UNIT 2 MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION

Automatic Transfer Lines : An automated transfer line consists of multiple

workstations that are automated and linked together by a work handling
system that transfers parts from one station to the next.

Classification of Transfer Lines :

a. In-line Transfer Line :
1. The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of stations in a straight
line arrangement, as in Fig. 2.1.1.

Workstation (n) Mechanized work

transport system
Proc Proc Proc Proc Proc Proc Completed
Starting
base parts parts

Sta Sta Sta Sta Sta Sta

1 2 3
Work-in-process

In-line transfer line. Key : Proc= Processing operation,Aut =Automated

workstation,Sta = Station.

2. This configuration is common for machining big workpieces, such as

automotive engine blocks, engine heads, and transmission cases because
these parts require a large number of operations, a production line
with many stations is needed.
3. The in-line configuration can accommodate a large number of stations.
4. In-line systems can also be designed with integrated storage buffers along the
flow path.

b. Segmented In-line Transfer Line :

1. The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-
line transfer sections, where the segments are usually perpendicular to
each other.
2. Fig. 2.1.2 shows several possible layouts of the segmented in-line category.

Starting Proc Proc Proc Proc

parts in Aut Aut Aut Aut

Proc
Aut

Proc
Aut
Completed
parts out
Proc Proc Proc Proc
Aut Aut Aut Aut

Segmented in-line.

3. There are a number of reasons for designing a production line in these

configurations rather than in a pure straight line :
i. Available floor space may limit the length of the line,
ii. A workpiece in a segmented in-line configuration can be reoriented to
present different surfaces for machine, and
iii. The rectangular layout provides for swift return of work-holding
fixtures to the front of the line for reuse.
c. Rotary Transfer System :
1. In the rotary configuration, the work parts are attached to fixtures
around the periphery of a circular worktable, and the table is indexed
(rotated in fixed angular amounts) to present the parts to workstations
for processing.
2. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 2.1.3.
3. The worktable is often referred to as a dial, and the equipment is called
a dial-indexing machine.
 Proc
Fixture to
Aut
locate parts
Proc Proc
Starting Aut Aut
parts in Dial-indexing
table

Proc
Aut

Proc
Aut
Completed
Proc
parts out
Aut

Rotary indexing machine (dial-indexing machine).

The general considerations taken in robot tool handling and work

handling –
General considerations in robot tool handling and work handling areas
follows :

i. Part Positioning and Orientation :

1. In most parts handling applications, the parts must be presented to the
robot in a known position and orientation.
2. Robots used in these applications do not generally possess highly
sophisticated sensors (e.g., machine vision) that would enable them to
seek out a part and identify its orientation before picking it up.
ii. Gripper Design :
1. Special end effectors must be designed for the robot to grasp and hold
the work part during the handling operation.
iii. Minimum Distances Moved :
1. The tool handling application should be planned so as to minimize the
distances that the parts must be moved.
2. This can be accomplished by proper design of the workcell layout (e.g.,
keeping the equipment in the cell close together by proper gripper
design and by careful study of the robot motion cycle).
iv. Robot Work Volume :
1. The cell layout must be designed with proper consideration given to
the robot’s capability to reach the required extreme locations in the
cell and still allow room to maneuver the gripper.
v. Robot Weight Capacity :
1. A robot with sufficient weight carrying capacity must be specified for
the application.
vi. Accuracy and Repeatability :
1. Some applications require the tools to be handled with very high
precision.
2. Other applications are less demanding in this respect.
3. The robot must be specified accordingly.
vii. Robot Configuration, Degree of Freedom and Control :
1. Many parts transfer operations are simple enough that they can be
accomplished by a robot with two to four joints of motion.
2. Machine loading applications often require more degrees of freedom.
3. Palletizing operations and picking parts from a moving conveyor are
examples where the control requirements are more demanding.
viii. Machine Utilization Problems :
1. It is important for the application to effectively utilize all pieces of
equipment in the cell.
2. In a machine loading unloading operation, it is common for the robot
to be idle while the machine is working, and the machine to be idle
while the robot is working.
3. To increase the utilization of the robot, consideration should be given
to the possibility for the robot to service more than a single machine.
art feeding system -

1. A feeding system selects, guides and positions the parts to facilitate

and enable their subsequent handling and assembly.
2. The feeding systems receive the parts in bulk, place them in the required
position and supply them to the following stage of the production
process at the speed and necessary rate for optimal functioning of the
process.
3. Dynamic feeding contemplates all the requirements derived from
handling the parts from their bulk reception to their positioned delivery,
one after another to their automatic processing.
4. The basic system consisting of a positioning unit (vibratory bowl feeder)
and transfer buffer unit (linear vibrator) assembled on a support plate
or table.
5. The vibratory bowl feeder receives the parts in bulk from a tank or
container (autonomy unit), places them in the required position and
supplies them to a transfer buffer unit until reaching the handling unit
of a machine.
6. The basic systems also allow to introduce additional controls to avoid
excessive pressures, reduce noise, wear of the equipment, inappropriate
handling of the parts, micro stops of the machine, etc.

The analysis of automated flow lines-

Analysis of automated flow lines involves following three problems :

i. Line Balancing :
1. The total work content to be accomplished on the automated line must
be divided as evenly as possible among the workstations.
2. In an automated production line, the tasks consist of processing steps
whose sequence and service times are limited by technological
considerations.
3. For example, in a machining transfer line, certain operations must be
performed before others.
4. Drilling must precede tapping to create a threaded hole. Locating
surfaces must be machined before the features that will use those
locating surfaces are machined.
ii. Process Technology :
1. It refers to the body of knowledge about the particular manufacturing
processes used on the production line.
2. For example, in the machining process, process technology includes
the metallurgy and machinability of the work material, the proper
application of cutting tools, selection of speeds and feeds, chip control,
and a host of other problem areas and issues.
3. In each process, a technology has been developed over many years of
research and practice.
4. By applying this technology, each individual workstation in the
production line can be designed to operate at or near its maximum
performance.
iii. Reliability :
1. The third problem area in the analysis and design of automated
production lines is reliability.
2. In a highly complex and integrated system such as an automated
production line, failure of any one component can stop the entire
system.
 Single Model Assembly Line :

1. Single model assembly line produces only one product in large quantities.
2. Every work unit is identical, so the task performed at each station is
the same for all products.
3. This line type is intended for products with high demand.
Batch Model Assembly Line :
4. A batch model assembly line produces each product in batches.
5. Workstations are set up to produce the required quantity of the first
product then the stations are reconfigured to produce the next
product, and so on.
6. Products are often assembled in batches when demand for each
product is medium.
7. It is generally more economical to use one assembly line to produce
several products in batches than to build a separate line for each
different model.
Mixed Model Assembly Line :
8. A mixed model assembly line also produces more than one model,
however, the models are not produced in batches, instead, they are
made simultaneously on the same line.
9. While one station is working on one model, the next station is
processing a different model.
10. Each station is equipped to perform the variety of tasks needed to produce
any model that moves through it.

Quantitative analysis of assembly systems.

Quantitative analysis for various assembly systems can be done as

given below :
For Multistation assembly machine :
1. In the operation of an assembly workstation, q is the probability that
the component to be added during the current cycle is defective.
2. Let m = probability that a defect results in a jam at the station and
consequential stoppage of the line. Since the values of q and m may be
different for different stations, these terms are subscripted as qi and mi,
where i = 1, 2, ...n, and n is the number of workstations on the assembly
machine.
3. At a particular workstation, say station i, there are three possible events
that might occur when the feed mechanism attempts to feed the
next component and the assembly device attempts to join it to the
existing assembly at the station. These are :
i. The component is defective and causes a station jam. The
probability
of this event is the fraction defect rate of the parts at the station (qi)
multiplied by the probability that a defect will cause the station to
jam (mi). For an assembly machine, pi = miqi.
ii. The component is defective but does not cause a station jam. This
has a probability (1 – mi)qi. With this outcome, a bad part is joined
to the existing assembly, perhaps rendering the entire assembly
defective.
iii. The component is not defective. This is the most desirable
outcome and the most likely by far (it is hoped). The probability
that a part added at the station is not defective is equal to the
proportion of good parts (1 – qi).
4. The probabilities of the three possible events must sum to unity for
any workstation, i.e.,
miqi + (1 – mi)qi + (1 – qi) = 1 ...(2.6.1)

5. For the special case where mi = m and qi = q for all i, eq. (2.6.1) reduces
to :
mq + (1 – m)q + (1 – q) = 1 ...(2.6.2)
6. To determine the complete distribution of possible outcomes that can
occur on an n-station assembly machine, the terms of eq. (2.6.1) are
multiplied together for all n stations :
n

[m q  (1 – m )q  (1 – q )] = 1
i i i i i
...(2.6.3)
i1

7. In the special case where mi = m and qi = q for all i eq. (2.6.3) reduces to
[mq + (1 – m)q + (1 – q)]n = 1 ...(2.6.4)
Single Station assembly Machines :
8. The single station assembly system is depicted in Fig. 2.6.1.
 Components added at one station

Starting Completed

base parts assemblies

Single station assembly machine.

9. It consists of a single work head, with several components feeding into

the station to be assembled to a base part.
10. Let ne = the number of distinct assembly elements that are performed
on the machine. Each element has an element time, Tej, where
j = 1, 2, ..., ne.
11. The ideal cycle time can be expressed as
n e

Tc = Th  Tej
...(2.6.5)
j1

Where, Th = Handling time, min.

12. Many of the assembly elements involve the addition of a component to
the existing subassembly.
13. When a jam occurs, the assembly machine stops, and it takes an average
Td to clear the jam and restart the system. The inclusion of downtime
resulting from jams in the machine cycle time gives,
ne

Tp = Tc   ajmjTd
...(2.6.6)
j1
14. For the special case of equal q and equal m values for all components
added, eq. (2.6.6) becomes,

Tp = Tc + nmqTd
The role of programmable automation in manufacturing.
1. A manufacturing system is said to be automated if it is to some degree
self-acting, self-regulating and self-dependent.
2. Automation enables a manufacturing system to efficiently produce the
product over and over with a consistent degree of quality. This leads to
lower unit production costs and higher productivity.
3. When a product reaches the phase in its product life cycle where the
design is fairly stable and when the demand for the product is high and
is expected to be consistently high for a relatively long period of time,
it is economically justifiable to use a product focused manufacturing
system or flow shop.
4. Such a system uses special purpose equipment designed to automate
the manufacturing process of a particular product. The specialized
equipment, unlike the general purpose equipment used in
programmable automation, is designed to perform repetitive
operations in a particular processing sequence.
5. Programmable automation or flexible automation is where general
purpose equipment is used in a process focused manufacturing system
and where both the processing sequence and the type of operations
can be easily altered by means of software.
6. Programmable automation is thus very efficient for production of
small lots of different products.
7. Programmable automation allows for product flexibility as well as volume
flexibility. A manufacturer who incorporates programmable automation
is better able to respond quickly and more effectively to the frequently
changing manufacturing environment and is more likely to obtain and
keep a competitive advantage.
Different types of CNC machine tools -
Following are the some CNC machine tools :
i. CNC Milling Tool :
1. It translates programs consisting of specific numbers and letters to
move the spindle (or workpiece) to various locations and depths.
2. Its functions include face milling, shoulder milling, tapping, drilling and
some even offer turning.
ii. CNC Lathe Tool :
1. It cuts workpieces while they are rotated. Makes fast, precision cuts,
generally using indexable tools and drills.
2. Effective for complicated programs designed to make parts that would
be infeasible to make on manual lathes
iii. Plasma Cutter :
1. It involves cutting a material using a plasma torch.
2. Commonly used to cut steel and other metals, but can be used on a
variety of materials.
3. The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the material being cut and moves
sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.
iv. Water Jet Cutter :
1. It is a tool capable of slicing into metal or other materials (such as
granite) by using a jet of water at high velocity and pressure, or a
mixture of water and an abrasive substance, such as sand.
2. It is often used during fabrication or manufacturing of parts for
machinery and other devices.
v. CNC Drilling Cutter :
1. CNC drilling cutter are used for drilling of holes at different coordinate
positions in workpieces with automatic cycles consisting of X-Y
positioning, rapid approach of tool to workpiece, drilling with required
feed rate to the required depth and rapid retraction of tool.
 vi. CNC Grinding Tool :
1. CNC has been successfully applied to all types of grinding machines.
2. The workpiece size control is achieved by some method of automatic
wheel wear compensation included in the grinding cycle or through an
interactive in-process gauging system which is interfaced with the wheel
in-feed drive.
vii. CNC Press Brakes :
1. A press brake is basically a sheet bending machine.
2. CNC systems of press brakes provide interactive help for programming.
3. Simulation capability in the programming software helps in the
development of correct programs.

he design features of CNC tooling -

In general the following points are to be considered while designing of CNC

tooling :
1. It should give high accuracy.
2. It should be able to perform variety of operations.
3. Interchangeability to produce same accuracy.
4. Flexibility.
5. Rigidity of tooling to withstand cutting forces.
6. Rigidity to transmit the power at higher speeds.
7. Quick changing of tools to keep the down time minimum.

The machining centres.

1. A machining centre is a machine tool capable of performing multiple

machining operations on a work part in one set-up under NC program
control.
2. Typical cutting operations performed on a machining centre use a rotating
cutting tool for operations as milling, drilling, reaming, and tapping.
3. Machining centres are classified as vertical, horizontal, or universal.
4. A vertical machining centre has its spindle on a vertical axis relative to
the worktable, and a horizontal machining centre has its spindle on
a horizontal axis.
 5. A vertical machining centre (VMC) is typically used for flat work that
requires tool access from the top. Examples include mold and die
cavities, and large components of aircraft.
6. A horizontal machining centre (HMC) is used for cube shaped parts
where tool access can best be achieved on the sides of the cube.
7. A universal machining centre (UMC) has a work head that swivels
its spindle axis to any angle between horizontal and vertical, making this a
very flexible machine tool.

obot vision-

1. Robot vision may be defined as the process of extracting,

characterizing, and interpreting information from images of a three-
dimensional world.
2. This process is also termed as machine or computer vision, may be
subdivided into six principal areas :
i. Sensing,
ii. Preprocessing,
iii. Segmentation,
iv. Description,
v. Recognition, and
vi. Interpretation.
3. Sensing is the process that yields a visual image.
4. Preprocessing deals with techniques such as noise reduction and
enhancement of details.
5. Segmentation is the process that partitions an image into objects of
interest.
6. Description deals with the computation of features suitable for
differentiating one type of object from another.
7. Recognition is the process that identifies these objects (e.g., wrench,
bolt, engine block).
8. Finally, interpretation assigns meaning to an ensemble of recognized
objects.

Programmable robot.
i. Robot Time Estimation in Manufacturing :
1. In the operation of an automated production line, parts are introduced
into the first workstation and are processed and transported at regular
intervals to succeeding stations.
2. This interval defines the ideal cycle time Tc of the production line.
3. Tc is the processing time for the slowest station on the line plus the
transfer time, that is,
Tc = Max{Tsi} + Tr ...(2.12.1)

Where, Tc = Ideal cycle time on the line,

Tsi = The processing time at station i, and
Tr = Repositioning time, called the transfer time.
4. Which Max{ Tsi} is used in eq. (2.12.1) because this is the longest
service time establishes the pace of the production line.
5. In the operation of a transfer line, random breakdowns and planned
stoppages cause downtime on the line.
6. Although the breakdowns and line stoppages occur randomly, their
frequency can be measured over the long run.
7. When the line stops, it is down a certain amount of time for each
downtime occurrence. Downtime occurrences cause the actual average
production cycle time of the line to be longer than the ideal cycle time
given by eq. (2.12.1).
8. The actual average production time Tp can be formulated as follows :
Tp = T c + FTd ...(2.12.2)

Where, F = Downtime frequency, line stops/cycle, and

Td = Average downtime per line stop.
9. The downtime Td includes the time for the repair crew to swing into
action, diagnose the cause of the failure, fix it, and restart the line.
ii. Programmable Robot :
1. A programmable robot is a multifunction manipulator designed to move
material, parts, tools or specific devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
2. Programmable robot is non living physical agent that performs tasks
by manipulating the physical world.
3. Programmable robots are devices that are programmed to move parts.