ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Etymology:
The term engineer derives from the old French term engin, meaning "skill, cleverness" and
also 'war machine'. This term in turn derives from the Latin word ingenium, which means
"inborn qualities, talent", and is constructed of in- "in" + gen-, the root of gignere, meaning
"to beget, produce." The term engineer is related to ingenious.

Application of basic science in practice is called Engineering.

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and buildings.

Or Civil engineering is a profession in which knowledge of the physical and

mathematical science gained by the study, experience and practice is applied with judgement
to develop ways to utilize economically the materials and the forces of nature for the
progressive wellbeing of man.

MECHANICS: The branch of physics that is concerned with the analysis of the
action of forces on matter or material systems. Ex: Applied mechanics, Quantum mechanics,
etc.,

Civil engineering can be broadly classified into the following groups/fields

(1) Surveying
(2) Building materials
(3) Construction Technology and Management
(4) Structural engineering
(5) Geo technical engineering/ Soil Mechanics
(6) Hydraulics or Fluid mechanics
(7) Water resources and Irrigation engineering
(8) Transportation engineering
(9) Environmental engineering

1.SURVEYING: Surveying is the Art, science and technique of determining the relative
positions of points on or above or below the surface of the earth.
It is a science of map making.
There are several types of surveying like Land survey, Geodetic survey, Topographical
survey, Hydrology, Quantity survey, Astronomical survey, Photogrammetric survey,
Archaeological survey, and soil survey etc.,
In earlier days the surveying was carried out using measuring chain, tape, compass and
ranging rods. Surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics,
physics, and law. Further advancement lead to the invention of plane table survey, leveling
instruments, theodolite and so on. Modern methods of surveying are carried out using Total
station, Advanced theodolites, Remote sensing, Global positioning system, Electronic
distance measurement, Photogrammetry, Tacheometry and Geographic information system
etc.,

GPS: GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

GPS is widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land
surveying, commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance, and hobbies such as Geo
caching. Also, the precise time reference is used in many applications including the scientific
study of earthquakes.
GIS: A geographic information system integrates hardware, software and data for
capturing, managing, analyzing and displaying all forms of geographically referenced
information. It is used in choosing sites, targeting market segments, planning distribution
networks and redrawing country boundaries.
Remote sensing: Remote sensing is a method of collection of information of an object or
phenomenon by the use of either recording or real time sensing device that is not in physical
or intimate contact with the object.
Example: Aircraft, Space craft, MRI, Ultra sound scanning etc.
TOTAL STATION: A total station is an optical instrument used in modern surveying
and archeology. It is a combination of an electronic distance meter, an electronic theodolite
(transit) and software running on an external computer known as a data collector.

2.BUILDING MATERIALS:
The engineering structures are composed of materials. These materials are known as
engineering materials or building materials or materials of construction. It is necessary for an
engineer to become conversant with the properties of such materials. The materials which are
used for construction should have properties such as water resistant, strength, durability,
permeability, heat resistant, appearance etc.
The materials of construction can be broadly classified into different groups such as
(a) Cement materials such as cement, lime, mortar, Mud etc.;
(b) Solid materials such as stones, bricks, steel, iron, timber etc;
(c) Protective materials such as paints, varnishes, plaster etc;
(d) Finishing materials such as Glass, Aluminiun, Granite, Marble, Mosaic, Ceramic tiles,
Vitrified tiles, Electrical materials, Plumbing materials etc.,
The mixture of sand and cement is called cement mortar, the mixture of sand, cement and
jelly is called cement concrete, the composite material of cement concrete and steel is called
reinforced cement concrete.(RCC)

3.CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT:

Construction is the major activity of civil engineering which is continuously improving.
As land cost is going up, there is demand for high rise structures in urban areas and low cost
housing in rural areas. It is necessary to adopt cost effective methods and use of locally
available materials to bring down the cost of construction.

Shortage of conventional building materials and the demand for building materials has
gone beyond their production lead to the invention and development of various non-
conventional building materials. The building materials made from locally available
materials, industrial wastes such as fly ash and foundry ash, agricultural wastes are used as
substitute building materials.
It is necessary to construct ecofriendly structures and preserve the greenery of the nature
for future generation and without polluting the environment.
Construction of light weight structures, Earthquake resistant structures, construction of
nuclear power plants, thermal power plants, hydroelectric project, TV towers, Tall structures,
Industrial structures, Bridges and Dams which lead to the Research and Development of
construction industry and technology.
The construction technology in restoration projects, use of chemicals in the restoration
projects of old structures, use of modern equipment like excavators, pumping of concrete is
also of very importance. A term given to the leaders and managers in the construction
industry having skills and knowledge, acquired through education and experience, to manage
the planning, design, and construction of a project from inception to completion for the
purpose of controlling time, cost and quality.
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to
bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. It is often
closely related to and sometimes conflated with program management.
Scheduling is the managerial tool in which the various activities are identified and their
target date of commencement and completion in a sequential order is predetermined so that
the entire project is completed in an orderly and systematic manner.

4.GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING/SOIL MECHANICS:

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the
engineering behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering includes investigating
existing subsurface conditions and materials; determining their physical/mechanical and
chemical properties that are relevant to the project considered, (Type of structure – i.e
whether the structure is residential, commercial, industrial building or roads, bridges, dams
etc.,) assessing risks posed by site conditions; designing earthworks and structure
foundations; and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.
A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project needs to define
the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil, rock, fault
distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their
engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed
construction. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on
which the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to
humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides,
sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.
A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks,
and/or pavement sub grades required for the intended man-made structures to be built.
Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise
buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial building, and smaller structures where the
soil conditions do not allow code-based design.

5.STRUTURAL ENGINEERING:
The term structural derives from the Latin word structus, which is "to pile, build,
assemble". Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and
design of structures that support or resist loads economically.
Structural engineers analyze, design, plan, and research structural components and
structural systems. Their work takes account mainly of technical, economic and
environmental concerns, but they may also consider aesthetic and social factors.

Typical structures designed by a structural engineer include buildings, towers, bridges,

Dams, Roads, Flyovers, Aqua ducts, Railways, Tunnels, Harbours, and Air ports. Other
structures such as oil rigs, space satellites, aircraft and ships may also be designed by a
structural engineer. also there are structural engineers in the aerospace, automobile and
shipbuilding industries.
Structural engineers ensure that buildings and structures are built to be strong enough and
stable enough to resist all appropriate structural loads (e.g., self-weight or dead load, live
loads, dynamic loads, wind load, snow, rain, seismic load (earthquake), earth pressure,
temperature, and traffic). They also design structures to be stiff enough to not deflect or
vibrate beyond acceptable limits. Consideration is also given to durability of materials against
possible deterioration which may impair performance over the design lifetime.
The load of the structure is transferred to soil. In the process of transferring the load, the
various components of the structure are subjected to internal stresses. Determination of these
internal stresses and the design of suitable sections and material of the components are called
structural analysis and design.
There are different methods of structural analysis and design, with the advent of
computers numerical methods emerged and analysis and design packages are becoming
popular. Matrix and finite element method of analysis have helped in the analysis of complex
structures. In the design of structures, working stress method is the oldest method employed
and limit state method is the most modern method used.

6.HYDRAULICS OR FLUID MECHANICS:

Fluid mechanics or Hydraulics is a branch of engineering which deals with the behavior
of fluid at rest or at motion.
Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the mechanical
properties of liquids. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics,
which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid power, hydraulics is used
for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids.
Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering disciplines, and cover concepts
such as pipe flow, dam design, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics,
flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.
 Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as
occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field open channel flow studies
the flow in open channels.

7. WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING:

The division of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering provides basic science
and engineering knowledge base for (i) the proper design and study of advanced water supply
systems, (ii) exploitation and preservation of surface and groundwater resources, (iii) design
and performance analysis of pipelines, hydraulic structures, drainage and sewer systems,
water and waste water treatment systems, (iv) air pollution control, (v) disposal of municipal
refuse and industrial wastes, (vi) maintain quality of the coastal and marine environment,
(vii) remediation of contaminated soils and groundwater environments.
Water is required for agriculture. Sometimes this water requirement is fulfilled by rain,
but there are some dry areas where irrigation is the only process by which water is supplied to
crops. Irrigation can be termed as the process of applying water to the soil to help in crop
production. Irrigation engineering deals with the analysis and design of irrigation systems
which include dams, weir, barrage, canals, drains etc. Good knowledge of hydraulics or fluid
mechanics is very much required for design of irrigation system.
There are different types of Irrigation like surface irrigation, drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation etc. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually used to
assist in growing crops in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally,
irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants
against frost, suppressing weed growing in rice fields and helping in preventing soil
consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-
fed farming. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or
artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.

8.TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING:
Transport engineering (or transportation engineering) is the science of safe and efficient
movement of people and goods (transport). It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering

The planning aspects of transport engineering relate to urban planning, and involve
technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical forecasting of passenger travel
usually involves an urban transportation planning model, requiring the estimation of trip
generation (how many trips for what purpose), trip distribution, mode choice and route
assignment.
The design aspects of transport engineering include the sizing of transportation facilities
(how many lanes or how much capacity the facility has), determining the materials and
thickness used in pavement, designing the geometry (vertical and horizontal alignment) of the
roadway (or track).
The modes of transportation can be classified as 1) Road ways ( Highways and Railways)
2) Water ways and 3) Air ways.

Highway engineering
Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, and other
vehicular facilities as well as their related bicycle and pedestrian realms.
 Railroad engineering
Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads and mass
transit systems that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or even monorails). Typical tasks
would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and
design, and construction cost estimating. Railroad engineers can also move into the
specialized field of train dispatching which focuses on train movement control.

Port and harbor engineering

Port and harbor engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of ports, harbors,
canals, and other maritime facilities. This is not to be confused with marine engineering.

Airport engineering
Airport engineers design and construct airports. Airport engineers must account for the
impacts and demands of aircraft in their design of airport facilities. One such example is the
analysis of predominant wind direction to determine runway orientation.

9.ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING:
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to
improve the environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and
land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites.
Environmental engineering involves water and air pollution control, recycling, waste
disposal, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law.
It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.
Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the
significance of such hazards, advice on treatment and containment, and develop regulations
to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and
industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide
environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, ozone depletion, water pollution and air
pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN THE INFRASTRUCTUE DEVELOPMENT

A civil engineer has to conceive, plan, estimate, get approval, create and maintain all civil
engineering infrastructure activities.
The construction of any engineering structure requires a wide range of materials. These
materials are generally called engineering materials. So it is very essential for a civil engineer
to know the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of such materials to have a safe,
economical and serviceable construction of structures.
Civil engineer has to carry out research and training programmes to improve the
technology. He has a very important role in the development of the following infrastructures:
1. Town and city planning.
2. Build suitable structures for the rural and urban areas for various utilities.
3. Exploration of water resources and construction of lakes, Dams and reservoirs.
4. Purification and supply of water to needy places like houses, schools, hospitals,
offices and agricultural field.
 5. Provide good drainage system and waste water treatment plants.
6. Planning, construction and maintenance of roads, railways, airports and horbors.
7. Preserve forest and encourage eco-friendly construction ( greenhouses)
8. Providing good communication system such as telephone networks, mobile phones
and internet facilities.
9. Providing good education system.
10. Providing industries and generating employment.
11. Providing for all sectors of people especially for those who live in slums.

TYPES OF INFRASTRUCTURE:
The basic facilities that are required for the growth and economic development of a
country are called infrastructures. Civil engineering amenities in the infrastructure
developments are listed below:
1. Good town planning and provision for future development i.e. for the growth and
expansion of the area.
2. Providing suitable roads and network of roads.
3. Providing railway connection to important places. (Including rolling stock and
mass transit system).
4. Easy access to national and international airports.
5. Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity.
6. Use of non-conventional energy such as solar energy and wind energy.
7. Proper planning for purification and supply of potable water to rural and urban
areas.
8. Providing good drainage system including treatment of waste water and solid
waste management.
9. Construction of water storage structures with proper irrigation systems.
10. Providing pollution free environment.

EFFECT OF INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES.

Construction is a basic need for the development of any national activity like
agriculture, industry and infrastructures like water, transportation and communication. It
forms a part of commerce, education, health and cultural activities. It provides housing to
individuals. Construction is actively taking part in entertainment, tourism, wildlife and
environmental up gradation. Construction offers higher employment. Infrastructure
development generates jobs associated industries like cement, sand, glass, wood, paint, pipes,
steel and electrical etc. Providing good infrastructure minimizes the exploitation from
middleman i.e. both producer and consumers are benefitted.

Infrastructure plays a key role in a country’s growth. It provides a basis for social,
economic and spatial development; it makes it possible for consumers to receive products, for
employees to get to work, and so on. It helps improve a country’s prosperity and enhance its
competitiveness. There is also a relationship between regional development and
infrastructure, as various studies have shown. International organizations such as the World
Bank acknowledge how important infrastructure is to regional development.

ROADS:
The path /pathway/traveled way on which people, Animal or wheeled vehicles may
lawfully pass is called ‘ROAD’. The entire stretch of land/area required and reserved along
its alignment is called RIGHT OF WAY.
 Types of Transportation:
Land, Water and air are the three basic modes of transportation. Road and railway
transport system are developed by land. Waterways and airways are developed by water and
air. The four principal types of transportation are as follows.
1. Road ways or Highways
2. Railways.
3. Waterways
4. Airways.
Airways are the fastest and comfortable among all the four types, but it is more costly
than other types. Transportation by waterways is the slowest and cost effective. Mass
transportation of both goods and passengers for long distance can be achieved economically
by Railways. Road transport system is the one which gives maximum service and
advantageous compare to all other system of transportation. This is the one which has
maximum flexibility with respect to route, direction, time and speed of travel. The road
network serves as feeder system to all other systems of transportation. Construction,
maintenance and operation of roadways are cheaper than the other system.
First 20 years plan or Nagpur Road Plan: A conference of the Chief engineers of all
the states and provinces was convened in 1943 by the govt of India at Nagpur, at the initiative
of the IRC to finalise the road development plan for the country as a whole. This is a
landmark in the history of road development in India. In this first 20 year road development
plan, popularly known as Nagpur Road Plan, all roads were classified into five categories and
a programme for the period 1943-1963 was finalized. At the end of this plan the target road
length aimed at was 16Km per 100 sq km area of the country.
Second 20 years plan or Bombay Road Plan: As the target of First 20 year plan were
achieved in about two years ahead in 1961.The second 20 year road development plan for the
period 1961-1981 was initiated by the IRC and was finalized at the meeting held at Bombay
in 1959. The target road length was 32km per 100 sq km area of the country.
Third 20 year plan or Golden jubilee conference or Lucknow: The third 20 years
development plan for the period 1981-2001 was finalized in golden jubilee conference of IRC
held at Lucknow. This plan includes several important items such as growth of industries and
agriculture, rural and urban development, employment potenetial of road sector, energy
conservation, road construction materials, road safety and research and development works.
The target was to achieve a road length of 82km per 100 sq km of area.
Classification of Roads:
A. Classification of roads depending on the usage of roads during rainy season.
1. All weather Roads: All weather roads can be used during all weather conditions of
the year.
2. Fair weather roads: In fair weather roads overflowing of streams across the road is
permitted during monsoon season.
B. Classification based on the type of carriage way or the pavement surface.
1. Surfaced roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
2. Unsurfaced roads: These roads may be mud roads or water bound macadam roads.
i.e. these roads are not provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surface.
 C. Classification of roads as per Nagpur road paln:
The roads classified under this classification is as follows
1. National Highways.
2. State Highways.
3. Major district roads.
4. Other district roads.
5. Village roads.
The National highways are the roads that are connecting the important cities, towns, ports,
and state capitals. They may even connect other neighbouring countries also. These roads
will be of Two-lane traffic roads with a minimum road width of 8m with 2m wide shoulders
on either side. Construction and maintenance is by central govt departments like CPWD,
MES and National Highway Authorities. The vehicles can move with higher speeds and the
quality of roads will be superior to the remaining categories.
Example: NH 1 – Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar, NH 4 – Poona-Bangalore-Chennai, NH 17 –
Bombay-Kanyakumari.
The state highways connect important cities and district headquarters. They connect various
cities to the National highways. The construction and maintenance is by state authorities like
state PWD. Some state highways may get the up-gradation by the central govt depending on
the priority of the place. The design parameters and specifications will be same as that of
National Highways.
MDR: Major district roads connect from district to district within the state and rural areas
of production to important market places. These roads also connect to State Highways and
National Highways. The design speed and geometric design is lower than the National
highways and State highways. Construction and maintenance is by state authorities.

ODR: These roads connect villages to nearby Taluk head quarters and from Taluk to taluk.
The roads will be of single lane with a minimum width of 3.5m. The construction and
maintenance is by state authorities with a prior approval by state govt.
Village Roads: The roads connecting villages or group of villages each other or the roads of
higher category. These roads are usually non metalled road or mud roads. The construction
and maintenance is by the local authorities like Taluk panchayath or Zilla panchayath with
the approval of district authorities.
The basic requirement of any road planning is as follows

1. Short
2. Easy
3. Safe and
4. Economical.
Classification of roads as per Lucknow Road Plan: The roads in the country are
classified as per the Third 20 year plan is as follows.
Lucknow road plan

Primary System Secondary system Tertiary system

Expressways NH SH MDR ODR Village

Roads

1. Expressways are superior to National highways and are provided wherever volume of
traffic is very high.
2. The design speed and geometric design are superior.
3. No cross traffic is permitted.
4. Central traffic separators are provided between the traffic in opposite direction.
5. They are provided with fencing so that the animals do not enter.
6. Slow moving vehicles are not permitted and only fast moving vehicles are allowed.
7. The construction and maintenance is by state govt or Central govt.
8. Some expressways are under Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) system by private
operators on contract basis allotted by state or central govt.
Pavements - Types of Pavements
Definition: Pavement is the actual travel surface especially made durable and serviceable to
withstand the traffic load commuting upon it. Pavement grants friction for the vehicles thus
providing comfort to the driver and transfers the traffic load from the upper surface to the
natural soil.
Pavements are primarily to be used by vehicles and pedestrians. Storm water
drainage and environmental conditions are a major concern in the designing of a pavement.
The roads of the earlier times depended solely on stone, gravel and sand for construction and
water was used as a binding agent to level and give a finished look to the surface. All hard
road pavements usually fall into two broad categories namely

 Flexible Pavement
 Rigid Pavement
Rigid pavement: Definition: The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with
rigidity or flexural strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a wide area of
subgrade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs with steel reinforcement.

The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either plan, reinforced or prestressed
concrete. Critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum flexural stress
occurring in the slab due to wheel load and the temperature changes.

Flexible pavement: Definition: Are those pavements which reflect the deformation of
subgrade and the subsequent layers to the surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no
reinforcement or with a specialized fabric reinforcement that permits limited flow or
repositioning of the roadbed underground changes. The design of flexible pavement is
based on load distributing characteristic of the component layers. The black top pavement
including water & gravel bound macadam fall in this category. Flexible pavement on the
whole has low or negligible flexible strength flexible in their structural action). The flexible
pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers by grain
transfer through contact points of granular structure.
The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the
wheel load and is equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute
the stress to large area in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased in the lower
layer. As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top
layer has to be strongest as the highest compressive stresses. To be sustained by this layer,
in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take up only lesser magnitude of stress as
there is no direct wearing action die to traffic loads, therefore inferior material with lower
cast can be used in the lower layers.
Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavements

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS RIGID PAVEMENTS

1. Deformation in the sub grade is 1. Deformation in the subgrade is not
transferred to the upper layers transferred to subsequent layers
2. Design is based on load distributing 2. Design is based on flexural strength or
characteristics of the component slab action
layers
3. Have low flexural strength 3. Have high flexural strength
4. Load is transferred by grain to grain 4. No such phenomenon of grain to grain
contact load transfer exists
5. Have low completion cost but 5. Have low repairing cost but
repairing cost is high completion cost is high
6. Have low life span (High 6. Life span is more as compare to
Maintenance Cost) flexible (Low Maintenance Cost)
7. Surfacing cannot be laid directly on 7. Surfacing can be directly laid on the
the sub grade but a sub base is needed sub grade
8. No thermal stresses are induced as the 8. Thermal stresses are more vulnerable
pavement have the ability to contract to be induced as the ability to contract
and expand freely and expand is very less in concrete
9. That’s why expansion joints are not 9. That’s why expansion joints are
needed needed
10. Strength of the road is highly 10. Strength of the road is less dependent
dependent on the strength of the sub on the strength of the sub grade
grade
11. Rolling of the surfacing is needed 11. Rolling of the surfacing in not needed
12. Road can be used for traffic within 24 12. Road cannot be used until 14 days of
hours curing
13. Force of friction is less Deformation 13. Force of friction is high
in the sub grade is not transferred to
the upper layers.
14. Damaged by Oils and Certain 14. No Damage by Oils and Greases
Chemicals
 DAMS
A Dam is an imperviable or fairly imperviable barrier put across a natural stream to hold up
water on one side of it up to a certain limiting level.
Classification of Dams: Dams are classified as follows
Dams

Function Hydraulic design Structural design Materials of

Construction

Coffer Dams Diversion Dams Debris Dam Detention Dam Storage

Dam

Over flow Dam Non Over flow Dam Partially overflow Dam

Gravity Dams Arch Dams Buttress Dams Embankment

Dams

Rigid Dams Non Rigid Dams

Classification depending on the FUNCTION:

Coffer Dam: A cofferdam is an enclosure within a water environment constructed to allow
water to be displaced by air for the purpose of creating a dry work environment. Commonly
used for oil rig construction and repair, bridge and dam work, the cofferdam is usually a
welded steel structure that is temporary, typically dismantled after work is completed.
Diversion Dams: These type of dams are constructed across small rivers or streams to divert
the flow of water fully or partially to the channels.
Debris dams: Dams that are constructed to retain the debris like sand, wood, gravel etc.,
flowing with the water is called Debris dams.

Detention Dams: Dams constructed to detain flood waters and gradually release the water so
that downstream side is protected from flood havocs.
Storage Dams: The dams constructed for the purpose of storage as reservoir, the water is
used throughout the year for irrigation purpose and other uses.

Classification depending on HYDRAULIC DESIGN:

Over flow Dams: These types of dams are constructed with a crest to permit overflow of
surplus water. These types of dams are also called as waste weirs.
Non Over flow Dams: Water is not allowed to overflow over this type of dams.
Partially overflow dams: Part of the dam will be overflow type and part of the dam is non
overflow type.

Classification depending on STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR:

GRAVITY DAMS: The dam which resists the forces exerted by the stored water by its self-
weight are called Gravity dams.
1. Most of these types of dams are constructed with masonry or concrete.
2. They are suitable for valleys with steep side slopes.
3. They are constructed across gorges where a good site of waste weir cannot be found.
4. They are suitable in regions of high rain fall and also for higher capacity reservoirs.
ARCH DAMS: The hydraulic pressure from the reservoir is resisted by arch action.
1. This type of dam is adopted only when the sides of the valley are composed of a good
rock which can resist the thrust.
2. This type of dam is constructed when the length of the dam is small in proportion to
height.
3. It is cheaper than the gravity dam.
BUTTRESS DAMS: Buttress dams are usually reinforced arch slab retains the water. These
arches are supported by concrete or masonry buttresses.
1. This type of dam is also called as hollow concrete dams.
2. They are suited to localities where construction materials are not available nearby.
3. Turbines and other apparatus can be placed within the buttresses so that saving for
housing such appliances can be made.
4. These types of dams are economical.
EMBANKMENT DAMS: Dams which resist the hydraulic pressure mainly by shear are
called embankments dams.
1. They are most economical dams.
2. The height of the dams can be easily raised from time to time to increase the storage
capacity or make good the deficiency of storage due to silting.
3. They can be constructed rapidly with unskilled labour and with locally available
material.
BRIDGES-Definition: A structure facilitating a communication route for carrying road
traffic or other moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as river, stream, channel,
road or railway is called a BRIDGE.
Bridge is a structure constructed across a river, valley, road or railway without obstructing the
passage/ way beneath.
Classification Purpose
Road Bridge Railway Bridge Aqua Duct Via Duct
Alignment
Square Bridge Skew Bridge
Nature of life

Temporary Permanent
Span
Culverts Minor Bridge Major Bridge Long span Bridge
(Less than 8m) (8m to 30m) (30m to 120m) (More than 120m)

Position of HFL
Submersible Non submersible
Fixed or Moveable
Swing bridge Lift Bridges Bascule Bridges
Location of bridge floor
Deck Bridges Semi deck or Semi through Bridges Through Bridges

Super structure
Portal frame Truss bridges Cantilever Bridges Suspension bridges
Material of construction
Timber Bridge Masonry Bridge RCC bridge Steel Bridge PSC Bridge
Type of connection
Welded Connection Riveted Connection

The bridge structure comprises of the following parts.

1. Superstructure or Decking:
This includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load passing over it and transmits the
forces caused by the same to the substructures.
2. Bearings: The bearings transmit the load received from the decking on to the substructure
and are provided for distribution of the load evenly over the substructure material which may
not have sufficient bearing strength to bear the superstructure load directly.
3. Substructure:
This comprises piers and abutments, wing walls or returns and their foundation.

Classification of bridges: bridges can be classified INTO VARIOUS TYPES depending up

on the following factors
1. Location of bridge floor
a. Deck bridges: These are bridges in which road formation level or pavement is on top of
super structure. In such bridges sufficient head room for all vehicles is available. RCC beam
bridges, Steel girder bridges are example for Deck bridges.

b. Through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is. Such bridges
may not provide sufficient head room for all vehicles, if the road formation level is increased
subsequently.
c. Semi -through bridges: These are bridges in which the road formation level is at some
intermediate level of the super structure. Such bridges do not provide sufficient head room
for all vehicles when the road formation level increases subsequently. Steel girder bridges are
examples of semi -through bridges.

2. Superstructure : based on superstructure the bridges may be classified as truss bridges,

Arch bridges, Suspension bridges & cantilever bridges.

3. Fixed or Movable
a. Bascule bridges
In bascule bridges, the entire super structure is rotated in vertical plane to 70 to 80°, the
bascule bridge may either be single or double.
b. Swing bridges
In swing bridges, the girders and deck can be swung about its middle over the middle pier,
clearing the span on either side for passage ship.

c. Lift bridges
In this case, gantries are provided at the piers at either end of the span and the entire girder
and the floor system is lifted up by a hydraulic arrangement to the extent required for free
passage of the ship.
4. Nature of life
a. Temporary bridges
The temporary bridges are defined as structures, which are constructed to cross a river or a
stream in place of permanent works. Such bridges are useful when it is not possible to
construct a permanent bridge due to shortage of money, time, good materials or skilled
labour.
b. Permanent bridges
The permanent bridges are defined as structures, which are constructed to cross a river or a
stream permanently.

5. Span
1. Culverts (less than 6m)
Culvert is a bridge having a gross length of six meters or less between the faces of abutments
2. Minor bridge ( span 8 to 30m)
3. Major bridge (span 30 to 120m)
4. Long span bridge (span above 120m)
6. Alignment
a. Square bridge: if the bridge is at right angles to the obstacle it is termed as square bridge.
b. Skew bridge: if the bridge is not at right angle to the obstacle it is termed as skew bridge

7. Purpose

Road Bridge, Rail Bridge, Rail & Road Bridge, Pedestrian Bridge, Aquaduct, Viaduct

8. Position of high flood level

Submersible & Non Submersible

9. Material

Based on materials used for construction of bridges, they may be classified as Concrete
Bridge, Steel Bridge, Timber Bridge, R C C bridge, masonry bridge & Composite Bridge