Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.

Naji, 2019–2020

Functions.
• The concept of a function: if we have two variables, x and y, and for every allowed number
assigned to x we get one (and only one) value determined for y, then y is a functions of x, and we
write it as y = f (x). For example y = f (x) = x2 (discuss). If we draw the graph of this function
we will observe the familiar parabola (note that (x, y) on the graph will give the coordinates
of each point on the parabola’s curve, but we can also think of y here as a function of x as x
sweeps on the real line).

• Notice that whenever we specify x, we uniquely get a determined value for y. We called x an
independent variable (as it doesn’t depend on anything and as is free to sweep), whereas y
is called a dependent variable (as it depends on the variable x). For example, the area of a
circle is A = πr2 ; here r is the independent variable (radius) and A is the dependent variable.
• In general, for a function y = f (x), we can think of the function’s operation as a machine (or a
model, or a box) that takes input x and gives us the output y for every input. That’s why we
can model real life problems using functions (discuss). The oscillations on a string, wave motion
through a medium, mobile phone signals, climate and temperature changes, mechanical stress
in machines, etc, are all examples of phenomena that can by studied accurately only after being
modelled as functions.
• The variable x, which is the input of the function, belongs to a set X (set of all allowed values,
sometimes also denoted D), which we call the domain (or domain of definition) of the
function f . On the other hand, the function’s value (output) is the variable y which belongs
to a set Y that includes all possible values that f can take. We call the set Y the range (or
codomain or target set).

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Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

• The following functional notations are used to show the function’s operation:

y = f (x) or (x, f (x) : x ∈ X (1)

Sometimes we also use arrow notations, such as:

f
f : X → Y or X → Y or x → f (x). (2)

• Most of the functions that we deal with are real functions, whose input x belongs to X which
is some subset R (that is, x ∈ X ⊂ R), and whose output value y is any real number (that
is, Y = R). Thus, usually we have f : X → R. Note that X is usually the entire R set,
excluding some values unwanted by the user or values would make the function undefined.
Strictly speaking, we need to define the domain of any function to complete its definition.
However, in practice, if the domain is not given, then its assumed to be R except any values
that make the function undefined. For example,
√ y = f (x) = x2 is a parabola and x here can
take any real value. The functions g(x) = x, however, is defined on the domain X = R+ of
positive real numbers (negatives not allowed). And h(x) = 1/(10 − x) is a function defined on
the domain X = R − 10.
√
• Note that the equation y 2 = x results in y = ± x, which has two values (not one), therefore√it
is not a function!
√ Here we need to write the equation as two separate functions, either y = x
or y = − x.

• When we draw a function as a graph, we get a clear picture of its behaviour, and we limit our
graph to its domain (on the x axis) and its range (on the y axis).

• Function of function: for example, take f (x) = x2 + 3x and take g(x) = x2 − 1, then
f [g(x)] = x4 + x2 − 2 and g[f (x)] = x4 + 6x3 + 9x2 − 1. Note that in general f [g(x)] 6= g[f (x)]
(even if they may be equal sometimes in lucky cases!).

• Classes of functions: we often categorise functions into classes that help us study them, as
shown below.

– Polynomial functions: these are simply polynomials expressions, such as the expressions
for lines, circles or parabolas. For example, y = 3x − 2 and y = 1 − 2x + x4 . Also, the
general quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is a polynomial function. Note that polynomial
functions can be added, subtracted and multiplied together and stay polynomial. When
drawing the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, for example, we note that it can cross the x-axis
at some points. We call these points of intersection ‘zeros’ (because f = 0 there). We can
find these zeros algebraically by forcing y = f (x) to be zero, thus forcing: ax2 + bx + c = 0
in the quadratic
√ example above. But this is the familiar quadratic equation whose solution
−b± b2 −4ac
is x = 2a
. Therefore, we get two intersections (zeros) when b2 − 4ac > 0; one
intersection (zero) when b2 − 4ac = 0; and no intersections at all when b2 − 4ac < 0 (see
graph below).

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Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

– Rational functions: this is a larger class that includes polynomial functions, where func-
tions are created from quotients (ratios) of two polynomials, such as x2x+1 , x + x1 , x+2
x−2
or
x4 +x3 −2x+6
x3 +x−1
. Notice that if the denominator is a nonzero constant, it becomes a polynomial
function (so polynomial functions are indeed a sub-class of rational functions). See the
x
graphs of some rational functions here: y = 1/x, y = x−1 , and y = x + x1 . Note how we can
sometimes have asymptotes that describe their behaviour at very large or small values.

– Algebraic functions: this is a larger class that√ included

√ rational functions.
√ Here we
2 3 2
√ roots to to be also used. For example, y = x, y = 25 − x , y = x + 1 + x and
allow
1/( 1 − x). To draw the graphs here, we √sometimes need to note the equations that relate
to them. For example, the function y = x comes from the equation y 2 = x (parabola),

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 Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

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– Transcendental
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functions: any function that is not algebraic is called transcendental (in
The graph of the absolute value function
y
other words, it cannot be written as ratio of polynomials and/or roots, for example because
Y = l xl
it contains an infinite series of terms, and a polynomial must always contain a finite (n)
is easy to draw (Fig. 1.34 ). To see that this function is algebraic, we have only
number of terms). Examples of transcendental functions include cos x, sin x, ex and ln x
to notice the fact that lxl = W for every value of x.
(all of which can be written as infinite series, but not as polynomials).
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As these examples show, many of the basic features of a function are made
transparently clear
• Remember: by sketching
the graphs of its
twograph. We are interested
functions intersectless inassketches of
the points where the two functions are
equal.

Reading advice and exercises to try.

– Read sections 1.5 and 1.6 from Simmons’ book.

– Try solving (by hand) the examples worked out inside these sections (the advanced example
on page 32 is optional), then try to solve some of their problems from the lists on pp. 28–29
and p. 37.

• Limit of a function: we say that a function f (x) has a limit at the point x = a, if the function’s
behaviour near that point gives a unique real value (call it L ∈ R). Note that here we are not
interested in the function’s value at the point x = a itself, but only in its behaviour near that
point and as it approaches it from the right and from the left to an infinitesimally small
distance (as x → a− and x → a+ ). If the real number L can be found, we say that the limit
exists. If we cannot find such real value L, then the limit does not exist. We write this as
following:

lim f (x) = L ∈ R or we write it as f (x) → L as x → a

x→a

Or, more explicitly, we can write:

L exists if lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L ∈ R

x→a+ x→a−

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Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

Notice also that limits obey similar rules to normal algebra, called limits rules:

1. lim x = a
x→a
2. lim c = c
x→a

3. if lim f (x) = L and if lim g(x) = M , then:

x→a x→a

(a) lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M

x→a
(b) lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M
x→a
(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM
x→a
(d) lim [f (x)/g(x)] = L/M (for M 6= 0)
x→a

• Continuity of a function: Now if the limit L of the function (defined above) exists at x = a
and if L = f (a) (equals the value of the function at that point exactly), we say that the function
is continuous. If this condition was not met, we call it a discontinuous function. That is:

f is continuous if lim f (x) = L = f (a) , or we write it as lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L = f (a)
x→a x→a− x→a+

Note from the graphs that different cases of discontinuity may occur:

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Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

• Differentiable functions: if f 0 (x) (the derivative of functions f (x) in x) is itself continuous

at point x = a, then we call f (x) a differentiable function. Note that here we are looking at the
slope of the function at each point and whether the slope is changing in a continuous (smooth)
way! Note that a differentiable function is automatically continuous, but a continuous
function is not necessarily differentiable. We will study differentiation in more details next
semester.

• Note that we have so far talked about limits/continuity/differentiability of a function at one

point (such as x = a). But if the function is continuous/differentiable at all points in its
domain, then it is simply called continuous/differentiable (without specifying any particular
points).

Reading advice and exercises to try.

– Read section 2.5 (the epsilon-delta definition on p. 70 and the advanced cases on p. 72 and
the top of p. 73 are optional) and also read 2.6 (only pp. 74–75) from Simmons’ book.
– Try solving (by hand) the examples worked out inside these sections, then try to solve some
of the problems 1–20 on pp. 73–74 and problem 1 on p. 79.

Quick revision of basic trigonometric functions, ln x, ex and inequalities.

• Revision of inequality notations (>, ≥, <, ≤) and the effect of multiplying by a negative sign
or flipping a fraction upside down.

• Revision of the exponential function y = ax and its inverse (the logarithmic function)
y = loga x (note that a is the base of the logarithm and exponent here). Remember that
normally we work with positive a values, and we therefore request that the argument inside the
logarithm function loga (·) is always positive (negative values are not permissible).
Recall the following important rules:

1. y = ax ⇐⇒ x = loga y
2. loga (ax ) = x
3. aloga x = x

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• A special type of exponential and logarithmic function is met when the base is equal to Euler’s
number, e ≈ 2.71828. We then write these functions as y = ex and y = ln x , respectively.
These functions occur a lot in engineering and physics and therefore are usually called the ‘nat-
ural’ exponential/logarithmic functions. For example, the amplitude of waves traveling
in a lossy medium is attenuated exponentially as they travel; resistance or friction effects can
often follow the exponential/logarithmic laws; and variables can sometime vary over large ranges
(orders of magnitude) which makes plotting them on logarithmic scale paper (lines are spaces

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Maths Foundation — Summary notes 2 (not enough without lectures/tutorials/practicing!) A.Naji, 2019–2020

by 10 times, 100 times, 1000 times, etc) more practical than on linear scale paper (spaces by 1,
2, 3, 4, ...). The relation between ex and ln x (inverse of each other) is the same as any pair of
exponential and logarithmic functions that share the same base (as discussed above).

• The function ex can be obtained from:

– algebra by an infinite series (ex = 1 + x + x2 /2 + x3 /3! + x4 /4! + · · · ), or

– from complex numbers and trigonometric functions (as we will see later).

Since an infinite series is not an algebraic function (it looks like a polynomial but a polynomial
must have a finite number of terms, unlike an infinite series), it belongs to transcendental
functions. We will face this function and appreciate its usefulness in many many applications
in engineering and science.

• Whenever there is gradual growth or decay due to natural processes, we are likely to see it
fitting the same behaviour as this exponential function. For example, if electric current is passing
through a circuit and the wire (path of the current) is suddenly cut open, the electric power
drops exponentially to zero. And when the connection is fixed again, it grows back exponentially
to its stable level. We use exponential functions to describe such behaviour.

——————————————————–
c copyrights note: most figures above are from Simmons’ reference book.

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