard tile cutter. If you don’t use a tile cutter, mark the tiles and have a tile
supplier cut them to size prior to installation.

Step 9
Place the spacers. When the tiling is complete, allow the tiles to dry in place for a
day or two before grouting.

Step 10
Grout is available in a variety of textures and colours. Pick a colour that matches
the colour of the tile. Use a rubber trowel or float to spread the grout across the
tiles.

Step 11
When the grout is in place, wipe away the excess with a damp sponge or cloth.
Repeat this process several times, being careful not to remove the grout lines
around the tiles.

Polish the tiles with a dry cloth or dry brush for a clean, shiny surface. Wash the
Did you know?
floor, but avoid using abrasives and steel wool.
The word “film”is
used because the layer
of grout that remains on Tiling walls
the tile is very thin.
Step 1
Clean and prepare the walls:
Floor levels are very often uneven. Make sure that the walls are clean and dust-free.
It is not necessary to determine the centre of the wall, as is the case when tiling a
floor, but the lowest point must be determined.

Step 2
Determine where to start tiling:
Place a tile and mark its position at the top. Mark the level height across from this
first mark and secure battens to the wall below this mark. Secure the next batten
vertically on a level with the horizontal line (90° angle).

Step 3
Chalk lines:
Snap chalk lines along these battens.

Step 4
Mix the tile cement (adhesive):
As for floor tiles, mix with water until the texture is creamy. Allow to stand for
approximately 10 minutes.

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Step 5
Apply the creamy cement (adhesive):
Apply the mixture to the wall above the horizontal batten using a notched trowel to
ensure an even layer of cement against the wall. Tiling can now start at the point
where the horizontal and vertical lines intersect.

Step 6
Place the tiles:
Place or press the tiles into position using a twisting motion. Continue laying the
tiles until the appropriate height is reached. Use spacers if necessary to ensure even
spacing of tiles. Make sure that the tiles adhere firmly to the wall.

Step 7
Cut tiles:
Remove the battens when the wall is tiled completely. Tile the bottom and last row,
where a standard tile will not fit. Mark and then cut the standard tile using a tile
cutter.

Step 8
Grout:
As for floor tiles, use a rubber trowel or float to spread the grout across the tiles.

Step 9
Remove excess grout:
When the grout is in place and almost dry, remove excess grout using a damp
sponge or cloth. Follow the same steps as for floor tiles to complete the process.

Standards for laying tiles

VINYL floor finishes
Semi-flexible vinyl floor tiles must meet the requirements stipulated in the SABS
Standard Specification 581 and flexible vinyl (PVC) floor tiles and sheets must
meet the SABS Standard Specifications 786 – all tiles must be 2 mm thick unless
otherwise stated. Vinyl cove skirtings must be 70 mm high and manufactured using
the approved standard.

Painting

The purpose of paint is to protect a surface against rust, corrosion, seepage of water
and moisture and to enhance its appearance.

Pre-painting
• When you wish to paint a surface, study it carefully.
• You can only start preparing once you have checked the surface.
• Decide on the colour and type of paint that you wish to apply. Various products,
such as Plascon or Dulux, can be used.
• Consider the quality of the product before making a final decision.

In the paint industry, paint is mixed with many chemicals. Some of the products
used in paint can cause harm to the environment and are dangerous to human
health. Paint also has a strong, pungent odour when it is applied or drying. Some
of the gases, called volatile organic compound (VOC), contribute to the greenhouse
effect.

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In order to meet the standards of Building Regulations 14001 , a company such as

Plascon has removed dangerous metals, solutions and additives from their paint.
VOC stains have been reduced to make sure that products meet international
standards.

Using technologically advanced Plascon products, together with thorough

preparation of the surfaces and the correct application of the products, will protect
and enhance the aesthetic qualities of your surfaces.

Ingredients of paint
• Pigment – provides the colour
• Binding agent – keeps pigments together and provides a strong finish that clings
to the surface
• Fluid – ensures uniformity
• Additives – ingredients with specific properties (preservatives to keep paint fresh
and prevent the growth of fungi)

Advantages of using top quality interior paint

• It can be applied smoothly and evenly without showing brush or roller markings.
• There is very little spatter during application.
• Adhesive properties are stronger, thus less paint is needed to cover the surface.
• It is more resistant to dirt and stains, which makes cleaning and maintenance
easier.

Advantages of using top quality exterior paint

• Clings easily and firmly, thus less likely to peel, flake or pop
• Improved resistance to colour changes, thus excellent retention of colour
• Improved resistance to dirt, thus remains looking fresh
• Improved resistance to mildew (mould), so the paint will not be marred by un-
sightly black or brown spots
• Overall improved durability

Methods of applying paint (interior and exterior)

Paintbrushes

Rollers and sprays may be fast, but a paintbrush still provides the best application.
Woodwork should be painted using a brush. The slightly imperfect strokes of each
application and brush marks give the woood a warmer, richer feel.

Brushes are necessary when most painting is done, since they allow one to reach
into corners.

Acrylic paint, that represents 90% of all sales, is best applied using a synthetic brush
with nylon and polyester (right) bristles.

Natural-hair paintbrushes (right) are traditionally used to apply oil paint,

polyurethane and varnish, but a new synthetic-bristle oil-paint brushes have taken
the markets by storm. The ultimate test of any brush is how well it picks up and
places the paint.

Nylon brushes
These durable bristles (the same formula as used for toothbrushes) can be used on
brick and other rough surfaces without being damaged.

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Synthetic brushes
Combine nylon for durability with polyester for firmness. Most are used for acrylic
paint, but these brushes work as well with oil paint, thanks to the tough nylon
bristles.

Rollers

A good roller has a woolly, thick nap so that it has the capacity to hold more paint.
These rollers do not drip and spatter as much as brushes and a thicker coat of
paint can be applied more smoothly. Good mohair rollers are used for the smooth
application of solvent-based paint. Synthetic rollers are used for water-based paint.

Sprays

They ensure a uniform application for a smooth, drip-free finish. They are used to
paint hard-to-reach places and to cover larger areas more quickly.

Application methods

How you hold a paintbrush will depend on the type of brush you are using. A thin
brush will be held like a pen, while a larger, heavier brush will require a firmer grip.
(See illustrations on the right.) Paint the ceilings first when an entire room is being
painted.
• Paint half-metre strips around the room.
• Start closest to the window.
• Work sideways to cut in where the ceiling and wall meet.

To paint corners using a paintbrush

Paint horizontal strokes away from the corner and then use vertical strokes to the
top or bottom (see photo).

Roller application
• Use a roller tray with a slanting surface.
• Pour just enough paint into the tray to fill up to a third of the tray’s well.
• Push the roller forwards and backwards down the slope of the rake and into the
paint well to cover it in paint. Remove excess paint at the top of the tray (the rake).
• Cover the surface of the wall using diagonal strokes until the strokes of paint
merge.
• The corners of the room must first be cut in using a paintbrush, since the roller
cannot fit into the corners.

Spray-painting
• Before starting the paint job, make sure that the surface is clean and dust-free.
• Spray-painting is a skill that is acquired over time.
• It is done using a high-pressure compression system and spray gun.
• Only certain paints can be used, since the mixture must flow through the nozzle
of the gun.
• Do not spray or apply the paint in an arch.
• Move the spray-gun parallel with the surface. Move to and fro or from left to
right and vice versa.

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
Figure 7.167: Do not spray the paint in an arch.

Figure 7.168: Sweep spray parallel with the surface.

Special finish or modern finishes

Other methods of applying paint are being tried and tested these days and more ap-
paratus (applicators) is being used.

Figure 7.169: Examples of sponge Figure 7.170: Tray with roller and type of
rollers used to paint patterns hand-held sponge (sharp end can be used in
corners)

Wallpaper
Wallpaper is used as a finish worldwide. It is most commonly used in first-world
countries.

Various types of wallpaper are manufactured and available, e.g.:

• Machine-printed wallpaper
• Hand-printed wallpaper that is printed using a stencil and screen
• Embossed paper that is pressed using a metal roller
• Flocked paper with silk, nylon and/or wool fibres affixed to paper
• Wood chips that are pulped and then rolled out
• A facing strip is a paper strip with cotton backing and is available in sheets.

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Wood finishing or coverings
Framing panels/wood panelling are/is most commonly used since they can cover
large surface areas. Fastening is mounted against the wall, the panel strips are
nailed to this and the nails are hidden. Hardboard panels are attached to the wall
using glue.

Figure 7.171: Example of a wood panel

Stone finishes or covering

Proper installation of stonework will ensure an aesthetic finish. It not only
enhances the appearance of your property and increases its value, but is also
practical and durable. It is easy to affix to concrete and brick walls. This finish can
also be used in entrance halls, behind fireplaces, in showrooms, in open fireplaces,
on garden walls and even in living rooms.

Sandstone tiles
These tiles are popular these days and are manufactured to resemble natural
sandstone. The tiles are commonly used in kitchens, living areas and even foyers.
They can be sealed using a colourless sealant to make the tiles waterproof. The tiles
are mounted on walls like any other wall tiles. Grout must be applied carefully to
prevent it from staining the tiles. The wall surface and backs of tiles must be rough
and free of any loose material in order to ensure proper adhesion. Sandstone tiles
are laid using tile adhesive. Acid and cleaning agents must never be used to clean
sandstone since this may damage the surface of the product and destroy the natural
richness of colour.

Wall finishes using metal or aluminium

These methods offer modern finishes for walls and even ceilings. They can be
purely decorative or serve as protection against the elements.
Aluminium covering is most frequently used in hospitals and shopping centres to
protect walls against weathering and damage. Stainless steel and aluminium are
durable and available in various patterns. Machine-brushed sheeting is preferred by
many consumers.

Plasterwork
Plaster is used to seal walls, cover structures and decorate surfaces.

The SA standards regarding plasterwork

Thickness of the plaster
Plaster on walls may not be less than 12 mm or more than 20 mm thick and the
plaster on concrete ceilings and beams may not be less than 9 mm or more than
16 mm thick. Wet the walls before commencing with the plasterwork.

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Modern plastering techniques

Two primary methods are used to finish the constructed interior and/or exterior of
modern houses:
• Rough-cast plastering
• Smooth plaster finish.

Plaster finishing
The owner of the house and the plasterer, usually decide on the style before the
work commences. Typical walls and ceilings are smooth. Homeowners may choose
to use texturing techniques if these prove to be easier, are quick to complete and
thus cheaper than a smooth finish.

Rough-cast plastering
How is this done?
• After the plaster has been mixed, it must be placed on a plasterboard (mixing
board).
• Scrape the plaster onto a steel plastering trowel (hawk) and then spread it onto
the wall.
• The way in which the board is held will determine how the plaster is applied.
• Cover a small area at a time. However, the entire wall must be completed on the
same day.
• As soon as the plaster has hardened slightly, level and smooth the surface using a
wooden or aluminium trowel. Hold it at a very shallow angle to the wall, moving
across the entire surface in a sawing motion.
• Once the plaster has been levelled, wet the surface by flicking water onto the wall
using a large paintbrush.
• Use a wooden float to smoothen the surface.
• Circular motions are recommended since this ensures an even surface.
• Keep the plaster moist for as long as possible, since quick drying can cause
cracks and hair seams.
• Cover with plastic, if at all possible, should the plastered surface be exposed to
direct sunlight or if conditions are very windy.
• Wet the surface regularly in very dry weather.

Smooth plastered finish

If a smooth finish is required, the final step will be carried out using a steel
plastering trowel. This tool is used to finish mortar (dagha) smoothly. It ensures a
smoother finish than would be obtained using a float.

Plastering ceilings
Plasterers will divide a large room because Cretesone is used.
Crates or scaffolding must be used at the right height to enable plasterers to spread
the Cretestone, since it dries very quickly. It is applied in thin layers in square metre
areas and immediately levelled. A large paintbrush must be at hand to keep the
Cretestone moist as it is smoothened.

New plastering methods

Rapid plastering
A gypsum-based product called MP75 is used to cover much greater areas in less
time. The finish is equal to or better than Cretestone or plastering using mortar
and it leaves minimal mess. There are other welcome cost-saving benefits too, for
example, as much as 30% of the plaster that is mixed on site ends up wasted. This
wastage is negligible with MP75 plaster and the site is much cleaner for it. Waste
removal is reduced too – another saving.

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• With MP75 plaster, you do not need to use a primer when you wish to paint a
wall surface.
• It provides a durable, smooth, white finish and is better than any product that is
currently available on the South African market.
• It is suitable for surfaces such as brickwork, block work, concrete and
polystyrene; the exceptions are wood and metal.
• It is compatible with the G4 projection plastering machine.
• External plastering is usually a “spray-on” service; the plaster is floated and
smoothened after application.

Covering plumbing pipes, electrical installations and drainpipes

against walls and on floors

Cutting into walls and floors to lay cables and pipes

• Making cuts in floors and walls is the most common method used to install
cables, pipes and wiring under the surface.
• This cutting can be done in concrete, bricks, blocks, plastered walls, etc.
• The depth and width of the cut will depend on its purpose.
• When dry cutting is done, a vacuum cleaner can be used simultaneously with
the cutter.
• This will leave less dust and dirt behind.
• This is the neatest and best method of concealing cables and pipes.
• There are certain guidelines to follow when cutting is done to install cables and
pipes in walls and floors:
– Cuts must always be vertical or horizontal.
– Cuts must not be deeper than one third of the thickness of the wall.
– Use a cold chisel to remove left-over plaster and pieces of brick from the
groove.

Steps to cutting a groove in walls:

Step 1
Mark the area that has to be cut. If you are installing a draw-box, make sure that it
is positioned at the correct height. Also make sure that the plaster is completely dry
before you start cutting.

Step 2
Use a wall-cutting tool as shown in the adjacent figure. Wear safety goggles and a
mask when cutting. The cutting can also be done using an angle grinder. The cut
must be deep enough only to suit the purpose.

Step 3
Break or chip away the redundant material left in the groove, using a cold chisel and
a sledgehammer. Make sure that the cut is deep enough to accommodate the cable
or pipe.

Step 4
When the grooves have been opened completely, the pipes or cables can be fitted.
Use steel nails to keep the pipes and cables in position (to prevent them from falling
out). When a draw-box is being installed, the hole has to be plastered before the
box is inserted into the hole.

Step 5
Mix a batch of strong mortar and use it to cover the pipes or cables and fill the
grooves. A small brick trowel can be used to push the mortar in behind the pipes
or cables. The plaster must be allowed to dry before it is smoothed and levelled to
match the rest of the surface. (Refer to the section on plastering in this chapter.)
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Step 6
The final finishing of the wall: If the wall is going to be tiled, it is not necessary to
finish it neatly and smooth, but walls that have to be painted must have a smooth
finish. Use newspaper or plastic to cover the draw-box for the final finish. Paint or
tile the area when the plaster has dried. (Refer to the section on tiling and painting
in this chapter.)

Cutting floors and concrete

This cutting method uses a machine that has a hoover apparatus attached to it.

This type of cutting is done when large pipes or cables have to be laid in floors.
It can only be done on a flat surface.

A concrete floor saw (cut saw) machine is used for cutting concrete, asphalt and
other structural material, such as tar or even concrete decks.

Activity 19
1. What is the purpose of painting?
2. What should first be done before you begin painting?
3. What are the ingredients of paint?
4. List THREE ways to apply paint to a wall.
5. What does it mean when we talk about ‘smoothly finished’ plaster?
6. Why would pipes that are intended to be used to carry wiring, be installed
below the level of the wall?
7. How would you cut grooves into a wall?

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 Chapter 8
Civil services

Household water Water sources Plumbing

Sewerage Storm water

Electrical systems
 8 Civil Technology

Introduction
South Africa is an arid country. The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
allege that South Africa will experience a serious water crisis in 2030. There is a vast
and ever-growing demand for fresh water supply in our country, while the natural
fresh water sources are not increasing. The need to supply water to sustain vital
activities, such as irrigation, the generation of electricity (power stations), industrial
development, etc., far outweighs the need to supply drinkable water. In South
Africa, with its ever-increasing population, it is thus of the utmost importance to
conserve water sources in any way possible and to save water. In this chapter the
focus will be on the practical apsects associated with water supply to premises and
buildings such as houses.

Household water
Purified water used by households is supplied under high pressure from municipal
reservoirs and water pipeline. A water meter is installed to link the household’s
water supply to the municipal pipeline. The supply or consumption of each
household or business is measured by a water meter located between the municipal
pipeline and the consumer.
Did you know? Water supplied to towns flows from the main pipelines to dwellings through pipes
Humankind that are 15 mm in diameter – industries and farms are supplied by larger pipes. For
cannot survive without more information regarding water supply and the two most common systems of
water. supply, refer to pages 243 to 245 in the Grade 10 Civil Technology Learners book.
Please consult this text.

The quality of water

The quality of the water, supplied by most of the local authorities, is controlled
by the SANS and there are stringent requirements that must met. However, the
taste, colour and other qualities may vary from place to place. The most common
criterion is how “hard” or “soft” the water is.

Soft water
• This is water that has a very low mineral content and it is most often found in
wetter regions.
• Distilled water is the softest since it contains no dissolved salts.
• It is usually alkaline and tastes pleasant (sweet).
• It allows soap to foam easily.
• It does not change the colour of washing and leaves a “scummy” residue.
• It leaves no deposit in kettles and pipes.

Hard water
• It contains a higher concentration of dissolved minerals than soft water and it is
usually found in dryer regions.
• It does not taste like soft water; it is sometimes salty, acrid even bitter.
• It usually contains salts, such as common salt and minerals, such as calcium and
magnesium or fluoride.
• When soap is used in hard water, it does not foam easily and a thick, “scummy”
residue is left on washing.
• It helps to develop strong teeth and bones.

Water pressure
A certain amount of pressure is required in order to move water through pipes to
where it is needed. Most water sources, such as rivers, are located in low-lying areas
and water has to be pumped to dams, from where gravity or pumps are used for
further distribution.
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The water pressure varies from municipality to municipality. The higher the
pressure, the better the output or supply.

Low water pressure causes the flow of water to premises to weaken, especially for
example when more than one tap is opened simultaneously.

Standards of water systems

The SANS has determined specific standards for the following apsects pertaining to
the water system in and around buildings and plumbers must familiarise themselves
with these regulations. These include:
• SANS 10252 Part 1 : Water supply installation for buildings
• SANS 10252 Part 2: Drainage installation for buildings
• SANS 10254 : Installation, maintenance, replacement and repair of fixed electric
storage water heating systems
• SANS 10106: Installation, maintenance, repair and replacement of domestic
solar water heating systems

Municipal water supply installation for new premises:

Before water can be supplied to a new plot, thorough planning and research must
first be done in order to ensure that the system works and that all the regulations are
met. Each system must be adapted to suit the premises.

Step 1
• Inspect the site and study the site plan and building plans.
• The plans indicate where all taps, stopcocks, sanitary plumbing, hand basins,
baths, etc. will be positioned.
• Determine where the sewage, discharge pipes and drainage must be installed.
• Determine where the municipal water supply is located with respect to the
street.
• Determine the strength of the water pressure and the flow of water from the
main pipeline.
• Contact the local authority to arrange the water supply connection and a water
meter from the main supply near the street (if such a connection does not
already exist).

Step 2
Important: Make sure that the site is safe and that you have access to the site.
• As a plumber, you need permission to enter private premises.
• Before any work commences, safety measures must be in place.
• Material and equipment must be stored and secured on site.

Step 3
Set out the details before you start the cutting and excavations.
• The work is subdivided into indoor and outdoor plumbing.
• The installation of outdoor pipes is determined by the slope of the premises and
the position of the municipal connection point.
• The site plan will provide all the locations and depths, according to which the
slope of the premises must be calculated – this will be discussed later in this
chapter.
• After the house has been constructed, the plumbing must be planned according
to the position of all installations.
• If you are doing the layout on a hard surface, regardless of whether you are
working inside or outside, you can use a chalk line, a piece of chalk or builder’s
pencil.
• Use a spirit level to mark off vertical or horizontal lines on a wall.

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Step 4
Estimate the quantity of material needed and order it.
• After the layout has been completed, the quantity of material needed must be
estimated and ordered.
• Ask the dealer to deliver the material to the site and store it properly.

Step 5
Excavating and cutting
• Once the layout has been completed and approved by a building inspector,
excavations and the cutting of walls and floors can commence.
• Excavations that have 90-degree angles must be marked out using the 3 : 4 : 5
method.
• Ensure that the excavations have reached the required depth and have the
correct slope before laying the pipes.
• Ensure that the required depth is reached when cutting into walls and floors.

Step 6
The laying and testing of pipes
• Lay the water pipes, starting at the water meter.
• Connect all the sanitary and other fittings to their pipes.
• Make sure that the hot-water cylinder (geyser) is placed correctly – the pipes and
electricity will be installed later.
• Ensure that the pipes that are installed in the walls and floors have been properly
soldered or that the screw joints have been completely tightened.
• Test the water system by opening the main water supply – the pressure must
meet regulations.

Step 7
The final inspection
• Repair any leaks or loss of pressure before the final inspection takes place.
• After the inspection, all the pipes and joints can be covered and/or plastered.
Vacuum breaker
Overflow (to fall)

Geyser

Expansion
relief valve

Cold water Hot supply

Shower tray
from mains Cold supply Trap
Washing Bath
machine
Sink
Overflow Basin
P trap
Toilet

Meter

P trap

Figure 8.1: Cold water supply to a house

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Water sources
Boreholes

These are one of the most basic sources of water, although boreholes are still in use
all over our country. Now that water is becoming even scarcer and more expensive,
more and more people are sinking boreholes. There are several ways of sinking
boreholes:
• A 59 mm steel pipe is connected with a water pump. Water is then pumped to
“blast” a hole in the ground.
• A faster method uses a diesel engine to drive an auger into the ground. This
method is more expensive because you have to hire the machine and its trained
operators. These machines can drill much faster and deeper, up to 30 metres.

Whenever underground water is hit, a polythene pipe is let down into so that a
motorised pump or wind pump can pump the water to the surface.

A fine mesh is placed over the lower end of the pipe to keep sediment out. Borehole
water is usually used for livestock, farming or gardening, although the water may be
pure enough for human consumption.

Maintenance
Boreholes need minimal maintenance. What can happen is that the pump motor
may break or need maintenance or that the pipes may get blocked and need to be
lifted out for cleaning.

Advantages
• It provides a reliable supply of water.
• It is quite cheap – sinking the hole is the only major expense.
• It is often suitable for household use.
• It is independent of the municipal supply.

Disadvantages
• During a power outage an electric pump won’t pump.
• The water may be polluted or dirty.
• The water may be too acid or alkaline.
• Pumps can break or need expensive repairs.

Shallow wells
A well dug by hand can also provide water. These wells are often dug with the help
of concrete sections as follows:
• A circular concrete section is placed where the well needs to be dug and the
ground inside the rings is dug out.
• As the hole is dug, a new section is placed on top of the first. As the well gets
deeper, the sections sink and new ones are placed on top. In this way the rings
form a lining for the well.
• The water is lifted out in a bucket or pumped out with a hand pump.
• The water can also be lifted with an electric pump.
• The water can be stored in a tank.
• A well (or borehole) must not be sunk within 40 m of a pit latrine, septic tank,
French drain, sewerage line or waste dump.
• A well must be built up 30 cm above ground level to keep out dirt or polluted
water.

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Advantages
• Water savings
Did you know? • A reliable water supply
The Big Hole at • The water is easy and therefore cheap to access.
Kimberley, the world’s
largest man-made hole, Disadvantages
was dug by hand to • Possible water pollution by nitrates or chlorides
extract diamonds. • The well may dry up or need cleaning.
• Danger – children may fall into an open well
• Pollution may make the water unusable.

Desalination

Researchers have been looking for economical methods of desalinating brackish

and salt water for human use. Various methods are presently in use, but they are all
expensive. Some of the methods include:
• Evaporation – Water is heated in some way and the steam is condensed into
fresh water.
• Flash evaporation – Seawater is heated and pumped into vacuum tanks, where
it evaporates rapidly. Steam condenses and is tapped as fresh water.
• Freezing – Salt water is frozen and ice crystals of pure water are screened out,
washed and melted as fresh water.
• Osmosis is an efficient process, but is very expensive. Water is forced through
thin membranes – only fresh water is let through while salts stay behind.
• Electrodialysis is a process using electricity to desalinate brackish water.

Advantages
• The supply of raw water (sea water) is unlimited.
• Desalinated water contains little or no pollutants.
• By-products like table salt can be obtained in the process.

Disadvantages
• May still contain salts.
• These processes are all expensive.
• The upkeep of machinery and equipment is expensive.
• The fresh water may have an undesirable colour.

Basic plumbing for a dwelling

When you are installing pipes,
various bends and couplers, it will
be worth your while to consider
the following pipe system. This
range is unique and quick to
install. Even a handyman can use
this material to install a system.
Few tools are needed for the
installation.

Figure 8.2: Couplers

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Materials
Pipes that are used for sewage and drinking-water are manufactured from
different materials which are all rustproof to a certain extent, such as copper, PVC,
galvanised iron, glazed clay pipes or other types of plastic. Because of the wave
of copper theft during the past year, the use of copper pipes, especially on the
exterior of buildings, has decreased. Instead, sturdy plastic pipes are used virtually
everywhere and in all new buildings.

Underground pipes are made of fiber-cement, PVC, pitch-fibre or cast iron. Soft
steel, which is covered in a layer of concrete to make it rustproof, is also used in the
manufacture of large water pipes.

Various fittings used in plumbing

Table 8.1: Copper fittings (soldered) and brass connections (screw joints)

Fitting Copper Brass Polythene (PVC) Function

Straight coupler To connect straight
pipes

Reducer Allows a change

in connection size,
from bigger to
smaller or vice versa

90° elbow fitting To connect pipes at a

90° angle

45° -elbow fitting To connect pipes at a

45° angle

T-pipe To make a T-shaped

connection

Reducing tee To make a T-shaped

connection where
one opening is larger
or smaller than the
others

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Pipe-to-tap fitting To connect a tap to

a pipe

Pipe cap To stem the flow of

water at the end of
the pipe

Plumbing tape or To fix a pipe to a

piping surface or to keep it
in position

Crossover pipe To make a joint

where there is an
obstruction.

Installing plumbing at various points

Kitchen sink or sink

It is used to facilitate the washing of cutlery and crockery. It is made of stainless

steel, plastic, enamel, or soft steel. The water is supplied by wall-mounted taps or
mixers. Wastewater flows away through a 40 mm PVC pipe that is equipped with
a trap.

Figure 8.3: Cold and hot water supply to a sink

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Shower

Showers are installed to save water when

cleansing the body. Two pipes are installed via
the roof or from the bottom to provide water to
the showerhead. A low-pressure showerhead is
preferable since it does not use too much water. A
tap is fitted to both the hot water and the cold water
pipes to regulate the flow of water.

Figure 8.4: Hot and cold water supply to the shower

Bath

Baths are available in various sizes

and colours. The water is supplied by
wall-mounted taps or mixers. The taps
are usually mounted on the top or on
the side of the bath. They can also be
mounted on the wall.

Figure 8.5:
Hot and cold water supply to the bath

Toilet

The toilet has a tank that allows

flushing. It is usually made of
porcelain.

Figure 8.6:
Cold water supply to the cistern

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Material used for cold and hot water supply

Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC)
A polyethylene pipe can have either a low or a high density, depending on the
pressure that it has to withstand and its use.

Properties
• It is rust and corrosion resistant and resistant to most chemicals.
• It is durable and has a long working life.
• It is lightweight, malleable and has a smooth internal surface.
• It is easy to cut and join.
• It has excellent shock-absorbing properties.
• The pipes are heat and water-resistant.
• PVC pipes are available in white or grey.

Advantages
• It is light and easy to handle.
• It is available in lengths of up to 6 m.
• It is easy to install.
• It is resistant to sunlight and many chemical materials.
• It is rustproof and corrosion-proof.

Disadvantages
• It is not resistant to very high pressure.
• It is deformed by excessive heat.
• It snaps and breaks easily, which may result in leaks.

Copper
Properties
• Copper is a reddish metal with high electrical and thermal conductance.
• Until recently, it was the most commonly used material for the manufacture of
water pipes.
• Copper is malleable and ductile.
• The thickness varies from 15 mm to 28 mm.
• It is available in lengths of up to 6 m.

Advantages
• It is rustproof.
• It can easily be bent.
• It is strong and the colour does not fade when exposed to direct sunlight.
• Pipes can be connected easily and firmly using soldered couplers.
• Bacteria do not grow in these pipes.
• It is extremely durable.

Disadvantages
• Copper pipes are very expensive.
• They are not suitable for use where water contains high acid levels.

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Galvanised steel
Properties
• It is available in lengths of up to 6 m.
• Pipes can be joined using threaded pipe and couplers.
• The joints can be waterproofed by using plumbing tape.
• The colour varies from light grey to a more silvery sheen.
• The zinc content in the steel reduces corrosion.

Advantages
• It lasts very long.
• Iron pipes are considerably cheaper than copper pipes.
• It is strong and easy to bend.
• It is almost as rust-resistant as copper.

Disadvantages
• The pipes are difficult to bend.
• It contains lead, which makes corrosion inevitable.
• Sediment and other materials can form a layer in the pipes.
• It is difficult to get rid of rust once a pipe has started rusting.

Cast-iron pipes
Like PVC pipes, these pipes can be used both above and under the ground.

Properties
• It is only available in grey or black.
• It is stable, durable and tough.
• No vibration occurs when rubber seals are used.
• Pipes are relatively easy to join.
• It is a versatile material that is used for sewers, manholes, storm-water pipes and
vent pipes.
• It has high compressive and tensile strength.
• It is resistant to heavy traffic, weathering and extreme heat and cold.
• It is corrosion resistant.
• It is heavy and difficult to transport.
• It allows a certain degree of expansion and contraction.
• Joints can be leak-proof which will ensure that the pipes are sealed on both the
inside and the outside.
• The rough surface may allow bacterial contamination.

Advantages
• It is very strong and tough.
• Once treated, it can be exceptionally resistant to rust.
• It can withstand high pressure.
• It is very durable.
• It is relatively inexpensive.
• The colour varies from grey to dark grey and sometimes black.

Disadvantages
• It is very heavy.
• It is difficult to waterproof the joints.
• It is very brittle.

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Domestic hot water

Water is heated by means of electricity, gas or the sun and the hot water is piped to
taps inside the house.

Below is a diagram of the operation of a domestic hot water system (Figure 8.7).
In Figure 8.8 the diameter of a real geyser indicated.

Electrical
element

Swivel outlet
Inlet valve

Cold supply

Single-point electric storage water heaters

Figure 8.7: Push through geyser

Outer cover (galvanised metal)

Inside tank/cover (in this case copper)

Centre layer (polyester insulation)

Thermostat

Element

Drain

Wall bracket

Figure 8.8: Geyser

Geyser maintenance

• The drain is used to tap sediment from time to time.

• Water with high calcium content can clog pipes – the system must be cleaned to
remove lime scale.
• Set the thermostat at 55° to 60° for domestic use.
• Ensure that the expansion pipe is always clear.
• Insulate the hot water system to reduce heat loss.

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Because cold and hot water be placed or installed in the same way, there are certain
aspects or facts you should know about hot water supply.

When installing hot-water pipes, you must:

• Use the shortest and most direct route.
• Not change the direction of the pipe, unless it is unavoidable.
• Install the valves in a way that will allow a plumber to do necessary repairs
without damaging the pipes.
• Ensure that bends and joints can be replaced easily when necessary.
• Use compression joints because they can easily be repaired or replaced.
• Use only SANS-approved materials for the installation.

Air bubbles in a hot-water system

• Air bubbles are easily formed in a hot-water system.
• It happens when the installation is faulty.
• It occurs when new systems are installed.
• It also occurs when the pressure in a high-pressure geyser is too low to push the
air bubble through the pipe.
• This air bubble usually remains in the highest section of the hot-water system.

How does one get rid of air bubbles?

• Open the hot-water taps about a quarter of the way as the geyser fills with water.
• This will cause the air that is trapped in the pipe to be pushed out.
• Close the taps when the water flows steadily.

Heating water
There are various ways in which to heat the water, e.g. using electricity, gas or solar
energy.

Electric hot-water systems

The cold water must be heated before it flows to the taps of the wash basins, baths,
washing-machines and/or showers.

This type of geyser is used where the water pressure of a municipal area is low (from
50 kPa to 600 kPa). Most residences use this type of installation nowadays.

A geyser comprises the following:

• A cylinder made of copper or galvanised steel.
• A round or square external cover (galvanised metal).
• Insulation material made of polyester (also referred to as the middle layer).
• A thermostat, element and drain valve.
• An inlet valve and an outlet valve, as well as a safety valve and a relief valve.
• The drain valve and pressure-control valve are connected to the pipe system
directly outside the geyser.
• An overflow pipe that conveys water to outside the building.
• The geyser rests on a drip tray.

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Figure 8.9: High pressure geyser

Geyser
How does a high-pressure geyser work?
• Water flows into the cylinder through the pressure control valve.
• The element that is mounted inside the cylinder heats the water.
• The pressure of the hot water and that of the water flowing into the geyser is
balanced.
• A safety valve controls the pressure by releasing excess pressure in the cylinder
(water boils over and is ejected outside the building).
• The pressure in the cylinder enables the water to flow to the taps.
• Once the water reaches the set temperature, the thermostat switches off the
electric current; it turns the current on again when the water is too cold.
• If the pressure in the cylinder is lower than the pressure of the water that is
flowing in, the vacuum valve (installed approximately 300 mm above the highest
inlet) should be opened to let more water flow into the cylinder.
• The vacuum valve protects the cylinder against cracking.

Advantages and disadvantages of an electric geyser

Electric geysers have more advantages than disadvantages when it comes to
household use.

Advantages
• It is clean and environmentally friendly.
• It does not require much repair work or maintenance.
• It is not visible because it in mounted in the roof.
• It is easy to maintain.
• It produces sufficient hot water to supply various taps.

Disadvantages
• The electricity needed to keep the water hot is expensive.
• Smaller geysers cannot provide sufficient volumes of water.
• Elements can be damaged if the acid level of the water is too high.
• Dirt in the tank can cause blocks.
• If the temperature of the thermostat is set too high, it can cause the geyser to
burst.

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Gravity geyser
How does a gravity geyser work?
• Cold water flows into the cylinder from below.
• The electric element heats the water.
• The thermostat regulates the temperature of the water.
• Gravity allows the hot water to flow through the pipes to the taps.
• The geyser is automatically refilled with cold water as the hot water is used.

What causes problems in hot-water systems?

• Piping that is not used correctly, e.g. using pipes that are too thin.
• Air bubbles result in the poor flow of water to the taps.
• Cylinders may burst if the pressure is too high.
• Excess dirt may accumulate in the cylinder and flow through the pipes to the
taps.
• If the acid level of the water is too high, the element corrodes and this may cause
shorts.
• A rubber seal that has not been properly tightened may cause leaks.

Solar heaters
More and more homes are using solar hot water systems because of the high cost
of electricity and power outages. Such systems are now to be seen on many roofs.
Israel has the most solar heating systems in the world.
Did you know?
Israel is the
As their name indicates, water is heated by the sun in solar collectors or panels. The
country with the most
hot water storage tank is mounted higher than the panel so that the hot water rises solar-powered heating
by means of convection. A pump may also be used for this. A solar heating system systems in the world.
can also be linked to an electrical system to save electricity.

The temperature of sun-heated water depends on:

• the season
• cloud cover
• the time of day
• the duration of the sunshine.

Other factors playing a role in the maximum exploitation of sunshine are:

• The angle at which the panel is mounted (an angle of 35° to the horizontal is
ideal)
• The height of the panels on the roof for the effective operation of the other parts
of the system
• The position of the solar panel (facing north for the most sun).

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Solar heating systems

The independent (autonomous) system.

Aluminium frame

Double glazing

Fibreglass tray

Copper hot water tanks

Hot water outlet
Isolation material
Cold water inlet

Figure 8.10: Independent heating system

This system consists of a shallow glass-fibre or corrosion-resistant tray containing

water chambers of copper or glass. The tray is covered with glass set in a durable
material like aluminium. This glass frame keeps dirt out of the system and helps
trap heat inside. The bottom of the tray is insulated to prevent the heated water
from cooling down (usually polystyrene). The inside parts of the tray are painted
matt black as this colour absorbs the most heat of all.

The only maintenance needed is to keep the glass clean.

Solar heating system with hot water reservoir

Frame

Glass

Hot water
outlet
Fibre glass Copper pipe
Isolation Cold water
material inlet

Figure 8.11: Hot water reservoir system

The hot water reservoir system is similar to the independent system, except that
instead of water chambers that both heat and store water, there are thinner (copper)
pipes inside the tray through which the water circulates before flowing or being
pumped to an electric geyser for storage. All pipes may be insulated to prevent heat
loss.

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Gas geysers (The full-flow gas geyser)
Gas geysers are still relatively few in townships in South Africa, but because of the
electricity supply problems there are more people who may switch to gas heating
systems. Gas geysers are generally used in more remote areas where electricity
supply is limited.

Operation
• A gas bottle supplies flammable gas to the unit.
• A mechanical trigger ignites the pilot flame.
• Opening a hot-water tap causes gas to be fed to the main burners, where it is
ignited by the pilot flame – the water flow and size of the flame are adjusted to
the right temperature.
• Cold water flows to the geyser through the inlet.
• The burner heats the water, which flows out through an outlet with a breather Cowling
valve. A hood or cover.
• Hot gases from the burner are led away through a cowling into a chimney.

Installation
Gas geysers need to be properly installed for safety. The location of the unit must
meet the following demands:
• The unit, chimney and fireproof insulation must be installed to leave enough
space for repairs.
• All gas pipe joints must be tight to avoid leaks.
• Gas pipes to the unit must flexible and have bayonet couplings for easy cleaning.
• The system must have a shut-off valve and exhaust valve to be closed in an
emergency or for maintenance.
• Gas bottles should preferably be stood on a concrete slab outside and behind a
locked enclosure.
• A safety notice “No open flames” must be installed near the gas bottles.
• If gas bottles are kept inside the house, they must be placed in a well-ventilated
room.
• Never run gas pipes inside a hollow wall, as leakages are difficult to trace and
repair.
• Gas pipes must be led inside the house through a metal casing.
• Use copper piping inside the house only to avoid damage by theft.

Vent pipe

Open flue

Cold feed

Baffle
Hot
supply
Insulation

Thermostat Casing
Weep holes

Gas
supply
Burner
Pilot supply
Relay
Cistern fed gas storage water heater

Figure 8.12: Gas heating system

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Advantages
• Saves electricity.
• Water is heated quickly.
• Warm water at all times despite power outages.

Disadvantages
• Gas leaks are poisonous to humans.
• Gas mixed with air can cause a serious explosion.
• A gas explosion can cause loss of life or damage to buildings.
• Gas has an unpleasant smell.
• Empty gas bottles have to be physically exchanged and gas is expensive.
• Regular maintenance is required.

Maintenance
• Pipes and gas bottles must be checked regularly.
• Gas leaks must be checked using soap and water, not open flames.
• Close the shut-off valve when the system is not in use.
• Do not allow open flames near gas bottles.
• Ensure that the pilot flame trigger is in good working order.
Smoke tablet
A tablet lit by a flame
• Refill gas bottles when empty, not when half full.
which emits thick • Check and clean chimneys regularly. (Test by warming the chimney with a
smoke. blowlamp for five minutes. Light a smoke tablet and hold it at the bottom end of
the chimney to see if it draws properly.)

Photovoltaic cells
Panels with photovoltaic cells are connected in series or parallel to capture solar
energy able to be stored in batteries. The electricity from the batteries can be used
directly in suitable 12 V appliances or converted to 230 V use. Installing the panels
is the same as for solar water heaters (see above). The only maintenance required is
to keep the panels clean and check the electrical cables and connections regularly.

Figure 8.13: Photovoltaic cells mounted on a roof

The purpose of pressure-reducing valves

Before choosing a water pressure-reducing valve, various questions have to be
asked.
1. Firstly, what is the maximum and minimum inlet pressure?
2. Secondly, what is the desired outlet pressure?
Based on the answers to these two questions, the differential pressure can be
determined.
3. Thirdly, what is the maximum flow rate that the system should be able to
handle?

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The function of a water pressure regulator or a pressure-reducing
valve
The device has two functions:
• Reducing the high pressure of the water flowing from the city’s main pipeline
• “Regulating” the pressure of the water in a dwelling – ensuring that the domestic
pipes and appliances function safely, at more moderate but sufficient pressure
levels.

The reason for this is that water pressure varies and, therefore, a pressure-reducing
valve is necessary in a pipe system to ensure that hot-water taps can be opened
simultaneously without experiencing a loss of pressure.

It is usually set by the manufacturers and is colour-coded to make it easy to choose

one.

The standard valves are:

• 100 Kpa valve (blue)
• 200 Kpa valve (black)
• 400 Kpa valve (red)
• 600 Kpa valve (green)

Figure 8.14: Pressure-reducing valve

Activity 1
1. What is a solar water heater system and how does it work?
2. Which factors influence the heating of water by the sun?
3. What is the best angle of inclination for a solar panel?
4. Mention two advantages and two disadvantages of gas geysers.
5. List four kinds of maintenance required for gas geysers.
6. Briefly explain flash condensation.
7. Describe the action of osmosis in desalinating sea water.
8. Why must photovoltaic glass panels be kept clean?
9. Name the factors to be considered when installing a gas geyser.
10. What is the function of a pressure-reducing valve?

Sewerage
Introduction
More and more human and domestic wastes have to be carried away by sewerage
systems. Most urban and suburban dwellings or buildings have sanitary or
bathroom fittings using water. Dirty or polluted water, known as sewerage water,
is removed for health reasons or to avoid pollution. Where there is no central
sewerage network (reticulation) in an area, sewerage must be handled and treated
in one of several different ways. In these cases septic tanks with French drains,
holding tanks or vacuum tanks are used for this purpose. These systems are all in
use in various parts of our country.
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Sewerage system
This refers to any system, construction or pipe that removes sewage or surface water
(groundwater) for safe disposal through a series of drains.

Sewerage
This is water that contains organic contaminants, mainly human excretions such
as urine and solid waste, which comes from flushing toilets, urinals, wash troughs,
squat pans and sluice-rooms.

Sewage
This refers to the waste that has been collected and removed by a network of drains
and pipes.

Wastewater
This is a general term that refers to water that has been contaminated by human
waste and other pollutants, whether from a commercial, industrial, domestic or
agricultural source, which may contain a broad spectrum of chemical and organic
matter, some harmless and others lethal.

Groundwater
This refers mainly to rainwater present in the spaces between the soil particles in the
top 10 cm layer of soil.

Figure 8.15: Sewerage system

Venting system

A drain-waste-vent (DWV) is a system that removes

sewage and grey water from toilets, basins, sinks
and showers and prevents the gases produced by the
aforementioned waste from entering the building.
The water flowing from these sources runs through
a U-shaped disconnecting trap that always contains
a little water. This water prevents malodorous or
poisonous gases from entering the building. All the
fittings are connected to drainpipes, which take the
water to a central sewer. An ascending pipe extends
from the lowest point of the main sewer to above Figure 8.16: Venting system
the roof.

This waste disposal system is made up of pipes that are connected to drainpipes
and the vent pipe, which release the sewage gases into the atmosphere. These pipes
also ensure that the air pressure on both sides of the disconnecting trap remains the
374 same in order to keep the water inside.
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Soil vent pipe

This pipe runs vertically from the underground sewerage and allows odours
and gases from the sewage to be vented into the atmosphere where they offend
anyone. At the same time, it allows air into the system to prevent the siphoning of
water from sinks, baths and shower traps. Plastic is used for modern systems. An
ordinary soil vent pipe can be a simple pipe that conveys gases from the drainpipes
to the sewer; it also carries wastewater from the toilets, basins, baths and showers
on upper levels that are linked to the underground sewerage system.
Branch vent

Basin
Slope

Toilet Stack vent

Wet vent

Slope 2 cm/m

Soil stack

Figure 8.17: Soil vent system

Air valve

This is a mechanical valve in a sewage system that renders the use of conventional
ascending pipes obsolete. When wastewater is released, it opens the valve. This
reduces the partial vacuum and allows air into the system so that the water can flow
away freely, without releasing sewage gases inside the building.

Traps

Various traps are used in gulleys. A grease trap, used to trap fats, can form part
of the system, especially in the kitchen. This prevents solid fats from entering
and affecting the sewerage system. The functions of the various types of traps are
provided below.

Figure 8.18: P-trap S-trap U-trap

A trap is a device that allows water to pass through while keeping back the gases. It
is used under sinks, baths and toilets. Most traps have an inspection hole through
which they can be cleaned.

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Gulley

A gutter is often connected to a downpipe. Rainwater runs into this combined

system and a disconnection trap is used to prevent odours from rising up from the
sewer. Like a toilet bowl, it has water in the flexure.

If the flexure contains no water, it indicates that there is a leak and this may result in
water reaching the foundation, possibly causing damage. Gutters have to be cleaned
regularly, especially after heavy rain. Wear gloves when performing this task.

Figure 8.19: Gully trap

Regulations
• Each pipe must be inspected before it is laid to ensure that it is not cracked and
has no defects.
• Pipes must be laid according to the gradient and in as straight a line as possible.
• Approved tools must be used to cut or saw the pipes to ensure straight ends.
• The ends of all pipes must be sealed to prevent water, stones or any other
material or waste from entering the pipe system while the pipes are being laid or
after they have been laid.
• Rodding eyes must be installed as indicated on the plan.
• All pipes must be laid according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Sharp inclines must be avoided where possible.
• After covering the pipes, all traps must be filled with water to keep out any gases
and inspection eyes must be covered.
• Air will be pumped into the system until a minimum pressure of 0,35 kPa is
reached. If the pressure has not dropped to below 0,25 kPa after three minutes,
the system is deemed acceptable.
• An air conduit or a vent must be built into the system in order to rid it of gases
and unpleasant odours.

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Sewerage plan
A plumber must be able to work
according to a plan when he installs
the system. The typical layout of a plan
is provided in Figure 8.20.

Cover with heavy duty metal drain cover

Existin
g sewe
r line
Figure 8.20: Sewerage plan

Colour codes
The following details are indicated on the plan in colour, as required by the
municipality and according to SABS 0400–1990.
• Soil pipes
• Green: sewage and wastewater pipes
• Sewage for storm water
• Brown: wastewater vent pipe
• Sewage and vent pipe (combined)
• Red: existing sewage
• Black: Pipes used for industrial water
• Orange: No colour

Table 8.2: Abbreviations and symbols related to plumbing and sewerage systems

Abbreviation Description Symbol Abbreviation Description Symbol

WM Water meter IE Inspection eye

MH Manhole G Gully

VP Ventilating pipe RE Rodding eye

S Sink BT Bidet

WC Water closet WB Wash basin

SH Shower U Urinal

GL Ground level IL Invert level

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GT Grease trap DP Drain pipe

AO Access opening RWP Rainwater pipe

RWS Rainwater shoes B Bath

Table 8.3: Other terms and abbreviations

Description Abbreviation Description Abbreviation Description Abbreviation Description Abbreviation

Surface DL French drain FD Access eye AE Inspection IC
coating chamber
Natural NGL Septic tank ST Bitumen BIT Stormwater SD
ground level drain
Inspection IR Soil water SP Cast iron CI Soil vent SVP
room pipe pipe
Storm water SWP Trap T Cleaning CE
pipe eye
Clay pipe CP Waste water WP Fire pump FPC
pipe connection

Drainage plan and sectional drawing of the

sewerage
Drainage plan
• The details regarding the drainage are usually indicated on the site plan.
• Heavy (thick, dark) chain lines with short dashes are used to indicate the sewage
pipes. Sewage pipes and vent pipes are indicated in red or brown on the site
plan. (Ref. SANS 0143)
• The position of the hand/wash basin, sink, water closet/flushing toilet, shower,
etc. must be indicated on the site plan.
• Labels should be added to indicate the type of pipe, the diameter of the pipe and
the incline along which the pipe must be laid.
• The incline of sewage pipes varies between 1 : 40 and 1 : 60.
• The positions of the manholes, rodding eyes and inspection eyes must be clearly
indicated on the site plan.
• The positions of the inspection eyes that indicate the connections of the sanitary
fittings are very important when a sectional view of the sewerage is drawn.
• The height above sea level, also referred to as the datum level, is converted to
metres to indicate the height of the ground level on the site plan.
• Some draftspeople number the connection points 1, 2, 3, etc. in order to know
precisely which connection point is the focus of the work.

Sectional drawing of the sewerage

• Consult the site plan and determine the position of the manhole.
• The Local Authority (LA) will provide the position of the manhole, i.e. the
distance from the boundary lines, as well as the depth of the manhole. These
measurements may differ, depending on the L A. The position of the manhole
and its depth, as provided by the LA, will ensure that the incline of the
connection to the municipal sewerage is acceptable.
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• In order to draw a sectional view of the sewerage, the measurements must first
be calculated and tabled.
• Start the sectional drawing with a horizontal line representing the natural
ground level (NGL).
• Draw the municipal manhole in the appropriate place. Measure the depth
vertically, as indicated by the LA. A scale of 1 : 100 is usually used to represent
the vertical heights or depths. This is referred to as the vertical scale.
• Measure the distance to the following connection point on the site plan
horizontally according to scale. Scales of 1 : 100 or 1 : 200 are used to represent
horizontal distances on the ground line. This is referred to as the horizontal
scale. The scale will depend on the total distance from the municipal manhole to
the furthest connection point, e.g. if the distance is 30 000 mm, the line will be
150 mm long if a scale of 1 : 200 is used; and it will be 300 mm long if a scale of 1
: 100 is used.
• Draw a vertical line after this distance has been measured. The calculated depth
Take note
of the sewage pipe will be measured on this later. This will indicate the position
of the first sewer connection point with respect to the municipal manhole. You can also start the
Indicate the fittings that will be added at this connection point on this vertical calculations at the
point furthest from the
line, e.g. WB (hand/wash basin), WC (water closet) and S (sink).
manhole and then work
• Repeat the previous step for every inspection eye until the inspection eye towards the manhole.
furthest from the manhole is reached.
• It is not necessary to have a separate connection point for every fitting. If the
fittings are located in separate rooms but lie close enough to each other, they
may be led to the same connection point.
• To depict the depth of the sewer graphically, the depth at each connection point
has to be CALCULATED and then measured according to the vertical scale.

Calculating the invert and depth of sewage pipes

• In order to draw a sectional view of the sewerage, the invert and depth of the
sewage pipe must be known.
• The invert depends on the incline and the distance between consecutive sewer
connections.
• To calculate the invert at the manhole of the local authority: Take note
Always start at the manhole and use the following formula: The inverts of all sewer
Invert = Ground level – depth of manhole connections should first
This measurement is usually obtainable from the local authority. be calculated.
• To calculate the inverts at other connection points:
Invert = incline × distance to sewer connection + previous invert

To calculate the depth of the sewer connection

• The depth of the sewer connection = ground level – invert
The draftsman can deduce the ground levels using the datum lines that are
indicated on the corners of the plot on the site plan.
• Ground levels are rarely the same everywhere, because the ground is never as
smooth as a mirror. However, when the ground appears to be more or less even,
i.e. when there are no perceptible differences in height, architects or draftspeople
may consider the ground as being level when calculating the dimensions of
the sectional drawing. Some site plans indicate the ground levels according to
which the contour intervals are then estimated since the actual contours are not
available.
• When working from the manhole to the furthest point from it, the difference in
the calculated level must be added to the previous invert.
• When working from the furthest connection point towards the manhole, the
difference in the calculated level must be subtracted from the previous invert.

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Example 1

A sewage pipe must be laid at an incline of 1 : 40 between a manhole and an

inspection eye. If the ground level is 100 000 mm, the manhole is 1 100 mm deep
and …
The distance between the inspection eye and the manhole is 8 000 mm and the
ground level for the inspection eye … mm.

Invert of sewer
Ground level (GL)
Invert (I) 1 100
Distance between two points
(PA)
Gradient (GRAD)

Incline of pipe 1
100 mm
Datum level Municipal connection

Figure 8.21: Graphic illustration of incline (not according to scale)

Incline of sewerage pipelines

In order to determine the gradient and the correct incline, you have to be familiar
with the calculation method. Use the plan provided in this chapter to do the
following. If the slope is too steep or too shallow, the water will flow too fast and
the solid waste will move too slowly, which could result in blockages.
The recommended incline of a sewerage pipeline is 1 : 40 or 1 : 60.
The bottom depth is measured from below the sewerage pipe, thus implying that the
ground above the pipe as well as the diameter of the pipe must be considered.
Therefore, if the datum level of the ground above the pipe is 400 mm, the bottom
depth is: 400 + 110 = 510 mm deep. Bear in mind that the groundcover, diameter of
the pipe, length of the pipeline and the slope play an important role in determining
the incline.
Setting IO MG

SO IO IO

Datum level Ground level height

Bottom depth

Figure 8.22: Graphic illustration of incline (not according to scale)

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Invert level of sewerage
Ground level (GL) 0 150 220 0 0
Bottom depth (BD) 510 547,5 607,5 825,4 1 010
Distance between points 1 500 2 400 8 716 7 383
Gradient (GRAD)

Table 8.4: Invert levels of sewage

How do you proceed to calculate the incline?

Read the following in conjunction with the table provided above.
• Firstly, determine the highest point of the sewerage (in this case, the
groundcover is 400 mm deep).
• The diameter of the pipe is 110 mm.
• Now determine the distance along which the sewerage pipe must be laid.
(in this case 20 m).
• Remember that sewerage pipes must run in a straight line as far as possible.
• Determine the incline given on the plan (1 : 40 in this case).
• Determine the two ends. (Top invert level (A) and Bottom invert level (B))
• (A) Top invert level = Groundcover + Pipe diameter
= 400 + 110 = 510 mm
• (B) Bottom invert level = Top invert level + (Distance ÷ slope)
= 510 + (20 000 ÷ 40) = 1 010 mm
• At the initial point (datum level) the top invert level is now 510 mm.
• The lowest point (connecting with municipal or public connection) is thus
1 010 mm.
• Measure the distance between each point that is connected in the pipeline from
the first inlet to the second inlet or connection = for each metre, the incline is
40 mm 1 500 ÷ 40 = 37,5 + 510 = 547,5 mm
• From the second inlet or connection to the third inlet or connection, where an
inspection eye must be installed: 2 400 ÷ 40 = 60 + 547,5 = 607,5 mm.
• From the inspection eye to the next inlet or connection a manhole:
8 718 ÷ 40 = 217,95 + 607,5 = 825.4 mm
• From this point to the municipal connection:
7 383 ÷ 40 = 184,575 + 825,4 = 1 010 mm

These distances are now illustrated graphically according to scale, but are effectively
indicated in the table.

Septic tank
The function of the septic tank is to collect and treat sewerage. The system consists
of a tank with one or two chambers. The second chamber simply slows down the
flow of water. A small septic tank must have a capacity of at least 3 000 l (3 m3).
Provision is made for air space above the chambers. The outlet of the second
chamber is slightly lower than the inlet of the first. The size of the tank depends on
the amount of sewerage to be collected – a greater capacity is required for larger
dwellings. One or two manholes are fitted.

A septic tank is usually built underground of brick with concrete floors, although
plastic tanks are also used. These structures must be watertight. Solid sewerage
wastes are digested by anaerobic bacteria until nothing but sludge remains and Anaerobic bacteria
Bacteria that do not live
only water leaves the tank. The outflow then runs into a French drain or into
or grow in the presence
underground pipes from where it soaks away. No chemicals must be thrown into a
of oxygen.
septic tank as it may be poisonous to the bacteria in the tank, but there are enzymes
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on the market that help treat sewerage. A septic tank must be cleaned when the
sludge level rises above the outlet and starts flowing out. The sludge can be scooped
or pumped out through the manhole.

Cover

Soil
Liquid level
Outlet
Foam

Impermeable
plaster
Inlet

Floor slab

Septic tank

150 mm soil
Cover Cover Cover cover

Ventilation Concrete slab

Pipe Sloping Gas Outlet to
French drain
Inlet Liquid level

A
75

Impermeable
B
Specifications
2 000

plaster
A. Not more than 0,2 of
liquid level 150 x 150 mm
220 mm brick
B: Outlet quick level opening
or
110 mm concrete
Length section
2 500
Foundation

Figure 8.23: Diagram of a septic tank

The operation of the septic tank

1. Sewerage flows from the home into the first chamber.
2. Heavier parts sink to the bottom.
3. Bacteria digest/decompose the solid sewerage into a liquid.
4. The sludge remains at the bottom of the tank.
5. All digested solids eventually flow into the second tank.
6. Only liquid flows from the outlet at chamber two.
7. This liquid flows into a French drain or soaks into the ground.

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Sewerage tank (vacuum tank)
This is a holding tank that just stores sewerage and needs to be pumped out
regularly, usually by the local authority. These tanks are used where no municipal
system exists. It is an underground watertight tank of brick and cement with a
concrete floor. (Plastic models are also available.)

The tanks are built as close to the road as possible to simplify removal of the waste.
An exhaust or outlet valve on the tank allows the sewerage to be pumped out and
taken to a central treatment plant. The system must be regularly inspected for leaks
and the street valve must be provided with a cover.

Hinged cover
Concrete slab
Inlet chamber Manhole Manhole Curbstone
Vent
Interseptic tank
Pavement level
Liquid level

100 mm dia
SECTION
outflow
Draw-off
valve Curbstone
Waterproof Slope
cement plaster
Road
Channel Slope

PLAN

Figure 8.24: Diagram of sewerage tank

Figure 8.25: Street valve

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French drain
The French drain allows sewerage to soak into the ground in a controlled fashion. It
consists of a trench 1,6–2,5 m deep and 80 cm wide, which is filled with broken rock
or coarse gravel, The trench is covered with soil.

Grey water (soapy kitchen sink, laundry or even bathroom water) is led to the
French drain. The nature of the soil determines how fast the water soaks away The
outlet from septic tanks is also led into a French drain. It is not advisable to dig
French drains close to boreholes, as the groundwater may become polluted.

Inspection eye cover

Compacted filling

Coarse sand

Distribution pipe

Gravel filling

Inspection pipe

Figure 8.26: French drain

French drain is usually maintenance-free. A new trench may be needed when the
existing one is unable to absorb the required volume of water, due to more people
and household activities. Stormwater should not be led into a French drain.

Did you know?

Up to 40% of all sewerage systems in rural towns are on the brink of collapse due to lack of skills,
maintenance, infrastructure and management. The Water Research Commission advised the
government in 2006 to intervene in some 30% of sewerage installations to avoid polluting rivers and
the outbreak of waterborne diseases like cholera.
Source (Die Rapport of 8 March 2008 – Headline : “SA facing sewerage crisis” by Lizel Steenkamp)

Activity 2
1. Name three materials used for making sewerage pipes.
2. What precautions are needed when running a sewer under a building?
3. Mention two requirements for the design of sewerage installations.
4. Draw a simple sketch to illustrate the working of a septic tank. Show the
direction of flow in such a system.
5. How does a septic tank work?

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Activity 3
Simulation
Scenario:
Charlton and Sandy live on a Free State farm with their children Garren and Jodi.
Charlton, owner of the farm, has just built a cottage for his foreman. The cottage
has a bedroom, kitchen, lounge and bathroom. Charlton has forgotten that there
is no municipal street sewerage system.

Design and plan a septic tank system and simulate its operation. Choose your
materials so that you can give a practical demonstration to your classmates.

Stormwater
Stormwater is rain, hail, or snow that falls to the earth. It then has to be carried
away in order to avoid flooding or dangerous puddles. Large quantities of water
raining down on roofs, paving, driveways, parking areas, roads, etc. must be safely
channelled to the municipal stormwater system via gutters and channels in order to
ensure public safety.

The method used to collect and dispose of rainwater will depend on the intensity,
duration and frequency of the rainfall and it is determined by local town laws.

Removal of stormwater
Stormwater is removed by:
• Gutters that lead to downpipes.
• Being conveyed to central points by means of channels or inclined surfaces.
• Street gutters and kerbs that lead the stormwater to manholes, from where it is
drained.
• Underground canals that carry the water from the streets to rivers and dams.

Stormwater regulations
Municipal authorities have regulations that determine how stormwater should be
handled. The purpose of stormwater systems or pipes is to carry the water to rivers
or low-lying dams.

Stormwater drainage must:

• carry stormwater away from buildings
• not allow stormwater to run into the sewerage system
• be designed and built by specialists in the field
• not have downpipes with elbows of less than 135°
• fall within the boundaries of private property
• be laid above or below the ground, with the permission of the municipal
authorities
• have manholes with cast-iron covers
• have gratings or grids over openings to prevent objects from falling into the
stormwater pipes
• be designed in a way that would limit the destruction of the natural
environment.

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Gutters
Gutters are fitted to dwellings and other buildings to collect rainwater and drain it
through downpipes. Gutters are made of PVC or aluminium. There may be joints
in the system.

Figure 8.27: Different gutter profiles

Figure 8.28: Different gutter installations

Figure 8.29: A stormwater outlet A manhole cover lifted by

stormwater

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How are stormwater systems maintained?
• Regularly clean the gutters of your roof.
• Repair leaks in the gutters.
• Manholes and open stormwater canals must be cleaned regularly by municipal
authorities.
• Never dump dangerous chemicals or solid waste in a stormwater system.

By taking these precautions, you can prevent floods, blockages, pollution, damage to
buildings and even landslides.

Electrical systems
In short, this section will examine electricity installation and the position of the
meter box as well as the distribution board.

Meter box
The meter box should be placed in a meter compartment outside the property close
to the street.

The distribution board

The distribution board will be installed in the kitchen or garage.

Installation and position of the distribution board

Installation

The following points must be considered when the installation takes place:
• A qualified electrician must do the job.
• The power supply has to be relayed from the junction box.
• A kick pipe must be used to hide the cables and it serves as a safety device.
• The plans or drawings must specify exactly where the distribution board has to
be placed (usually in the garage or kitchen).
• Conduits are installed after channels have been cut in the walls using an angle
grinder.
• Conduits are usually made of PVC or mild steel and have to be mounted under
the surface of the walls in order to hide and direct the cables.
• They can be fitted in the roof or under the floor surface.
• They must be pressed firmly into the channels before being plastered.
• The main cable is pulled from the meter box to the distribution board.
• Electrical wires are pulled from the distribution board and along the
conduits to where they are needed using a fishertape (lights, power plugs,
geyser, electrical garage doors, pool, oven, etc.).
• All the switches, power plugs and lights are then installed and have to be tested
after installation.
• During the installation process, a building contractor has to ensure that all the
requirements of SANS 10142 (the wiring of the household) are met.

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Siting and installation of cables

A cable may not be laid in the following locations:

• in the same trench or conduit as the service cable, except if permission has been
obtained from the electricity supplier
• in the same conduits as the cables or wires used for utility equipment such as
telecommunications, radio and/or signal circuits
• within 150 mm of heating devices, such as hot-water pipes and stovepipes, be-
cause the heat generated by the pipes may damage the cable; it may be done
should the cable be cooled or protected against the heat
• where it may possibly be damaged unless it is protected mechanically.

Conduit above ceiling

Conduit chased Light

into wall

Did you know? Conduit DB

A multimeter is
used to test how many MB
volts through a wire. It Light switch
can also be used to test Kick pipe
the total resistance in
ohms.
Power
point

Ground level

Conduit buried in concrete

Cable 16 mm

Figure 8.30: Installing conduits and kick pipes

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Installing conduits and kick pipes
Conduits
The pipes (conduits) in which the electrical cables are run are made of PVC. These
conduits are used where wires need to be run under concrete, or where they are
laid above the ceiling to reach rooflights. Conduits for wires are also set into the
wall to serve switches and plugs – channels are chased into the wall with an angle
grinder and chiselled out with a cold chisel. The conduits are then plastered into the
channels. Conduits are fitted with flat metal strips and, after the conduits have been
laid, the necessary wires are pulled along the conduit to where they are needed by
means of these strips.

Conductors used for kick pipes

These conductors or pipes are installed outside the house to connect the cables of
the main electricity supply point located at the plot boundary to the meter box of
the house. These conductors are buried and are made of a PVC cover that encloses
a steel-wire armoured cable.

The conductors are reinforced in order to protect them against incidental damage
that may be caused during excavations and also to guard against theft.

A circuit breaker is installed in the distribution board for the purpose of protecting
the equipment from an excessively high electrical current, such as when a short
circuit occurs. This prevents electrocution or the melting of all the electrical wiring
in a house or factory, which is a serious fire hazard.

From the distribution board, electrical wiring conveys a single-phase current of

220 V to the distribution points in the house. Standard colour-codes are used for
conductors to facilitate easy identification, namely red or brown for the live wires,
black or blue for the neutral wires and green or yellow for the earth wire.

Prepaid card system (buying electricity)

Most municipalities provide consumers of electricity with a prepaid card system
option. This system can only be installed by an official of the municipality. The
Electricity Control Unit comprises a keyboard and an electronic window that allows
one to read the meter. Consumers can by power (electrical units) at any suppliers
and simply enter the pin code on the meter. The pin code registers the units of
power/electricity which are automatically loaded onto the card system. As the units
are used, the total number of available units decreases. The meter must therefore be
checked regularly to ensure that the household does not run out of electricity. The
purchase price will vary according to the number of units required and the usage.

Geysers use more electrical units than any other household appliance.

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Installation components – standards for service circuit

Figure 8.31: Installation components of service circuit

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Installation components – standards for fixed electrical installations
according to SANS 10143

Figure 8.32: Installation components for fixed electrical installations

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Basic electrical symbols

In the installation of electrical cables, appliances and accessories, the architect
makes use of various symbols to indicate what is to be installed where. These
symbols are used countrywide. Familiarise yourself with the symbols, as they are
commonly in use in the industry.

Table 8.5: Symbols for electrical installation

Electrical installation
Distribution board Socket outlet

Earth Emergency light

Electricity meter Fluorescent light

(3 tubes of 40 W)
One-way switch – single Light (3 lamps of
pole 40 W)
One-way switch – double Light wall-mounted
pole
One-way switch – three Telephone, internal
pole
Two-way switch Telephone, public

Regulator switch, e.g. Switch

dimmer Socket outlet

Table 8.6: Basic electrical symbols for appliances

Dishwasher Spin dryer

Washing machine Refrigeration

Freezer (upright) Freezer (chest)

Microwave oven Distribution board

Sub board Main control

Hot water geyser Meter box

Bell Siren

Buzzer

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Activity 3
1. Where may a distribution board be positioned when installed?
2. Name four locations where electrical cables should not be laid.
3. Provide the symbols for a one-way single pole switch and a one-way double
pole switch.
4. What is your interpretation of the term “prepaid electricity”?
5. Name the materials that are used to manufacture kick pipes? Why are these
materials used?

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394
 Chapter 9
Quantities

Substructure Superstructure Beam filling

Roof trusses and

Gable walls
roof covering

Cutting lists for doors,

Ceilings
ceilings and windows
 9 Civil Technology

Quantities
Introduction
At this stage, you should be able to calculate the quantities of materials needed for
the construction of a building up to its superstructure level. In this section, the
quantities required to construct a building up to roof level will be calculated, after
which you will be expected to identify and calculate the materials needed for the
construction of a one-bedroom dwelling. Four-column dimension paper will again
be used for the calculation of quantities.

The quantity surveyor calculates the dimensions of the areas, linear measurements
and volumes of material required to construct the dwelling. This data is then used
to compile a list of the exact quantities of all the necessary materials. The list makes
it possible for all the tenderers to tender for the same quantities of materials. The
building contractor compares the prices obtained from the various suppliers before
the final submission. The building contractor or tenderer compares the prices
obtained from the various suppliers before finalising and submitting the list.

Tip: If you have to draw your own dimension paper in your workbook, the
following measurements may be considered:
Width of column A = 15 mm
Width of column B = 30 mm
Width of column C = 20 mm
Width of column D = 100 mm

Example 1
An end view of the gable end of a gable wall containing a window is shown.
1 500

1. Make a freehand sketch of the end view in your workbook.

2. Draw the four-column dimension paper in your workbook.
3. Calculate the number of bricks required to build the gable wall.
4. Calculate how many cubic metres of plaster will be needed to plaster the front
and back of the wall if the layer of plaster is 12 mm thick.

Use the following specifications:

• Gable wall is 220 mm thick and built in stretcher bond.
• Use 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.
• Allow 5% wastage of bricks.

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 Quantities 9
Solution

Steps A B C D
(This column is not part of
the four-column dimension
paper; it merely serves to
explain the steps)
Calculate the area of the ½/ 1,5 5,93 m2 Area of gable wall:
triangular wall. 7,9 Area of wall of gable wall
Area of triangle = ½bh = 5,93 m2
Calculate the area of the 1/ 0,9 0,81 m2 Area of window:
window. 0,9 Area of window = 0,81 m2
Calculate the total area of the Total area of brickwork:
brickwork by deducting the Area of wall – area of window
window. = 5,93 m2 – 0,81 m2
= 5,12 m2 brickwork
Multiply the brickwork area by 2/ 5,12 512 bricks Number of bricks = area of wall
the number of bricks per m2.. 50 × number of bricks per m2
Then multiply it by 2 to 50 bricks per m2 for a half-brick
calculate the number required wall
for a single-brick wall. 512 bricks are needed
Multiply the number of bricks Plus 5% wastage:
by 5% to calculate the number 5% of 512 bricks = 25,6 bricks
of bricks that will be wasted. 26 bricks must be added to
accommodate wastage.
Add the number of bricks to Total number of bricks:
determine the total. 512 + 26 = 538 bricks
Multiply the brickwork area 2/ 5,12 0,12 m³ Plaster layer on both sides of wall:
by the thickness of the plaster. 0,012 Thickness of plaster is 12 mm
Then multiply it by 2 for the 0,12 m³
plaster on both sides.

Beam filling
• Beam filling refers to the brickwork between the principal rafters and the roof
trusses.
• It is constructed after the roof trusses have been positioned.
• The brickwork is the same height as the roof batten/lathe.
• It is usually a half-brick wall (110 mm).
• Beam filling is used to prevent birds, insects and wind from entering the roof
area.
• The height of the beam filling is indicated by the number of brick layers (two,
three, etc.) or by the height of the brick plus the thickness of the mortar layer,
e.g. 85 mm, 170 mm, 255 mm.
• Roofs that have gable ends only have beam filling on two external walls.
• Hipped roofs have beam filling on all the external walls.

To calculate the number of bricks required for beam filling:

1. Since no beam filling is used at the gable walls, the centre line is only calculated
across two walls. In all other instances, it is calculated across four walls.
2. Calculate the surface area of the beam filling wall by multiplying the centre line
by the height of the beam filling. First convert the measurements to metres
before starting the calculations in order to ensure that the area is indicated in
square metres. Multiply the area of the beam filling wall by the number of bricks
used per square metre for a half-brick wall. The number of bricks will be part of
the specifications.

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Example 2
The external measurements of a building are 10 800 mm by 6 500 mm, and the
building has a hipped-end roof. Calculate the number of bricks required for the
beam filling. The beam filling is 225 mm high.

Solution

Steps A B C D
Calculate the centre line Beam filling:
of the beam filling. Centre line:
2/10 800 = 21 600
2/6 500 = 13 000
Total = 34 600
Minus: 4/110
Centre line is 34,16 m long

Calculate the area of 1/ 34,16 Area of beam filling:

the beam filling wall by 0,225 7,69 m2 Height of beam filling = 225 mm
multiplying the centre Area of wall for beam filling
line by the height of the = 7,96 m2
beam filling.
Multiply the area of the 1/ 7,69 m2 385 Number of bricks:
beam filling wall by the 50 bricks 50 bricks per m² for half-brick wall
number of bricks per
square metre used for a Thus 385 bricks are needed for the
half-brick wall. beam filling

Ceilings
• Four ceiling battens are fixed at 86 mm centres along the walls.
• A gypsum cornice of 75 mm × 75 mm is used for the gypsum ceilings.
• The ceiling battens are 38 mm × 38 mm if the centres between the tie beams are
less than 1 000 mm.
• The ceiling battens are 50 mm × 38 mm if the centres between the tie beams are
between 1 001 mm and 1 200 mm.
• Ceiling battens are 50 mm × 50 mm if the centres between the tie beams are
between 1 200 mm and 1 400 mm.
• The minimum length of the gypsum ceiling board is 2,7 m.
• The length of gypsum ceiling boards increases in multiples of 300 mm up to a
maximum length of 4,8 m.
• Gypsum ceiling boards are available in widths of 900 mm and 1 200 mm.
• Wooden cover strips of 45 × 10 mm, 20 mm half-round mouldings or metal
cover strips can be used to seal the spaces between ceiling boards.
• The ceiling battens are fixed transversely in relation to the roof trusses, and the
ceiling boards are laid transversely to the ceiling beams.
• When the number of ceiling battens is being calculated, one ceiling batten must
always be added in order to ensure that there are two ceiling beams close to the
walls.
• Number of ceiling battens = Inside dimension + 1 ceiling batten
Distance between centres
• The number of cover strips is always one fewer than the number of ceiling
boards; if there are three ceiling boards, for example, two cover strips will be
required.

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 Quantities 9
To calculate the material for a ceiling
To calculate the quantities of materials needed to construct a ceiling, only the
internal measurements are used.

Example 3
A rectangular, single-room building with external measurements of 6 740 mm
× 5 240 mm has to be erected and provided with a ceiling.

Calculate:
1. The area of the ceiling board required.
2. The number of ceiling boards needed.
3. The total length of ceiling battens required, measured in metres.
4. The total length of cornice needed.
5. The total length of cover strips needed.

Use the following specifications:

• All the walls are 220 mm thick.
• The width of the ceiling boards is 900 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling beams is 450 mm.

Solution

Steps A B C D
Determine the internal Ceiling boards:
measurement (if this is not Internal measurements:
provided) by subtracting the 6 740 – 2/220 = 6 754 – 440
thickness of the walls from = 6 300 mm
the external measurement. 5 240 – 2/220 = 5 240 – 440
= 4 800 mm
Calculate the area of the 1/ 6,3 30,24 m² 30,24 m² ceiling boards are needed
ceiling board required. 4,8
Multiply the internal
measurements.
Calculate the number of Number of ceiling boards:
ceiling boards required by 6 300
dividing the appropriate 900
internal measurement by the = 7 ceiling boards of 900 mm
width of the ceiling board. × 6,4 mm are needed
Calculate the number of Number of ceiling beams:
ceiling battens needed by 4 800
dividing the applicable 450
internal measurement by = 10, 66
the distance between the = 11
centres. Round off the = 11 + 1 (always add one)
answer to the next integer. = 12 ceiling battens

Calculate the total length of 12/ 6,3 75,6 m Total metres of ceiling battens
the ceiling battens required 2/ 4,8 9,6 m needed:
by multiplying the number 85,2 m 85,2 m ceiling battens
of ceiling battens by the
internal measurements. Add
the totals to determine the
total length.

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Calculate the length of the 2/ 6,3 12,6 m Cornice:

cornice by multiplying the 2/ 4,8 9,6 m 22,2 m cornice required
internal measurements by 22,2 m
two. Then add the totals to
determine the total length of
cornice needed.
Determine the length of Cover strips (always one fewer
one cover strip and multiply 6/ 4,8 28,8 m than the number of ceiling boards):
this by the number of cover 28,8 m cover strips needed
strips.

Activity 1
1. Explain the purpose of each column of the four-column dimension paper.

2. The distance between the centres of the ceiling battens is 450 mm. Calculate
the number of ceiling battens needed if the applicable internal measurements
are:
2.1 4 500 mm
2.2 4 600 mm
2.3 4 900 mm.

3. The end view of the gable end of a gable wall containing a door is shown.

3.1 Make a freehand sketch of the end view in your workbook.

3.2 Draw the four-column dimension paper in your workbook.
3.3 Calculate the number of bricks required to construct the gable wall.
3.4 Calculate the cubic metre volume of the plaster that will be needed to
plaster the front and back of the wall if the layer is 12 mm thick.

Use the following specifications:

• Gable wall is 220 mm thick and built in stretcher bond.
• Use 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.
• Allow 5% wastage.

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 Quantities 9

4. The front view of a wall with a parapet wall is shown.

4.1 Make a freehand sketch of the end view in your workbook.

4.2 Copy the four-column dimension paper in your workbook.
4.3 Calculate the number of bricks needed to build the parapet wall.
4.4 Calculate how many cubic metres of plaster will be needed to plaster the
front and back of the wall if the layer is 12 mm thick.

Use the following specifications:

• Parapet wall 220 mm thick and built in stretcher bond.
• Work on 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.

5. The internal measurements of a room are 4 500 × 3 000 mm. A ceiling has to
be installed.
Calculate:
5.1 The area of the ceiling board needed.
5.2 The number of ceiling boards required.
5.3 The total length of the ceiling battens provided in metres.
5.4 The total length of the cornice needed.
5.5 The total length of the cover strips needed.

Use the following specifications:

• The width of the ceiling boards is 900 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling beams is 450 mm.

6. The external measurements of a building that has a hipped-end roof are

3 200 mm × 2 700 mm.
Calculate the number of bricks required if the beam filling is to be
170 mm high.

7. The internal measurements of a building with a gabled roof are 13 480 mm

× 10 480 mm.
Calculate the number of bricks needed if the beam filling is to be 225 mm
high.

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To calculate materials when houses have inside angles

Until now, only the materials required for rectangular or square floor plans have
been calculated. The corners of the walls have, therefore, all had external angles. In
order to improve the designs of buildings, many plans make provision for external
as well as internal angles, as indicated below. To calculate the materials needed
for these buildings, the walls are simply moved out, again forming a rectangle or
square. The usual steps are then followed.

Example
The floor plan of a student dwelling is shown.
1. Make a freehand sketch of the floor plan in your workbook.
2. Draw the four-column dimension paper in your workbook.
3. Calculate the number of bricks needed for the superstructure.

2 500

Use the following specifications

• The walls of the superstructure are 220 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The internal wall of the superstructure is 110 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The height of the superstructure as measured from the foundation is
2 700 mm.
• The opening for the door is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• The window is 2 000 mm × 1 500 mm.
• Work on 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.

Solution

A B C D
Centre line of external wall
2/8 550 = 17 100 mm
2/6 660 = 13 320 mm
Total = 30 420 mm
Minus: 4/220 = 880
Total centre line = 29 540 mm

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 Quantities 9
Superstructure – external walls:
1/ 29,54 Total centre line = 29,54 mm
2,7 79,76 m² Height of wall = 2 700 mm
Area of 2 700 mm superstructure = 79,76 m2
wall
Superstructure – internal wall:
1/ 3,5 Total length of internal wall = 3 500 mm
2,7 9,45 m2 Height of internal wall = 2 700 mm
Area of internal wall = 9,45 m2
Windows:
3/ 2,0 Windows = 2 000 × 1 500
1,5 9,0 m² Area of 3 windows = 9,0 m²
Door:
1/ 2,0 Door = 2 000 mm × 900 mm
0,9 1,8 m² Area of door = 1,8 m²
Total area external walls:
Area wall – area window – area door
= 79,76 m2 – 1,8 = 68,96 m2
Total number of bricks for external walls
2/ 68,96 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks
per m²
50 6 896 50 bricks per m² for half-brick wall
bricks
220 mm superstructure is 2 half-brick walls
Thus 6 896 bricks are needed for the external walls
Total area for internal walls
= area of inside wall – area of inside door
= 9,45 m2 – 1,8 m2 = 7,65 m2
Total bricks for internal walls:
1/ 7,65 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks per m²
50 382,5 50 bricks per m² for half-brick-wall
bricks
Thus 383 bricks are needed for internal walls
Total number of bricks
Bricks for external walls + bricks for internal walls
= 6 896 + 383 = 7 279 bricks
Thus 7 279 bricks are required for the superstructure

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To calculate the materials needed for roof trusses and roof

covering
In order to calculate the quantity of wood needed for roof trusses, the
measurements for the various components of the roof truss will be provided.
However, in practice, these measurements will have to be calculated before the final
quantity of wood can be determined.

The following must be considered when calculating the materials needed for a roof:
• The external measurements are used.
• The maximum distance between the centres of the roof trusses for tiles is
760 mm and for metal it is 1 200 mm.
• Calculate the number of roof trusses needed by dividing the applicable internal
measurement by the distance between the centres.
• Round off the answer to the next integer, and add another roof truss.
• Multiply the length of each component of the roof truss by the number of roof
trusses required.
• Add up the total lengths of the various components in order to determine the
total length of the wood needed.
• To ensure that water will run into the gutter, the roof cover must reach midway
over the gutter. For this reason, 50 mm is added to the true length of the rafter in
order to determine the length of the roof cover.
• Since roof sheeting and other roof covers must be laid in such a way that the
sheets or tiles overlap, two types of widths are provided.
• The total width refers to the production width, while the cover width refers to
the distance remaining after the overlap.
• The number of ridge plates needed is calculated by dividing the length of the
roof by the length of one ridge plate.

Useful formulae:
Number of roof trusses for a gabled roof = Inside dimensions + 1 roof truss
Distance between centres

Length of roof cover (sheeting or tiles) = Length of rafter + 50 mm

Area of roof cover for gabled roofs

= Distance between gable walls × length of roof cover

Number of roof sheeting = Width of roof

Cover width of roof

Number of ridge plates = Width of roof

Length of ridge plate

Example 1
Calculate the number of roof tiles needed if the roof is 9,548 m wide and the true
distance of the rafter is 3,65 m.

Length to be covered by tiles = 3 650 mm + 50 mm (Add 50 mm for the

overhang at the gutter)
= 3 700 mm

Area to be tiled = 9,548 m × 3,7 m

= 35, 328 m²
= 36 m² (Round off to the next integer)

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 Quantities 9
Example 2
The width of a roof is 9,548 m and the cover width of the corrugated sheet is
610 mm. Calculate the number of roof sheets needed.

Number of sheets = Width of roof

Cover width of roof sheet
= 9,548 m
0,61 m
= 15,65
= 16 sheets

In other words, there are 16 sheets on one side of the roof.

In total, thus, 16 + 16 = 32 sheets will be required.

Example 3
Calculate the number of ridge plates required if the roof is 9,548 m wide and the
ridge plate is 1,8 m in length.

Number of ridge plates = Width of roof

Length of ridge plate
= 9,548 m
1,8 m
= 5,3
= 6 ridge plates (round off to the next integer)

Example 4
A single-room dwelling with external measurements 13 180 mm × 9 580 mm must
be erected with a gable-end roof.

Calculate:
1. the number of roof trusses
2. the total quantity of wood for the roof trusses
3. the wood for the roof batten/purlin
4. the quantity of wood required for the wall plate
5. the number of corrugated sheets
6. the number of ridge plates.

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Use the following specifications:

• The walls are all 220 mm thick.
• Type of roof – South African (Howe) roof truss.
• Measurement between centres of roof trusses is 760 mm.
• The wood used for roof trusses is 114 × 38 mm.
• The true measurements of the components of the roof are:
Tie beam = 9,8 m
Rafter (principal rafter) = 6,5 m
King post = 3,3 m
Queen post = 1,8 m
Strut = 3,4 m
• Purlin is 75 × 50 mm.
• There are four purlins on each side of the roof.
• The overhang of the roof at the gable ends is 150 mm.
• The length of the corrugated sheet is 6 500 mm, with a cover width of 610 mm.
• The length of one ridge plate is 2 400 mm.
• The wood for the wall plate is 114 × 38 mm.

A B C D
Internal measurements:
9 580 – 2/220 = 9 580 – 440 = 9 140 mm
13 180 – 2/220 = 13 180 – 440 = 12 740 mm

Number of roof trusses:

12,74
0,76
=16, 76
= 17
= 17 + 1
= 18 roof trusses are needed
Roof trusses:
All wood 114 × 38 mm

18/ 9,8 176,4 m Tie beam – 9,8 m

18/2 6,5 234 m Rafter – 6,5 m – 2 per roof truss

18/ 3,3 59,4 m King post – 3,3 m

18/2 1,8 64,8m Queen post – 1,8 m – 2 per roof truss

18/2 3,4 122,4 m Strut – 3,4 m – 2 per roof truss

Total quantity of wood for 18 roof trusses:

Tie beams = 176,4 m
Rafters = 234,0 m
King posts = 59,4 m
Queen posts = 64,8 m
Struts = 122,4 m
Total 657 m

657 m SA Pine of 114 × 38 mm is required for the 18 roof

trusses.
2/ 12,74 25,48 Wall plate on 2 walls:
Measurement of wood: 114 × 38 mm
25,48 m rafter plate is needed.

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 Quantities 9
Purlins: 4 per side
4/2 13,92 111,36 m Measurement of wood: 75 × 50 mm
Length of batten:
150 + 220 + 13 180 + 220 +150 = 13 920 mm

111,36 m roof battens are needed

46/ 6,55 301,3 m Roof covering:
Length of corrugated sheet = 6,50 m
Cover width of corrugated sheet = 610 mm
Width of roof:
150 + 220 + 13 180 + 220 +150 = 13 920 mm
Length of sheet = length of rafter +
overhang over gutter
= 6 500 + 50 mm
= 6 550 mm
Number of roof sheets = 13,92 m
0,61 m
= 22,82
= 23 sheets
Sheets for 2 sides = 23 + 23
= 46 sheets
46 corrugated sheets with a total length of 301,3 m are
needed.
Roof ridge cover:
Length of one ridge plate = 2,4 m
Width of roof = 13,92 m
Number of ridge plates = 13,92 m
2.4 m
= 5,8
6 ridge plates, each 2,4 m in length, are needed.

Activity 2
1. The floor plan of a student dwelling is shown.
1.1 Make a freehand sketch of the floor plan in your workbook.
1.2 Draw the four-column dimension paper in your workbook.
1.3 Calculate the number of bricks needed for the superstructure.

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Use the following specifications:

• The walls of the superstructure are 220 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The internal walls of the superstructure are 110 mm and built in stretcher
bond.
• The height of the superstructure from the foundation is 2 700 mm.
• The opening for the door is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• The window is 2 000 mm × 1 500 mm.
• Work on 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.

2. A building with a gabled roof and external measurements of 10 000 mm

× 6 000 mm must be erected.

Calculate the:
2.1 internal measurements of the building
2.2 number of bricks required for the beam filling
2.3 number of roof trusses
2.4 total metres of wood for the roof trusses
2.5 total metres of wood for the wall plate
2.6 total metres of wood for the purlins
2.7 number of corrugated sheets and the total length of the sheet
2.8 number of ridge plates required.

Use the following specifications:

• The walls are all 220 mm thick.
• Type of roof – King-post roof truss.
• The measurement between the centres of the roof trusses is 760 mm.
• The wood used for the trusses measures 114 × 38 mm.
• The true measurements of the components of the roof are:
Tie beam = 5,44 m
Rafter (principal rafter) = 6,5 m
King post = 3,3 m
• Purlin measures 75 × 50 mm.
• There are three purlins on each side of the roof.
• The overhang of the roof at the gable ends is 200 mm.
• The length of the corrugated sheet is 4 000 mm, with a cover width of
610 mm.
• The length of one ridge plate is 1 800 mm.
• The wood for the rafter/wall plate is 114 × 38 mm.

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 Quantities 9
To calculate the quantities of materials for a one-bedroom
dwelling
Example:
Various incomplete views of a house plan are provided here. As a quantity surveying
student, you are required to calculate the quantities of the materials required to
build the house. Study and analyse the plan, and then calculate the quantities
indicated below, using the four-column dimension paper.

Measurements and details not indicated are left to your discretion.

SOUTH ELEVATION WEST ELEVATION EAST ELEVATION

SCALE 1:100 SCALE 1:100 SCALE 1:100

KITCHEN

BEDROOM NORTH ELEVATION

LIVING ROOM
SCALE 1:100

FLOOR PLAN
SCALE 1:100

Galvanised zinc sheeting

Wall plate

Fascia board
228 x 28
Square gutter 75 mm cornice Ceiling batten
(100 x 100) 38 x 38
Downpipe (75 x 75)

DPC 100 mm concrete floor Screed

NGV NGV
Undisturbed earth
Wearing course
600 x 250 600 x 250
(1 : 3 : 6) (1 : 3 : 6)
Section BB
SCALE 1 : 50

Calculate the:
1. centre line measurements of the foundation
2. cubic metre volume of the concrete needed for the foundation
3. cubic metre volume of the cement required
4. cubic metre volume of the sand required
5. cubic metre volume of the stone required
6. cubic metre volume the concrete needed for the concrete floor slab.

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Use the following specifications:

• Foundation for the 110 mm internal wall is 410 × 250 mm.
• The total length of the 110 mm internal wall is 10 000 mm.

Solution

A B C D
Concrete foundation of external walls
Centre line of concrete foundation :
2/8 550 = 17 100 mm
2/6 220 = 12 440 mm
Total = 29 540 mm
Minus 4 / 600 = 2 400 mm
Total centre line = 27 140 mm

1/ 27,140 Foundation: 600 mm wide × 250 mm deep

0,6
0,25 4,071 m³ Thus 4,07 m³ concrete needed for external walls

Concrete foundation of internal walls:

1/ 10,0 Total length of internal walls = 10 000 mm
0,41 Foundation: 410 mm wide × 250 mm deep
0,25 1,025 m³ Thus 1,03 m³ concrete needed for internal walls

Total concrete foundation:

4,07 + 1,03 = 5,1 m3

Mix ratio: 1:3:6 = 10 parts

1 5,1 0,51 m³ Cement: 1 part × total volume
10 10

3 5,1 1,53 m³ Sand: 3 parts × total volume

10 10
6 5,1 3,06 m³ Concrete stone: 6 parts × total volume
10 10

Concrete floor slag:

1/ 8,33 Measurements of floor slab:
6,0 8 550 – 2/110 = 8 330 mm
0,1 4,998 m³ 5 780 + 2 /110 = 6 000 mm

Thickness of floor slab is 100 mm

5 m³ concrete required for concrete floor slab

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 Quantities 9
Example 2: Calculate:
1. The length of the damp-proof coursing needed to cover the external foundation
wall.
2. The cubic metre volume of the screed needed for the screed coat.
3. How many square metres of tiles will be needed for the floor. Allow 5% wastage.
4. How many metres of skirting board are needed if the total of the internal
measurement of the long walls is 8 110 mm and the total internal measurement
of short walls is 5 780 mm.

Use the following specifications:

• Ignore the reveals in all calculations.
• Door opening is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• The screed coat is 30 mm thick.
• Ignore the thickness of the internal walls.

Solution

A B C D
Length of damp-proof coursing:
Centre line of external wall
2/8 550 = 17 100 mm
2/6 220 =12 440 mm
Total = 29 540 mm
Minus: 4/220 = 880
Total centre line = 28 660 mm
28 660 m damp-proof coursing needed

Screed for screed coat:

1/ 8,11 Internal measurement of long walls: 8 550 – 2/220
= 8 110 mm
5,78 Internal measurements of short walls: 5 780 mm
0,03 1,41 m³ Screed coat is 30 mm deep
1,41 m³ screed needed

Tiles required:
1/ 8,11
5,78 46,88 m² 46,88 m² tiles needed
Plus 5% wastage
Waste: 5% of 46,88 m² = 2,344 m²
Total square metres of tiles:
46,88 + 2,34 = 49,22 m²

Skirting board needed:

2/ 8,11 16,22 Internal measurement of long walls = 8 110 mm
2/ 5,78 11,56 Internal measurement of short walls = 5 780 mm
27,78 m 27,78 m skirting board needed

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Example 3
Calculate the number of bricks required to construct the sub- and superstructure by:
1. calculating the area of the substructure
2. calculating the area of the superstructure
3. calculating the number of bricks.

Use the following specifications:

• The walls of the substructure are 220 mm and are built in stretcher bond.
• The walls of the superstructure are 220 mm and are built in stretcher bond.
• The internal walls of the superstructure are 110 mm and built in stretcher bond.
• The height of the foundation wall is 425 mm.
• The height of the superstructure measured from the foundations is 2 600 mm.
• The height of the superstructure up to the parapet wall is 4 600 mm.
• The door opening is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• Work on 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.
• The total length of the 110 mm internal wall is 10 000 mm.
• The bricks are all stock/common bricks.
• Allow 5% wastage.

Solution

A B C D
Substructure:
1/ 28,66 Total centre line = 28,660 mm
0,425 12,18 m² Height of foundation wall = 425 mm
Area of foundation wall = 12,18 m2

Superstructure – external walls:

1/ 28,66 Total centre line = 28,660 mm
4,6 131,84 m² Height of parapet wall = 4 600 mm
Area of 2 900 superstructure wall = 131,84 m2

Superstructure – external walls:

Triangular parapet wall
Length of canted wall = 6 220 mm
Difference in height of canted wall = 4 600 – 2 600 mm
= 2 000 mm
½/ 6,22 Area of canted wall = ½bh
2,0 6,22 m2 Area of one canted wall = 6,22 m²

2/ 6,22 12,44 m2 Total area for slanting surfaces of walls

Area of two slanting surfaces of walls = 12,44 m2

Total external wall area = Area of foundation wall + area of

4 600 mm superstructure wall – area of triangular parapet wall
Total external wall area = 12,18 m2 + 131,84 m2 – 12,44 m2
= 131,58 m2

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Superstructure – internal walls:
1/ 10,0 Total length of internal walls = 10 000 mm
2,6 26,0 m2 Height of internal walls = 2 600 mm
Area of internal walls = 26,0 m2

Windows:
2/ 2,0 Window 1 = 2 000 × 1 500
1,5 6,0 m² Area of window 1 = 6,0 m²

1/ 0,6 Window 2 = 600 × 900

0,9 0,54 m² Area of window 2 = 0,54 m²

2/ 1,2 Two windows without given measurements = 1 200 × 1 500

(own discretion)
1,5 3,6 m² Area of two windows = 3,6 m²
Total area of windows = 6,0 + 0,54 + 3,6 m2
= 10,14 m2

Doors:
2/ 2,0 Door = 2 000 mm × 900 mm
0,9 3,6 m² Area of 2 outer doors = 3,6 m²

Total area of brickwork:

Wall area – window area – door area
= 131,58 m2 – 10,18 – 3,6 = 117,84 m2

Total number of bricks for external walls

2/ 117,84 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks per m²
50 11 784 50 bricks per m² for a half-brick wall
220 mm superstructure has 2 half-brick walls
Thus 11 784 bricks are needed for the external walls

Total area for internal walls

= Area of inside walls – area of inside doors
= 26,0 – 3,6 = 22,4 m2
Total number of bricks for internal walls
1/ 22,4 Number of bricks = area of wall × number of bricks per m²
50 1 120 50 bricks per m² for a half-brick wall
Thus 1 120 bricks are needed for internal walls

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Total number of bricks

Bricks for external walls + bricks for internal walls
= 11 784 + 1 120 = 12 904 bricks

Plus 5% wastage
wastage: 5 % of 12 904 bricks = 645,2 bricks
Total number of stock/common bricks:
12 904 + 646 = 13 550 bricks

Example 4
Knotty pine is going to be used as material for the ceiling of the kitchen and the
livingroom.
Calculate the:
1. square metres of knotty pine needed
2. number of knotty pine boards needed
3. metres of ceiling batten required
4. metres of crown moulding required.

Use the following specifications:

• The measurements of the knotty pine are 65 mm × 16 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling battens is 450 mm.

Solution

A B C D
Knotty pine ceiling boards for kitchen and livingroom:
Internal measurements:
Length = 5 780 mm
Breadth = 4 000 mm
1/ 5,78 23,12 m² Area to be fitted with ceiling:
4,0 23,12 m² knotty pine ceiling boards needed
Number of ceiling boards:
Breadth of room = 4 000 mm
Width of ceiling board = 65 mm
4 000 mm
65 mm
= 61,5 ceiling boards of 4 000 mm × 65 mm × 16 mm are
needed.
Number of ceiling battens:
5 780
450
= 12,84
= 13
= 13 + 1 (always add 1)
= 14 ceiling battens are needed.
14/ 4,0 56,0 m Total metres ceiling battens needed:
2/ 5,78 11,56 m 67,56 m ceiling beams required
67,56 m

2/ 5,78 11,56 m Total metres cornice needed:

2/ 4,0 8,0 m 19,6 m cornice needed
19,56 m

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Example 5:
Gypsum ceiling boards are going to be used for the ceilings in the bedroom, passage
and bathroom.
Calculate the:
1. area of the ceiling battens needed
2. number of ceiling battens needed
3. total length in metres of ceiling beams required
4. total length of the cornice needed
5. total length of the cover strips required.

Use the following specifications:

• The width of the ceiling board is 900 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling beams is 450 mm.
• Ignore the internal walls.

Solution

A B C D
Gypsum ceiling board for bedroom, passage and
bathroom:
Internal measurements:
Length = 5 780 mm
Breadth = 4 000 mm
1/ 5,78 23,12 m² Area to be fitted with ceiling:
4,0 23,12 m² gypsum ceiling boards needed

Number of ceiling boards:

5 780 m
900 m
= 6,4
= 7 ceiling boards of 4 200 mm × 900 mm × 6,4 mm are
required.
Number of ceiling battens:
5 780
450
= 12,88
= 13
= 13 + 1 (always add 1)
= 14 ceiling battens
14/ 4,0 56,0 m Total metres of ceiling battens needed:
2/ 5,78 11,56 m 67,56 m ceiling battens needed
67,56 m

2/ 5,78 11,56 m Total metres of cornice:

2/ 4,0 8,0 m 19,6 m cornice needed
19,56 m

Cover strips (always one fewer than ceiling boards):

6/ 4,0 24,0 m 24,0 m cover strips needed

Example 6:
The building is going to incorporate a framed lean-to.
Calculate the:
1. internal measurements of the building
2. number of roof trusses
3. total metres of wood needed for the roof trusses
4. total metres of wood needed for the wall plate
5. total metres of wood needed for the purlins
6. number of corrugated sheets.
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Use the following specifications:

• Type of roof – framed lean-to
• Measurement between centres of roof trusses is 811 mm.
• All the wood for the roof trusses measures 114 × 38 mm.
• The true measurements of the components of ONE roof truss are:
Tie beam = 6 000 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Roof rafter (principal rafter) = 6 500 m mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
King/principal post = 1 200 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Queen post = 800 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Queen post = 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Strut/prop = 1 700 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Strut/prop = 1 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
• Five purlins of 8 110 mm × 75 mm × 50 mm.
• The overhang of the roof is 200 mm.
• The length of the corrugated sheet is 6 550 mm, with a cover width of
610 mm.
• The rafter/wall plate is 8 110 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm.

Solution

A B C D
Internal measurements:
Width: 8 550 – 2/220 = 8 550 – 440 = 8 110 mm
Breadth: 5 780 mm (given)
Number of roof trusses:
8 110
811
=10
= 10 + 1
= 11 roof trusses are needed
Roof trusses:

11/ 6,0 66,0 m Tie beam – 6 000 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11/ 6,5 71,5 m Rafter – 6 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11 1,2 13,2 m King post – 1 200 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11/ 0,8 8,8m Queen post – 800 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11/ 0,5 5,5 m Queen post – 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11/ 1,7 18,7 m Strut – 1 700 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

11/ 1,5 16,5 m Strut – 1 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm

Total wood needed for 11 roof trusses:

Tie beams = 66,0 m
Rafters = 71,0 m
King posts = 13,2 m
Queen posts = 8,8 m
Queen posts = 5,5 m
Struts = 18,7 m
Struts = 16,5 m
Total 199,7 m

199,7 m SA Pine of 114 × 38 mm is required for 11 roof

trusses
1/ 8,11 8,11 m Wall plate on 1 wall:
Measurements of wood: 114 × 38 mm
8,11 m rafter plate is needed

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Purlins: 5
5/ 8,11 40,55 m Measurements of wood: 75 × 50 mm
Length of purlin:
40,55 m × 75 mm × 50 mm purlins needed
14/ 6,55 91,7 m Roofing:
Length of corrugated sheeting = 6,55 m
Cover width of corrugated sheeting = 610 mm
Width of roof = 8 110 mm
Number of sheets = 8 110 mm
610 mm
= 13,29
= 14 sheets
14 corrugated sheets with a total length of 91,7 m are needed

Activity 3
Various incomplete views of a house plan are provided here. As quantity
surveying student, you are required to calculate the quantities of the materials
needed to build this house. Study and analyse the house plan, and calculate the
quantities as specified below, using four-column dimension paper.

Measurements and details not indicated are left to your discretion.

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Ridge plate

Galvanised zinc sheeting

Purlines (50 x 76)

Square gutter (100 x 100)

75 mm Cornice Ceiling batten
(38 x 38)
Downpipe (75 x 75)
DPC 75 mm Concrete floor VVV
NGV

Earth filling Undisturbed earth

Hard core Wearing course
SECTION BB
SCALE 1 : 50
1. Calculate the:
1.1 centre line of the foundation
1.2 cubic metre volume of the concrete needed for the foundation
1.3 cubic metre volume of the cement needed
1.4 cubic metre volume of the sand needed
1.5 cubic metre volume of the stone required
1.6 cubic metre volume of the concrete required for the concrete floor slab.

Use the following specifications:

• The foundation measurements for the 110 mm internal wall are
410 × 250 mm.
• The total length of the 110 mm internal wall is 9 000 mm.
2. Calculate:
2.1 The length of the damp-proof coursing needed to cover the external
foundation wall.
2.2 The cubic metre volume of the screed needed for the screed coat.
2.3 How many square metres of tiles will be needed for the floor. Allow 5%
wastage.

Use the following specifications:

• Ignore the reveals in all calculations.
• The door opening is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• The screed coat is 30 mm thick.
• Ignore the thickness of the internal walls.

3. Calculate the number of bricks required to construct the substructure and the
superstructure by:
3.1 calculating the area of the substructure
3.2 calculating the area of the superstructure
3.3 calculating the area of the gable wall
3.4 calculating the area of the beam filling
3.5 calculating the number of bricks.

Use the following specifications:

• The walls of the substructure are 220 mm and are built in stretcher bond.
• The walls of the superstructure are 220 mm and are built in stretcher
bond.
• The internal walls of the superstructure are 110 mm and built in stretcher
bond.
• The height of the foundation wall is 340 mm.
• The height of the superstructure measured from the foundations is 2 600 mm.
• The height of the gable wall is 3 600 mm.
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 Quantities 9

• The height of the beam filling is 255 mm.

• The door opening is 2 000 mm high and 900 mm wide.
• Use 50 bricks per square metre for a half-brick wall.
• The total length of the 110 mm internal wall is 9 000 mm.
• The bricks are all stock/common bricks.
• Allow 5% wastage.
4. Knotty pine is going to be used as material for the ceiling of the kitchen and
the livingroom.
Calculate the:
4.1 square metres of knotty pine needed
4.2 number of knotty pine boards needed
4.3 metres of ceiling batten required
4.4 metres of cornice required.

Use the following specifications:

• The measurements of the knotty pine are 65 mm × 16 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling beams is 450 mm.

5. Gypsum ceiling boards are going to be used for the ceilings in the bedroom
and bathroom.
Calculate the:
5.1 area of the ceiling boards needed for each room
5.2 number of ceiling boards needed for each room
5.3 total length in metres of ceiling battens required for each room
5.4 total length of the cornice needed for each room
5.5 total length of the cover strips required for each room.

Use the following specifications:

• The width of the ceiling board is 900 mm.
• The distance between the centres of the ceiling battens is 450 mm.
6. The building is going to incorporate a framed lean-to.
Calculate the:
6.1 internal measurements of the building
6.2 number of roof trusses
6.3 total metres of wood needed for the roof trusses
6.4 total metres of wood needed for the wall plate
6.5 total metres of wood needed for the purlins
6.6 number of corrugated sheets.

Use the following specifications:

• Type of roof – South African roof truss (Howe truss)
• Measurement between centres of roof trusses is 1 100 mm.
• All the wood for the roof trusses measures 114 × 38 mm.
• The true measurements of the components of ONE roof truss are:
Tie beam = 8 000 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Roof rafter (principal rafter) = 4 300 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
King/principal post = 1 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Queen post = 1 000 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Strut/prop = 1 700 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
Strut/prop = 1 500 mm × 114 mm × 38 mm
• Eight roof battens of 8 110 mm × 75 mm × 50 mm.
• The overhang of the roof is 300 mm.
• The length of the corrugated sheet is 4 300 mm, with a cover width of
610 mm.
• The wall plate is 114 mm × 38 mm.
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Cutting list
A cutting list is often also referred to as a sawing list. The cutting list is compiled
according to the working drawings and it indicates all the components of an object
or structure. The craftsman uses this list to enable him to saw, or issue instructions
to others who will be doing the actual sawing, the various components required
according to the specified measurements when timber is purchased. The cutting list
makes it possible for the supplier to calculate the price per component.

Example
A double casement sash window mounted in a frame of solid wood is shown. Each
frame contains three panes. All of the parts are joined using mortice joints. The
frame is inserted 110 mm into the wall. Analyse the window and compile a cutting
list of the material required to construct the window.

Thick

Cutting list

Component Number Unit Length Breadth Thick- Sub- Total Material

ness total
Frame head 1 mm 1 130 90 44 1 130 Meranti
Windowsill/ 1 mm 1 130 90 44 1 130 2 260 Meranti
threshold
Jamb post 2 mm 1 050 68 44 2 100 Meranti
Jamb mullion 1 mm 1 050 68 44 1 050 3 150 Meranti
Window 2 mm 920 54 44 3 680 Meranti
mullion
Top rail 2 mm 350 54 44 700 Meranti
Bottom rail 2 mm 350 54 44 700 5 080 Meranti
Glazing bar 6 mm 350 44 22 1 400 1 400 Meranti

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 Quantities 9

Activity 4
Cutting lists

1. A double casement sash window mounted in a frame of solid wood is shown.

Each frame contains three panes. All of the parts are joined using mortice
joints. The frame is inserted 110 mm into the wall. Analyse the window and
compile a cutting list of the material required to construct the window.

2. A double casement sash window mounted in a frame of solid wood is shown.

Each frame contains eight small panes. All of the parts are joined using
mortice joints. The frame is inserted 110 mm into the wall. Analyse the
window and compile a cutting list of the material required to construct the
window.

B
C

E
F
G
H

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3. Figures 1 to 4 illustrate various doors that can be used in a house. The height
of the doors is 2 032 mm and the width 813 mm. Analyse the drawings and
compile a cutting list for each one.

Four-panel door Hollow-core flush-panel door

Figure 1

Figure 2

Three-panel door Stable door with six panels

Figure 3 Figure 4

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4. The floor plan of a room that has to be fitted with a ceiling is shown. Make
a freehand sketch of the floor plan in your workbook, and indicate the
direction of the roof trusses, ceiling beams and ceiling boards. Analyse this
information and compile a cutting list for the installation of the ceiling. No
trapdoor is required.

Terminology
Substructure: Reaches from the foundation to the floor slab and includes the
foundation wall
Superstructure: Reaches from the foundation wall to the level at which the rafter
or wall plate is fitted
Foundation wall: The wall that is built on top of the foundation. The height of
the foundation wall indicates the position of the concrete floor.
Foundation walls for external walls are usually 220 mm or
330 mm thick
Gable: Triangular wall at roofs with pitches

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 Chapter 10
Joining

Roof trusses and brickwork Joining timber

Pipe joints Roof wire

10 Civil Technology

Introduction
When two pieces of the same material or different materials are joined, the joint
must be strong enough to serve its purpose.

In this chapter, different types of joints will be studied, including ones used for:
• brickwork
• timber
• plumbling/pipes.

You will find more information regarding the methods of joining timber in your
Grade 11 Learner’s book (pages 324–325).

Joining roof trusses to brickwork

As you have already learned in Applied Mechanics, there are forces that act upon
roofs. The roof construction must, therefore, be fixed firmly to the walls or
brickwork. Rafters and trusses which have galvanised steel ribbons are used for this
purpose. The steel ribbons must be at least 30 mm wide and 1,6 mm thick.
Anchors or stays must penetrate at least 600 mm deep into the wall and should
cover the rafters and trusses.

Another method involves fixing the roof trusses to the wall plate using tie-beams
which, in turn, are attached to the wall to ensure that no unnecessary lifting of the
trusses occurs.

Rawl bolts
• These are expanding shield anchor fasteners. This means that they
have a sheath around the bolt which expands when the bolt is actually
inserted into a hole to make certain that it remains there.
• They are multi-purpose anchor bolts that can accommodate different
load capacities along with a good tolerance to variance in hole
dimensions.
• It is most suitable to use rawl bolts in brickwork, stone or cement.
These are surfaces that provide probably the most grip area for the
expanding sheath of the rawl bolt.
• Can be purchased in different sizes and lengths.
Figure 10.1: Rawl bolt

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 Joining 10
Screws
Screws provide better fastening ability than nails. Screws have changed much over
the years in order to keep up with changing technology. Star-groove screws (the
Phillips, Pozidrive and Supadrive) are chiefly designed to enable faster fixing with
the aid of power tools.

As you have already learned in Grade 11, screws are divided according to two
measurements: stem/thread diameter and screw length; they are available in
diameters of 4 mm–12 mm and in lengths of 10 mm–100 mm. The thinner the
stem, the shorter the screw, but there is a measure of overlapping in length.

Advantages of screws over nails

• Can often be removed more easily if need be.
• Screws go in without the thumping that can be a problem in some situations.
• More secure and hold more firmly than a nail.
• Can be screwed into metal with power tools.
• Have a more decorative appearance than a nail.
• Some screws can cut pre-holes in material before screwing them in.

Below is a list of common screws and the purposes for which they are used in the
building industry. Screws are first categorised according to the shape of their heads,
as follows:

Round head
This is used where the screw head sticks out above the surface of the timber. It is
mostly used for carpentry and the more common lengths are 10 mm to 38 mm.

Countersunk head (flat head)

The screw’s head is screwed in to be flush with the surface of the timber.
In some instances, it is screwed to below the surface of the wood so that
the screw head can be hidden using a wooden plug of filler. It is mainly Figure 10.2:
used to attach hinges, either in cabinetmaking or for general carpentry. Round head
Lengths vary from 12 mm to 100 mm.

Figure 10.3: Countersunk head

Oval head (raised head)

This is a combination of a flat head and a round head screw. It is mainly used for
sheet metal and decorative work. Lengths vary from 19 mm to 38 mm.

Chipboard screw
This is a newer type of screw made from black sheared steel. It has a very Figure 10.4:
narrow shaft with an elevated and sharp thread so that it can be screwed Oval head
into chipboard without a pilot hole, using a cordless drill, power drill or
battery-operated screwdriver. It can also be screwed in using a regular
screwdriver or brace, but naturally this takes a little longer. It is generally
used for built-in cupboards and cabinetwork, as well as in factories where
furniture is made from chipboard. Lengths vary from 12 mm to 100 mm.

Figure 10.5: Chipboard screw

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Drywall screw
Also black in colour, this screw has a coarser thread than the chipboard screw. It is
especially used to attach plasterboard to walls and ceilings. The thread pulls tight
faster than a chipboard screw, and the screw has a slightly larger head to prevent it
from penetrating too deeply into the plasterboard. Lengths vary from 16 mm to
75 mm.
Figure 10.6:
Dry wall screw Coach screw
This is a galvanised thick screw with a coarse thread and an octagonal
bolt head that is screwed in using a socket spanner. It is used for
general construction work, specifically to join metal or timber, as well
as to bolt metal to timber beams. It is especially useful to attach roof
beams to brick walls using hangers, or to bolt gutter boards onto roof
rafters.
Figure 10.7: Coach screw

Nails
Nails provide a quick joining method. They are made of soft steel (iron) because it
is cheap. Most nails are still made of soft steel (iron).

The advantages of nails over screws

• Quicker to knock in than to screw in a screw
• Available in a range of lengths, thicknesses and strengths
• Various heads for invisible or decorative use
• Cheaper than screws
• Can be be made rust free (copper or stainless steel)
• Can be quickly removed (drawn) if needed
• Tough and resilient.

Let’s look at the more common types of nails and the purposes for which they are
used.

Wire nail
This nail gets its name from the method in which it is
made: rolls of wire are made into short straight lengths
using machinery, each length having a head, a round shaft
and a sharp point. They are available in lengths of 12 mm
to 200 mm. The shaft is ribbed just below the head to
keep it more secure in timber. This type of nail is used in
roof structures such as trusses and beams, as well as for Figure 10.8:
basic or rough carpentry where a visible nail head doesn’t matter. Wire nail

Oval wire nail

This nail is the cabinetmaker’s choice because of the
sharp chisel-shaped point and that it is hammered in
across the grain, so the wood fibres are cut and the
wood does not “burst”. The nail also has a smaller head
that can easily be hammered into the timber until it
is practically invisible. The shaft is slightly rough to Figure 10.9:
Oval wire nail
improve adhesion. Available in lengths of 25 mm to 75 mm.

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 Joining 10
Cut nail (square nail)
A flat, wedge-shaped nail with a sharp end (chisel
head) made from sheared black sheet steel. It is used
in floorboards because it has a great holding power; it
wedges into the wood and does not split the wood. It is
Figure 10.10:
generally available in lengths of 25 mm to 75 mm. Cut nail

Steel nail
These nails are made from sheared steel and are generally used to
nail skirting and timber to brick or block walls. The nails usually
have a strong spiralled shaft so that they can be screwed into the
wall for better adhesion. Other types of steel nails have smooth or
ridged shafts. Available in lengths of 25 mm to 100 mm.
Figure 10.11: Steel nail
Clout nail
A nail with a large flat head that is used to attach ceiling
boards to a ceiling batten or lath. The large head stops the
nail from driving in too deep into the plasterboard. The
nails are also galvanised to make them waterproof. Available
in lengths of 25 mm to 100 mm.

Figure 10.12: Clout nail

Joining timber
Connector plate (Hydronails)
Connector plates are sheets of galvanised steel with rows of sharp teeth punched
into them, and are used to attach structures
such as roof trusses quickly and securely. The
components of a truss, which all have to be
uniformly thick, are laid out with butt joints
and a connector plate is placed over every joint.
Heavy presses are then used to press the plates
into the timber to make the joint. It is a much
faster and more economical way of making
trusses, rather than the normal lap joints that
are nailed together.

Figure 10.13: Connector plates

Hoop iron
Strips of galvanised hoop iron are available in rolls, with or without holes, and
are mainly used to reinforce brick or block walls and to attach roof structures to
supporting walls.

Figure 10.14: Reinforcement with hoop iron

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Material and joining methods used for capillary joints and

compression joints

Pipe joints
Capillary or soldered joints
This is a quick method of joining pipes, since the two parts that are soldered
together fit into each other. A soldered joint in copper pipes is made by applying
a chemical flux to the inner sleeve of a pipe before the other pipe is inserted. By
heating the joint using a propane torch and applying solder to the heated joint, the
melted solder is drawn into the joint by capillary action.

Figure 10.15: Cold and hot water supplies of a bathroom

Figure 10.16: Connections of a geyser

Advantages
• Cannot rust, i.e. is corrosion resistant
• Easy to join
• Used for both hot and cold water
• Little maintenance or upkeep required
• Cutting and bending pipes are easy
• Minimum equipment required to join pipes

Disadvantages
• Copper is expensive.
• The solder is not always drawn in sufficiently to fill the joint during the capillary
action (not applying enough chemical flux to the sleeve).

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 Joining 10

Figure 10.17: Pipe joints

Screw or compression joints

A compression joint consists of a galvanised iron, PVC or yellow copper adapter
with a tapered, concave seat, a yellow copper compression ring that fits snugly
over the pipe and into the seat, and a hollow compression nut that is threaded onto
the pipe. The end of the pipe and the ring are fitted into the adapter and the nut
is tightened to make the joint leak-proof. This joint is used for copper and high-
density plastic pipes. Compression joints do not have the durability offered by
soldered joints. Polythene pipes (PVC), like those of Marley Pipe Systems, can be
used above and below ground. Surface pipes must be anchored securely to prevent
the joints from coming undone.
Shower head
Water closet

To bath To basin Cold water tap Hot water tap

Figure 10.18: Cold water supply to a bathroom

Figure 10.19: Screw joints of brass and galvanized iron

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Compression joint with PVC couplers

Advantages
• Easy to join the pipes
• No solder required
• Screw joint is acid-free and corrosion-free
• PVC pieces are light
• PVC is easy to use

Disadvantages
• Compression joint takes longer to make.
• The joint may start leaking and then require tightening.
• PVC can easily be damaged by sharp objects.
• Compression rings can be damaged if they are not tightened correctly.
• Repairing leakages is timeconsuming (joint has to be loosened and
reconnected).

Materials and joining methods used for thread joints and PVC adhesives

Solvent welding or glued faucet joints

A solvent is applied to the joint areas of PVC, CPVC, ABS and other plastic pipes
to partially dissolve these areas and facilitate the connection. Joints are then made
using fittings of the same (or similar) materials.

Advantages
• Easy to do
• Do not require much heat or exertion
• Lightweight and fit together easily
• Can be assembled within minutes
• No leakages

Disadvantages
• Pipes can easily snap, which will weaken the joint.
• When the joint snaps, leakages may occur.
• The end of the pipe must be filed.
• Hands have to be wiped after the solvent has been handled.

PVC solder

Advantages
• Good binding strength
• Water resistant
• Can be used indoors and outdoors
• Can also be used to join gutters and for plastic pipes that insulate electric wires

Disadvantages
• Cannot be used on PVC that is too soft and pliable.
• Cannot be used for high-pressure joints.

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 Joining 10

1.
1. WBE41
2.

2 & 3. WHB4

3.
4. 4. WB52

Figure 10.20: PVC soldered joint at the 40 mm wastewater outlet of a kitchen sink

Figure 10.21: PVC sewerage joint (soil water and wastewater)

Roof wire
• This refers to galvanised binding or fixing wire which is approximately 3–4 mm
in diameter.
• It is made up of two pieces of wire that run up along the sides of the rafter or tie-
beam. Where they reach the top, the ends are stranded and nailed to ensure that
they will not unwind.
• The wires are anchored at a depth of least 600 mm in the wall.
• It must be fixed firmly in order to withstand upward forces and it must be
positioned right opposite the rafters or trusses.

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10 Civil Technology

Activity 1
1. What advantages do screws have above nails when it comes to attachment?
2. What are coach screws used for and why are they suitable for outside use?
3. What do you understand the term “connector plate” to mean?
4. Soldered joints and screw joints are used to join pipes. Explain the differences
between the two.
5. Table the advantages of solvent welding or glued faucet joints and PVC
solder.

Glossary
Adhere Stick together
Aesthetic Characteristics of a manufactured product that makes it pleasing to look at and to
touch. Refers to appearance, shape, colour and texture of the object.
Aggregate Dry materials used to obtain concrete, mortar, screed and plaster
Alloy Quality of pure gold or silver in coins; grade of fineness, quality
Aluminium Light grey material and a mixture of metals
Anchor bars Acts against compressive forces
Anchoring To use anchors such as galvanised steel strips and steel wire to attach roof trusses,
rafters and beams to binding beams and rafters
Anthroprometry Refers to the measurements of humans. These measurements play an important
role in design as they determine the size of designs
Arch A construction consisting of a number of wedge-shaped units (stones, rocks) that
are joined with masonry mortar to create a wall arching over an entranceway
Architect Person who designs buildings
Artefact / product / Something that is manufactured
model
Attach To attach to adhere to something to bond them together, hold tightly, attachment
Auger bit Spiral-shaped drill
Baluster Vertical parts between stairs and handrails
Balustrade A combination of balusters and handrails
Balustrade wall A wall that serves as a balustrade
Band course A 100 mm-wide layer of joint compound
Barge board Board that is nailed to the purlins at the gable ends to give the eaves a neat
appearance
Base line A line within the boundary line that serves as a fixed point / line from which can
be built or measured, can be on the building line
Batching A system of mixing materials into one batch
Beam A horizontal member that will carry a load and which may be attached to a
column
Beam filling The continuation of brickwork between the roof covering and the wall plate

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 Glossary 10
Beam formwork Consists of a three-sided mould that is kept in position by spanning support
beams
Bearer/joist A rectangular piece of timber placed on edge below a soffit to bear the load of the
concrete
Binding agent Something that is used to make a liquid stiff or thick
Bleeding The movement of water to the surface of fresh concrete
Bond The arrangement of bricks in such a way so as to obtain maximum strength or a
particular appearance
Bonded screed Screed placed on a dry concrete floor
Boundary line A line that indicates the boundaries / sizes of a premises or site
Bow’s notation Capital letters are placed in the spaces between the components and forces of a
framed structure in the space diagram. The letters on both sides of the component
or force indicates the name of the component or force.
Brace A rectangular piece of timber nailed at an angle between the post and the bearer to
to keep the headtree steady
BS Back sight
Bubble holes Tiny holes that are caused by air trapped between the concrete and the formwork
Building line A line within the boundary line, established by the authorities, that may not be
exceeded
Building site A place where construction / building work is taking place
Cadastral survey This survey is used to determine the boundaries of properties, such as farms, town
plots etc.
Calibrate Correcting the settings of instruments
Camber A slight curve of the arch on the intrados of a flat skewback arch
Cantilever A beam that is supported at one end and no support at the other
Capillary action Seepage of water
Carrying open string A open string stair equipped with supporting clamps and mitred joints
stair
Cavity walls Consists of two brick walls (leaves) that are built next to each other with a space
(hollow) of 50 mm between them and are connected by wall ties
Closed lagging Laggings that are attached tight against each other
Cohesiveness The adhering of different ingredients
Collar/rib Curved support for laggings of centers and columns
Collimation height The height of the line of sight, which will be the same for all telescopic directions
/Instrument height of the same instruments
Column A vertical member that may support a beam
Compaction An operation done on fresh concrete to remove air bubbles from the concrete
Competent or Any person who has the knowledge, training, experience and qualifications
qualified person specific to the job or task to be undertaken
Compression bars Acts against compressive forces
(anchor bars)

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Compressive forces Force that acts toward each other as pushing forces
Concrete Concrete is a workable plastic mixture consisting of specific parts of cement, water,
riversand and chipped stone that are placed in a mould and allowed to set.
Concrete floor / slab Floor cast with concrete
Concrete lintel Precast horizontal member made of concrete over an opening
Concrete ribs Are placed like lintels about walls with hollow concrete blocks in between
Consistency The uniform stiffness or floppiness of various mixes of concrete being cast in one
operation over an area
Construction Large machines that are used in construction
machinery
Continuous beam Beam supported on either ends with an attached beam in the centre
Contractor Something or someone appointed by a client, and bound by a contract
Corrugated To corrugate; made wavy
Costs Expenses, amount, money, debt that has to be paid
Covering Used to cover something
Cube test To determine the compressive strength or crushing strength of concrete
Curing a process performed on fresh concrete to prevent it from drying too rapidly
Damp proof course A damp proof membrane laid as a course between two courses of bricks
Damp proof A sheath of material that will prevent damp from moving from one material to
membrane another
Damp proofing A method used to prevent damp from moving from one material to another
Damp-proof Protected against damp / moisture (painting)
Damp-proof courses Watertight strips between layers of bricks that prevent damp/moisture from
penetrating the building
Distribution board A switchboard which distributes the main power supply to different branches
Downpipe Any pipe that transports fluids away
DPC Abbreviation for damp-proof coursing
Drainage pipe A pipe that carrying away any sewage water
Drainage system The system / construction or pipes of a sewer or sewage system that carries away
sewage and surface water
Drop groove A semicircular groove underneath the windowsills or lower railings or above the
top railings or windows and window frames. It prevents the rain from penetrating
the building when the wind blows.
Dry wall A wall that is built of dry materials
Drywall construction Refers to the partitioning of a building using drywall partitions
Drywall joint Is pasted over joints of gypsum board
Ductile Ability of metal to be beaten thinner of stretched out without breaking
Durable Lasting a long time
Dust goggles Glasses / goggles to protect your eyes from tiny dust particles
Earth wire A conduction wire that safely connects the electric current to the ground

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 Glossary 10
Effective width Width from the roof sheet to the overhang
Elbow Bent joining piece or socket with which two lengths of pipe can be joined to form
an angle
Empty-cell process Also called the ‘Reuping’ process; cells are not filled with preservative but merely
transfused, rinsed or washed
En suite Bedroom with its own bathroom
Engineer’s survey This survey is done on an existing topographical map to project and measure out
details of the project onto the ground so that excavations for foundations, cellars
etc. can commence.
English bond A brickwork bond consisting of alternate courses of stretchers and headers
Environmentally Products, building methods and techniques that don’t incur any damage to the
friendly natural environment
Ergonomics The study of the design of products or objects with the aim to ensure the safe and
easy use of the item and the health of the person using it
Evenly spread load A load that is evenly spread over a beam. It can be applied to the entire length or
only over a part of the beam.
Excavation work Creating a manmade cavity, ditch, well or depression that is formed by cutting,
digging or scraping
Extrados The exterior curve of an arch
Fascia board Board that is nailed to the rafters to give the building a rounded off appearance.
The gutters are hung onto this.
First aid Assistance in an emergency; medical help
Fixed cornice A cornice that is created directly on the wood of the framework
Flashing A wide range of flashings are available in the market. Watertight material to form
a watertight joint between a parapet wall and the roof covering e.g. chimneys, attic
windows
Flemish bond A pattern of bricks in a wall in which each course consists of alternate headers and
stretchers
Flight line (pitch) Vertical rise distance of stairs
Flight of stairs Stairs without landings
Formwork Temporary support for fresh concrete that is to be cast in a mould or supporting
structure
Formwork oil Is applied to the insides of formwork to prevent the cement from sticking to the
formwork
Foundation piles A component of the foundation that helps to transfer the mass of a building to
more stable / firmer ground
Foundation wall The wall that is built above the foundation. The height of the foundation wall
usually indicates the position of the concrete floor. Foundation walls for external
walls are usually 220 mm or 330 mm thick.
Frame A supporting structure with many members
FS Foresight
Full-cell process Also called the Bethell process; causes maximum absorption where the timber
does not easily absorb or retain the liquid preservatives; the wood cells are
partially or completely filled with the preservative
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10 Civil Technology

Galvanisation The process used to prevent the corrosion of steel and iron
(electrolosis)
Galvanised Blue-white metal that is dipped in smelted zinc to give it a lower corrosion level; to
cover metals with a layer of zinc
Gauged arch An arch that is made of face brick or one that will notbe plastered
GPS Global Positioning System
Green building A building built mostly of environmentally friendly materials and systems
Gypsum board Gypsum board is a building material that is made mainly from plaster of Paris and
consists of a cardboard covering on both sides of a gypsum core
Hand tools Tools that are used by hand; in manual labour
Handrail A safety railing that is attached to a balustrade or balustrade wall. This railing runs
parallel to the pitch-line.
Headtree A combination of the head, brace and post assembled together
High tensile steel The bonding of high tensile steel is increased by ribs that are made on the steel
surface
Honeycomb Voids in concrete caused due to poor compacting of fresh concrete
Housed stringer Niche to connect the heads of stairs (tread and rise)

Hurricane grip A grip made of galvanised sheeting bent at an angle of 90° to attach purlins to
rafters that cross or meet each other at a right angle
Hydrostatic Relating to the equilibrium of liquids
In situ (driven) Driven in situ foundation drivers are used as replacements for the pre-formed
foundation driver foundation drivers if there is a difference in the length of the foundation drivers
that have to be used.
In situ concrete Is mixed and poured on site
Induced To help something along or make it happen
Inspection Investigation
Intrados The interior curve of an arch or the inner or lower curved face of the whole body
of voussoirs taken together.
IS Intermediate sight
Join Add together, unite
Join Handling, process, result of joining; connection, union
Key brick The last brick laid in an arch
Lagging Timber square in cross section taking the shape of arches and columns
Large-head nail Galvanised nail that is used to fasten gypsum ceilings and cornices
Layout drawings A drawing showing an understanding of floorplans, vertical aspects and cross-
sections, and containing the positioning of various spaces in a building and all its
main elements
Lead Soft, heavy, easily melted, blue-white metal
Legislation Passing laws; existing laws
Levelling Measurement of heights only

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 Glossary 10
Line of collimation The line joining the intersection of the cross hair and the optical centre of the
objective and its extensions; also called line of sight or collimation
Main bars Act against tensile forces
Malleable A metal’s ability to be stretched in all directions without breaking, using a process
of beating
Manhole The opening to an underground cavity, tunnel or sewage which allows access for
the maintenance and repairs of underground installations. Is usually covered by a
cast-iron manhole cover.
Mansard corner The edge of a pitched roof where the two corners meet, from the ridge to the eaves
Mansard roof Combined roof where one part forms a mansard corner and the other forms a
gabled end
Marking out tools Tools used to mark out terrein as well as buildings
Massive concrete Cast concrete slabs that are suitable for single-storey structures on a solid subsoil
Measuring Equipment used to mark material for cutting or installing fittings
equipment
Melamine board Chipboard that is finished off with a washable material, usually plastic. Is available
in a variet of finishes (wood types) and is very popular when making built-in
cupboards. Standard size: 2 750 × 1 830 × 16 mm
Member A structural member may be a column, beam, tie or wall
Membrane Thin film or skin that is used for covering
Mitre An angle of 45° that is usually found with a joint
Mitred string stair Similar to a open string stair; here the heads are connected with mitred joints
Mix The wet mixture of aggregates to obtain concrete, mortar, screed and plaster
Moisture Wetness, sap, liquid, fluids, filled with damp
Moulded cornice Prefabricated cornice that is inserted above framework for decorative purposes
Nail plate A flat galvanised metal sheet that is pressed to form nail-shaped pins that stick out
at right angles. Is used to keep the various components of a rafter together
Neoprene A synthetic rubber that is resistant against oils and aging, used in watertight
products
Nosing overhang Overhang at the front of a tread (can be right-angled, slanted or round)
Occupational health Health issues relating to a particular occupation
Open lagging Laggings that have a space between each other
Open string stair Top part is cut out in the shape of the stair
Permeable material Material that will absorb water or liquids easily
Pigment Colourant; due, pigmentation
Pipe joints A bent joint or socket
Pitch The slope or fall of a roof
Pitch-line An imaginary line that connects all the nosing overhangs of a set of stairs
Plumber Someone who installs and repairs pipes, pipe systems and equipment such as
geysers

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10 Civil Technology

Plumbing work; pipe The profession relating to pipes, taps, geysers and valves for provision of water and
work sewage treatment
Polystyrene A thermoplastic material produced through polymerisation of styrene. Possesses
good isolating characteristics
Posts The vertical timber between other vertical timbers in a frame construction
Power tools Tools that need electricity to operate
Precast concrete Concrete used for manufacturing stones, window sills, stormwater drains,
curbstones, lintels, etc.
Prefabricated piles Used when inefficient subsoil covers more stable layers of soil
Preservation Keeping something in its original state or in good condition
Protection Conserving, securing; covering
Rabbet Groove on the edge of timber
Ready mixed Concrete that is ordered and delivered ready mixed for use
concrete
Regulation Rules that are laid down
Reinforced concrete Concrete that is reinforced with steel rods and stirrups, wire and stretched steel.
This concrete is usually subjected to pulling, bending and shear forces.
Reinforcement Used to strengthen constructions
Research Collecting information and data about a specific subject / topic
Rib and block / A rib or beam floor that consists of precast concrete beams or ribs that are spaced
block and beam evenly and blocks are placed between these beams/ribs. These units are very strong
construction and can carry heavy loads or weights.
Ridge The highest point of a roof where the two sloping sides of the roof meet to form a
horizontal line at the top of the roof
Riser Vertical parts between consecutive treads
Roof truss A galvanised sheet bent in a U-shape in which rafters and purlins are placed when
it has to be attached at a 90° angle against walls or on corners with another rafter
Rough arch An arch that will b plastered
Rough cast Roughly plastered with a grainy mixture
Rough ground Strip boards are fixed onto them when walls are panelled
Rust Oxidisation; reddish covering on the surface of steel, iron, etc.
Saddled / pitched Roof with two slanted levels / slopes
roof
Safety nets Catch nets to catch falling material or objects
Safety signs Signs that are put up to serve as warnings. Every safety sign has a special meaning.
Sanding Use 120-grit sandpaper to work the walls off smoothly
Screed A mixture of river sand, cement and water that is laid onto a concrete floor to
obtain an even finish
Screw Nail-like metal (or timber) bolt with a spiral thread and grooved head, meant to be
screwed (turned) in
Screw joint Joints that are screwed in

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 Glossary 10
Screw thread Spiral clockwise groove, e.g. in a screw
Sealing coat / block A joint compound that is applied to a dry wall course
coat
Secure Make safe
Segregation The separation of different aggregates of a mixture after the mixture has been
placed
Sewage water Water containing organic pollution, mainly human excretement such as urine and
stools, that come from the bidet, urinal, wash basin, bedpans and water cisterns
Sewage water Polluted water that comes from the bath, basin, shower, dishwasher and washing
machine
Sewer pipe A downpipe for carrying away wastewater from toilets, baths etc.
Sewerage Waste products that are carried away via sewers or drains
Shear bars Act against shearing forces
Shear force Horizontal and vertical shear tension works at 45° on a beam, causing diagonal
tensile cracks
Short-hole piles Is mainly used to counter ground movement (the expansion and contraction of
clay soil)
Shut-off valve A tap or valve that can control or cut off the flow of gas or liquid through a pipe
Simple supported Beam supported on both ends
beam
Skew nailing Joining timber by hammering in the nails at an angle
Skimming Application of gypsum plaster such as Cretestone or Rhinolite using a 300 mm
steel trowel to achieve a high quality smooth surface
Skimming coat A thin layer of joint compound
Slump test The determination of the workability and consistency of various mixes of concrete
being cast in one operation over an area
Small machine tools Handdriven equipment such as power drill, handheld compactor etc.
Soaking process This process needs a bath that is large enough and is in a good condition, to
submerge timber into preservation chemicals.
Soffit The bottom board that support concrete in formwork for floors, beams and ramps
Soft steel Ferrous metal that can erode; is relatively sssoooft and can easily be filed, drilled or
welded
Solder Metal joining compound made of tin or a mixture of tin and copper, which is used
for soldering
Spacers Use to prevent the reinforcement from touching the sides of the formwork
Stair Tread and riser
Stair carriage When a stair is broader than 1 m it needs to be supported in the middle. A 76 × 14
× 153 mm beam is used. It is equipped with triangular blocks or support clamps to
support the tread.
Stair landing Platform that follows a flight of stairs
Stairwell Space in which a flight of stairs will be erected

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Steel mat Welded steel mat / connected steel mat with ribbed steel that is placed on top of
lintels with hollow concrete blocks
Steel tubes Steel shapes that are hollow on the inside and consist of a lining / wall of varying
thicknesses
Steel-pipe casing piles This method comprises that a steel pipe casing is driven through unstable ground
or water untile stable ground formation is reached
Stirrups Binds the main bars together
Storm grip A grip made of galvanised sheet metal which is used to attach roof tiles to the roof
frames
Straight stair Single straight stair between different stair landings
Stretcher bond A bond that consists entirely of stretchers, with each vertical joint lying between
the centres of the stretchers above and below
Stringer / String stair Diagonal parts at the sides of stairs to which the stairs are attached
Strip foundation Continuous strip of cast concrete with a minimum thickness of 150 mm
Substructure Stretches from the foundation to the floorslab and includes the foundation wall
Suitability for Does the design comply with the purpose for which it was designed? The design
purpose task, specifications and limitations are evaluated to determine if a design is suitable
for the purpose for which it was designed.
Superstructure Extends from the foundation wall until the level where the wall plate goes
Surface treatments Is only applied superficially
Survey Survey of surfaces and heights
Sustainability Having no negative effect on the environment
Telescopic staff Is used with a dumpy level or other instrument to accurately measure the heights
above a certain point
Tensile force A force that is exerted in the beam to stretch the material
Thermostat Instrument that regulates temperature automatically
Three-dimensional A picture drawing in which three main aspects are shown in one drawing. It
indicates the three main measurements.
Tie A horizontal member onto which other members may be attached usually found
in roof and center construction
Topographical survey Here, all the details of the Earth’s surface within the surveyed area are determined
and represented on a plan
Torque Tension opposing twisting
Tread Horizontal distance covered by steps taken forward
Tread The area where you place your foot
Tribrach Base of surveying instrument
Turning piece (arch) Consists of a timber construction that serves as a temporary strut support
Undercoat First finishing layer to seal small holes
Uneven colour Results when old and new wood are used together in formwork. The uneven
(discolouration) absorption of water by the old and new wood leads to discolouration of the
concrete.

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 Glossary 10
Valley Internal angle formed when two parts of a pitched roof cross
Voussoirs Bricks cut to shape used in arches
Walking level Walking path between different levels of a building that are created by one or more
flights of stairs or landings
Wall plate A piece of timber that is rectangular in cross section that is used to secure roof
trusses and spread the load of the roof evenly onto the supporting walls
Wall string stair Is attached to a wall for sturdiness
Wall ties Two walls of a cavity wall are connected to each other using wall ties
Wastewater Water mixed with waste products
Water tank A watertight container or tank for storing mainly water
Weathering / erosion Process or phenomenon where something is weathered or eroded due to the
effects of the weather
Wedge Triangular-shaped timber used in formwork to raise or lower post heights, secure
parts of formwork against each other and also makes stripping of formwork easier
Weep holes To get rid of moisture / water that has penetrated a hollow wall
Winged roof Roof with only one sloped surface. Stretches over the walls or down to the parapet
wall
Workability of The pliability of the concrete to enable you to work with it
concrete
Yoke Part of the clamp used around the formwork for columns

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 Civil Technology

GRADE 12 CIVIL TECHNOLOGY JUNE EXAMINATION

TIME: 3 HOURS
MARKS: 200

REQUIREMENTS
1. Answer book
2. Drawing instruments
3. A non-programmable pocket calculator

INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION

1. This question paper consists of SIX questions.
2. ALL questions are COMPULSORY.
3. Answer each question as a whole – do NOT separate sub-questions.
4. Start EACH question on a NEW page.
5. Leave the MARGINS open.
6. Sketches may be used to illustrate your answers.
7. ALL calculations and written answers must be done in the ANSWER BOOK or on the attached
ANSWER SHEETS.
8. Use the MARK ALLOCATION of the question as a guide to the length of your answer.
9. DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES must be done in pencil, where applicable must be fully dimensioned
and neatly finished off with descriptive titles and notes to conform to the SANS/SABS Recommended
Practice for Building Drawings.
10. For the purpose of this question paper, the SIZE of a brick should be taken as
220 mm × 110 mm × 75 mm.
11. Use your DISCRETION where dimensions and/or details have been omitted.
12. NON-PROGRAMMABLE pocket calculators may be used.
13. Answer QUESTIONS 2.7, 3.2.2, 4.6, 5.2, 5.3.2, 6.1 and 6.2 on the ANSWER
SHEETS provided, using drawing instruments where necessary.
14. Write your examination number on the ANSWER SHEETS and hand them in
with your ANSWER BOOK, even if you have not used them.
15. The drawings and sketches in this paper is not according to scale due to electronic copying.

QUESTION 1: CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

1.1 Choose a description from COLUMN B to match the term provided in COLUMN A.
Write down only the letter (A – L) next to the number of the question.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
1.1.1 Cube test A protects kitchen surfaces against heat and moisture
1.1.2 Waterproofing B to determine the workability of concrete
1.1.3 Drywall construction C to finish the brow of a roof
1.1.4 Slump test D roofing is attached to this
1.1.5 Formica E component of a steel roof truss
1.1.6 Scaffold F PVC membrane sheets
1.1.7 Ridge G used to determine the compression strength of concrete
1.1.8 Wall plate H to gain access to work on higher sections of buildings
1.1.9 Purlin I constructed without using any wet cement or mortar
1.1.10 Gusset plate J highest point of a roof
K finish where the ceiling and wall of a room meet
L to spread the weight of the roof trusses uniformly
(10)

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 Examination papers

1.2 Indicate whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.

Write down only TRUE or FALSE next to the number of the question.
1.2.1 Formwork is a temporary mould into which fresh concrete is poured to harden (set).
1.2.2 The purpose of spacers in formwork is to ensure that reinforcing touches the sides of the
form work.
1.2.3 The section of the roof truss that rests on the wall plate is called the tie beam.
1.2.4 Drywalls are constructed using dry materials.
1.2.5 Clout-headed nails are used to nail ceiling beams to roofing rafters.
1.2.6 The length of gypsum ceiling board runs in the same direction as the roof trusses. (6)
1.3 The diagram below represents a roof construction. Study the construction and answer the
questions that follow.
B E

1.3.1 Identify the roof that is illustrated here. (1)

1.3.2 Identify the members (components) labelled A to G. (7)
1.3.3 What is the minimum pitch if corrugated zinc sheets are used? (1)
1.3.4 Name one place where flashing will be used. (1)
1.3.5 What is the function of flashing? (1)
1.4 The seams between gypsum ceiling boards must be covered.
1.4.1 What is used to cover the seams between ceiling boards? (1)
1.4.2 What is used to close the gap between ceiling boards and walls? (1)
1.5 A client wishes to install gypsum ceiling board in a room that is 3 000 mm wide.
1.5.1 Indicate the width of the board as well as how many boards of that particular width
will be needed to cover the ceiling. (2)
1.6 Describe FOUR safety measures that must be considered when using power tools. (4)
1.7 Name FOUR types of cutting that require the use of an angle grinder. (4)
1.8 Why is it necessary and imperative to use reinforcing in concrete when a building is
constructed? (1)
[40]

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 Civil Technology

QUESTION 2: ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

2.1 The back sight (BS) and front sight (FS) as well as the bench mark (BM) readings taken during a
survey using a dumpy level are provided on the level sheet below.
Use the information and complete the level sheet. Test your answers. (11)

BS FS RISE FALL HEIGHT REMARKS

0,9 655 Stake A

2,15 Stake B

2,26 Stake B

0,8 Stake C

3,16 2,95 TOTAL

3,16 – 2,95 CALCULATION

0,21 DIFFERENCE

2.2 The diagram below represents the outside elevation of a window frame.

C
B

D
B
B

E
F

2.2.1 What is the breadth and thickness of the frame head labelled A? (1)
2.2.2 What is the size of the rebate labelled B into which the window sash fits? (1)
2.2.3 Name the members (components) labelled C to E. (3)
2.2.4 What is the name and purpose of the member (component) labelled F? (2)
2.2.5 What is the function of the throat of the window frame? (1)

2.3 Make a neat, two-dimensional drawing to illustrate the vertical section of a frame head.
Provide a title and labels. (6)

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 Examination papers

2.4 Choose a description from COLUMN B to match the term provided in COLUMN B. Write down
only the answer next to the number of the question.

No. COLUMN A COLUMN B

2.4.1 Concrete tiles Grooves are wide and deep

2.4.2 Thatched roof Widely used due to low costs

2.4.3 IBR Built using standard (not wedge-shaped) common bricks
2.4.4 Corrugated zinc sheet Available in various modern colours
2.4.5 Rough arch Not rain-resistant
More susceptible to fires

Nail plates are used to nail this.

(5)
2.5 Name two factors that determine the span of a roof. (2)
2.6 The diagram below represents a vertical section of a rib and block floor.
Write the number 2.6.1–2.6.4 in your answer book and fill in the correct answers. (4)

2.6.1
2.6.2

2.6.3

2.6.4

Figure 2.6

2.7 Name four advantages that a suspended rib and block floor has over solidly reinforced
concrete floors. (4)
[40]

QUESTION 3: APPLIED MECHANICS

3.1 The diagram below shows a shaped lamina with a uniform thickness.
Complete ANSWER SHEET 5 by filling in the missing details and then calculate the position
of the centroid with respect to lines A–A.
Round off your answer to two decimals.

A (9)

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 Civil Technology

3.2 The diagram below shows two diagrams, not according to scale, of a cantilever roof truss.
Analyse the diagram and answer the questions that follow.

DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B

b f

d e
3.2.1 What is diagram A called? (1)
3.2.2 What is diagram B called? (1)
3.2.3 Identify the magnitude fo force BC. (1)
3.2.4 Identify the magnitude of force CD. (1)
3.2.5 Describe the angle formed by member AE of the structure. (1)
3.2.6 Describe the position of member EF in the structure. (1)
3.2.7 Determine the nature of the forces of the members. Tabulate the answer in your
answer book as illustrated here.

Member Nature of force

AB

BF
(2)
3.3. The diagram below shows a space diagram of a frame structure.
Use ANSWER SHEET 5.3 and:
3.3.1 Using a scale of 10 mm = 1 N, develop a vector diagram to determine graphically
the nature and magnitude of the forces in each member. (6)
3.3.2 Show the nature of the forces in the space diagram. (1)
3.3.3 Use the information in the space and vector diagrams and complete the table on
ANSWER SHEET 2.2. (6)

Space diagram

Member Size Nature of force

AE

BE

CF

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3.4 A simply supported beam spans 20 m and carries a uniformly distributed load 6 m from the right
point of support. The distributed load is 6 N/m across 4 m. The beam also carries the following
point loads:
6 N, 7 m from the left point of support and 5 N, 6 m from the left point of support.

3.4.1 What is the magnitude of the converted point load? (1)

3.4.2 How far is the converted point load from the LR? (1)
3.4.3 Prove that the LR = 15 N and the RR = 20 N by calculating the left and right moments. (8)
3.4.4 Test whether the beam is in equilibrium. (3)
3.4.5 Calculate the magnitude of the shear forces at A, B, C, E and F. (6)
3.4.6 Draw the space diagram using a scale of 5 mm = 1 m. (3)
3.4.7 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam using a scale of 2 mm = 1 N. (4)
3.5 Draw the bending moment diagram of the beam using a scale of 1 mm = 1 N/m if:
BMa = 0 BMb = 105 Nm BMc = 132 Nm
BMd = 138 Nm BMe = 120 Nm BMf = 0. (4)

[60]
QUESTION 4: GRAPHICS AND COMMUNICATION

4.1 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

Building line

Erf 305 Erf 307 Erf 309

Play park

Municipal connection
Curry Lane

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Write the numbers in your answer book and answer the questions:

QUESTION ANSWER
4.1.1 What street is mentioned on the plan? (1)
4.1.2 What does “Erf ” 305 represent? (1)
4.1.3 What is the distance of the rear building line? (1)
4.1.4 Identify the SYMBOL INDICATING THE NORTH POINT and draw it in the (2)
adjacent space.
4.1.5 On which side of “Erf 307” is the street situated? (1)

4.1.6 Why do you think the planned location of the sewage system will be on the (2)
western side of the building on “Erf 307”?
4.1.7 What does number 1 represent? (2)
Total = (10)

4.2 There is a need to build an additional flat on your plot since you wish to be on your own after com
pleting your matric year. Your parents have provided AN INCOMPLETE sketch, as illustrated below,
based on which you are required to develop a complete plan with a sewage system. This plan must be
submitted at the nearest municipal office after it has been drawn.

SKETCH IS INCOMPLETE BECAUSE THE WALL OF THE BEDROOM IS MISSING

Window 1

Bedroom
Bathroom

Bathroom door

Kitchen

Door
Window 1 Window 2

4.2.1 Using a scale of 1 : 100 draw the FLOOR PLAN according to the following specifications:

SPECIFICATIONS:
• External measurement of building is 9 000 mm × 7 500 mm.
• Wall height from ground level up to the wall plate is 2 700 mm.
• The roof pitch is 30 degrees.
• External walls 220 mm
• Internal walls 110 mm
• External measurements of bathroom is 3 800 mm × 3 000 mm.
• Window 1900 mm × 900 mm (Kitchen on south side and bathroom on north side)
• Window 1 500 mm × 1 000 mm (wall on south side)
• Door opening 900 mm × 2 000 mm
• Front door opens towards the inside. (13)

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4.2.2 Indicate the following on the floor plan:

• Scale (1)
• Symbols for shower, flushing lavatory and hand basin in the bathroom. (3)
4.2.3 Draw the south elevation of the flat using a scale of 1 : 100. (12)
4.2.4 Draw the layout of the sewage system up to the manhole, and indicate the inspection
and rodding eyes. ½ × 10 =(5)
[44]

4.3 The floor plan of an L-shaped dwelling is shown below. The dwelling needs a hipped roof.

4.3.1 Draw the outline of the floor plan using a scale of 1 : 100. Indicate the outline of the
house using a broken line.
4.3.2 Design and draw a hipped roof using dark lines.
The roof has an overhang of 350 mm. (16)
[60]

TOTAL : 200

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FORMULAE PAGE

IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION

G Centre of gravity h Height d Diameter

C Centroid b Breadth r Radius

L Length s Sides A Area

 Pi = 22 = 3,142 Ø Diameter V Volume

7

FORMULAE

FORMULA TO INDICATE POSITION OF

Area of FORMULA (in words) FORMULA (in CENTROID
symbols) x-axis y-axis
Square Side × side s×s s s
2 2
Rectangle Length × breadth l×b l b
2 2
Right-angled triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h
3 3
Equilateral triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h
OR pyramid 2 3

Position of centroid = (A1 × d) ± (A2 × d) ± (A3 × d)
Total area

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GRADE 12 CIVIL TECHNOLOGY NOVEMBER EXAMINATION

TIME: 3 HOURS MARKS: 200

REQUIREMENTS
1. Answer book
2. Drawing instruments
3. A non-programmable pocket calculator

INSTRUCTIONS AND INFORMATION

1. This question paper consists of SIX questions.
2. ALL questions are COMPULSORY.
3. Answer each question as a whole – do NOT separate sub-questions.
4. Start EACH question on a NEW page.
5. Leave the MARGINS open.
6. Sketches may be used to illustrate your answers.
7. ALL calculations and written answers must be done in the ANSWER BOOK or on the attached
ANSWER SHEETS.
8. Use the MARK ALLOCATION of the question as a guide to the length of your answer.
9. DRAWINGS AND SKETCHES must be done in pencil, where applicable must be fully dimensioned
and neatly finished off with descriptive titles and notes to conform to the SANS/SABS Recommended
Practice for Building Drawings.
10. For the purpose of this question paper, the SIZE of a brick should be taken as 220 mm × 110 mm ×
75 mm.
11. Use your DISCRETION where dimensions and/or details have been omitted.
12. NON-PROGRAMMABLE pocket calculators may be used.
13. Answer QUESTIONS 2.7, 3.2.2, 4.6, 5.2, 5.3.2, 6.1 and 6.2 on the ANSWER SHEETS provided, using
drawing instruments where necessary.
14. Write your examination number on the ANSWER SHEETS and hand them in with your ANSWER
BOOK, even if you have not used them.
15. The drawings and sketches in this paper are not according to scale due to electronic copying.

QUESTION 1: CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

1.1 Scaffolding plays an important role in the construction of buildings.
1.1.1 Describe what scaffolding is. (1)
1.1.2 Explain the purpose of the base plate in a scaffolding structure. (1)
1.1.3 How can scaffolding be moved with ease on a building site? (1)
1.1.4 Name ONE type of scaffold with which you are familiar. (1)

1.2 1.2.1 A worker has fallen on site and is bleeding as a result of his injury.
What steps would you take to apply first aid and to prevent yourself from
being infected by Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). (4)
1.2.2 The cartoon below shows a man who is welding. Describe THREE precautionary
measures that must be considered when welding work is done. (3)

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1.3 The photograph below depicts a portable angle grinder with accessories.
1.3.1 Name TWO uses of this piece of equipment. (2)
1.3.2 What is the component labelled A called? (1)
1.3.3 What is the purpose of the component labelled A? (1)

1.4 Mortar joints in a facebrick wall must be neatly finished. Name two pieces of equipment
that can be used to provide a neat finish. (2)

1.5 1.5.1 Where is flashing used? (1)

1.5.2 Name ONE material that is used to manufacture flashing (1)

1.6 1.6.1 Where is a gusset plate used? (1)
1.6.2 What would determine the thickness of a gusset plate? (1)

1.7 Concrete is essential in construction.

1.7.1 Name three advantages of concrete. (3)


1.8 Choose the correct answer in column B to match the statement given in Column A.
Write down only the numbers 1.8.1–1.8.6 and the appropriate letter. (6)

Column A Column B
1.8.1 Rib and block construction A Built without any wet cement or mortar

1.8.2 Drywall construction B Segmented arch

1.8.3 Wedge-shaped units C Copper screw
1.8.4 Joining oak members D Membrane sheets
1.8.5 Hipped roof construction E Pre-cast concrete beams
1.8.6 Waterproofing F Hip (corner) rafter
[30]

QUESTION 2: ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION PROCESSES

2.1 When reinforcement is indicated on a drawing, a detailed code system is used.

This makes it easier to read the plan and prepare the steel. Decode the following annotation:
9 R 10 01 - 200. (5)

2.2 Draw a neat, two-dimensional free-hand sketch of the top view of an L-shaped pillar with
8 main bars. Indicate how the bars must be bound together. (4)

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2.3 Formwork consists of planking/boards that are joined to facilitate the pouring of concrete.
The structure must be such that it is strong enough to resist the pressure of the poured concrete.
Write down the numbers 2.3.1–2.3.5 and provide the labels for the formwork of a concrete
beam and concrete floor as represented in the sketch below. (5)

2.4 The formwork for beams consists of a three-sided box.

What is used to keep the box together? (1)

2.5 The illustration below represents a construction in the building industry.

2.5.1 Provide the drawing with a title. (1)

2.5.2 Write down the letters A, B, C and D and write the correct name of each member
next to the letter. (4)
2.5.3 Name two advantages of rib and block flooring. (2)
2.5.4 List ONE requirement that must be met by formwork. (1)

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2.6 Closing a roof construction is very important when a roof is installed.

The ridge construction must be done correctly because it is prone to leak.
The drawing below represents a line drawing of a SA roof truss.
Make a two-dimensional sketch of the ridge section in which the following is indicated:
• Roofing rafters/principal rafters
• Purlins
• Ridge capping
• Galvanised roof sheeting
• Principal (king) post

(6)

2.7 A dumpy level that is placed in various positions, thus providing various readings, is
illustrated in the diagram below. Use the information that is provided below and answer the question
by transferring the readings to the level sheet and processing them. Test your answers.

TP VP STYG VAL COLLIMATION HEIGHT REMARKS

HEIGHT
Stake A

Stake B

Stake B

Stake C

Stake C

Stake D

TOTAL

CALCULATION

DIFFERENCE

[29]

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QUESTION 3: CIVIL SERVICES

3.Solar heating can be used as a good alternative for electricity these days.
3.1.1 During the summer months, the sun can heat the water in solar heating panels
to up to 65°C. Name three factors that determine this temperature. (3)

3.2. The floor plan of a kitchen and two bedrooms is shown in Figure 3.2 on ANSWER SHEET 3.2.1.
3.2.1 Write the correct abbreviations for the sanitary fittings in rooms one and two next to
the relevant symbol. (4)
3.2.2 Design a suitable sewage system for the building, considering the regulations governing
sewage works. The sewage system must be connected to the municipal connection.
The following must be clearly indicated on the sewage plan, using abbreviations:
• All draining pipes
• Inspection eyes
• Manhole
• Rodding eyes
• Gulleys (11)
3.2.3 What type of drainpipes would you use to carry the sewage away from the building
underground, and what should the diameter of the pipe be? (2)
3.2.4 What incline would you use to install this sewage system? (1)
3.2.5 What is the difference between a rodding eye and an inspection eye as far as their
individual functions are concerned? (2)
3.3 What is the best incline angle for a solar heating system? (1)
3.4 What are the following types of energy sources called?
3.4.1 Solar panels mounted on a roof (1)
3.4.2 Power generated by water (1)
3.4.3 Power generated by wind (1)

3.5 When a drainpipe is installed under a building, it must meet certain requirements.
Name THREE of these requirements. (3)
[30]
QUESTION 4: MATERIALS

4.1 Choose a material in column B to match the product mentioned in column A.

Write down the numbers 4.1.1–4.1.6 and next to each, the correct answer.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
4.1.1 Gutters Copper
4.1.2 Kitchen sinks Thatch
4.1.3 Manhole lids Brass
4.1.4 Ceiling board Glass
4.1.5 Hot-water pipes Stainless steel
4.1.6 Roofing PVC
Gypsum
Cast iron
(6)

4.2 There are different methods to compact concrete.

Name TWO methods. (2)

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4.3 Timber has to be graded before it can be used in the construction industry.
Name TWO methods that can be used to grade timber.. (2)

4.4 What is the:

4.4.1 diameter of a half-round gutter?
4.4.2 size of a tile batten? (2)

4.5 What is the purpose of damp-proof coursing? (2)

4.6 The external measurement of a foundation of a garage is shown below.

4.6.1 Calculate the centre line measurements for the concrete foundation if the
foundation is 600 mm wide. (5)
4.6.2 Calculate the quantity of concrete needed if the foundation is 600 mm wide
and 250 mm deep. (5)
4.6.3 Calculate the quantity of ceiling board needed in square metres. (6)
[30]
QUESTION 5: APPLIED MECHANICS

5.1 The drawing represents an irregular lamina. Calculate the position of the centroid with
respect to lines A–B. All measurements are in metres. (10)

5.2 The space and vector diagrams of a frame structure are shown on ANSWER SHEET 5.2.
USE ANSWER SHEET 5.2 and determine the nature of the forces in each of the members
of the structure.

Tabulate the nature of the forces in the table provided on the ANSWER SHEET. (8)

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5.3 A simply supported beam spanning 12 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 10 N/m
across 8 metres from the left point of support. The beam also carries a point load of
10 N 2 metres from the right point of support.
5.3.1 Calculate the shear forces at by A, B, C and D. (4)
5.3.2 Draw the space diagram on ANSWER SHEET 5.3.2, using a scale of 10 mm = 1 m. (2)
5.3.3 Draw the shear force diagram of the beam, using a scale of 2 mm =1 N. (6)

[30]
QUESTION 6: GRAPHICS AND COMMUNICATION

Answer this question on the attached ANSWER SHEETS.

6. The ground plan of a dwelling is shown. The house has a gabled roof without a valley.

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6.1 Draw the north elevation of the house, using a scale of 1 : 50, on ANSWER SHEET 6.1.
The roof has one ridge in the middle of the short wall.
Provide the solution of the following labels::
• Title and scale
• Plaster and paint
• NGL and FFL
• Roof pitch

Specifications:
• Floor height (finished floor level - FFL) 170 mm
• Height of wall 2 700 mm
• Roof pitch 30°
• Eaves 600 mm
• Roofing Corrugated zinc sheeting
• All windows 900 mm high en 1 500 mm wide
• Door openings 2 000 mm × 900 mm
• Asbestos fascia boards 225 mm × 15 mm
• Bargeboard 228 mm × 32 mm
• Windowsill 1 500 mm wide (15)

6.2 A king (principal) post roof truss spans 3 metres and it is pitched at 30°.
On ANSWER SHEET 6.2, draw the vertical sectional elevation to illustrate the closed eaves and a
little more than half of the roof truss, using a scale of 1 : 10.
The members of the roof truss are nailed together.

Use the following specifications:

Wall 220 mm
Plaster 12 mm
Tie beam 114 mm × 38 mm
Roofing rafter 114 mm × 38 mm
King (principal) post 114 mm × 38 mm
Foot purlin 76 mm × 50 mm
Ridge purlin 76 mm × 50 mm
Wall plate 114 mm × 38 mm
Brow overhang 500 mm
Fascia board 228 mm × 32 mm
Soffit hangers 38 mm × 38 mm
Soffit board 6 mm asbestos finished with 20 mm quarter-round mouldings
Roofing Corrugated zinc sheeting

Provide the drawing with a title, scale and all the necessary labels. (25)
[40]

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QUESTION 3.2.1

Municipal connection Main sewage line

Figure 3.2

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QUESTION 5.2
Space diagram

Vector diagram
Scale 2 mm = 1 N

Member Nature
BG
GA
CF
FG
ED
EF
AE

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FORMULAE PAGE

IMPORTANT ABBREVIATIONS

SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION

G Centre of gravity h Height d Diamter

C Centroid b Breadth r Radius

L Length s Sides A Area
∏ Pi = 22 = 3,142 Ø Diameter V Volume
7

FORMULA TO INDICATE POSITION OF

Area of FORMULA (in words) FORMULA (in CENTROID
symbols)
x-axis y-axis
Square Side × side s×s s s
2 2
Rectangle Length × breadth l×b l b
2 2
Right-angled triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h
3 3
Equilateral triangle ½ × base × height ½b × h b h
OR pyramid 2 3

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464 0007