23PHY115- MODERN

PHYSICS
 Syllabus

 Unit 2
Atomic structure: Historical Development of atomic structures: Thomson's
Model, Rutherford's Model: Scattering formula and its predictions, Atomic
spectra - Bohr's Model, Sommerfield's Model, The correspondence principle,
nuclear motion, and atomic excitation, Application: Lasers.
 Atomic structure

What is Atomic Structure?

➢ The atomic structure refers to the structure of an atom
comprising a nucleus (centre) in which
the protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral)
are present. The negatively charged particles
called electrons revolve around the center of the
nucleus.
• The atomic number of an element describes the total
number of protons in its nucleus.

• Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and

electrons. However, atoms may gain or lose electrons in
order to increase their stability, and the resulting charged
entity is called an ion.

• Atoms of different elements have different atomic

structures because they contain different numbers
of protons and electrons. This is the reason for the unique
characteristics of different elements.
 Thomson’s Atomic Model

❑ Thomson’s Atomic Model is one of the fundamental models of the atom that tries
to explain the working and structure of the atom.

❑ This Model was proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904, following his discovery of the
electron in 1897 after his famous cathode ray experiment. The model is also
known as the Plum Pudding Model.
Thomson’s Atomic Model
 Plum Pudding Model

Thomson Atomic Model is also called the Plum Pudding model as it represents
the Plum Pudding. According to Thomson, an atom represents a sphere of radius
of magnitude in Angstrom. (10-10). In this sphere, the positive charge is spread
uniformly and the negative charge is embedded in this positive charge due to
electrostatic attraction between the charge. The magnitude of the positive and
the negative charge in the sphere is equal according to Plum Pudding Model.
 Observations of Thomson’s Atomic Model

❑Thomson’s Atomic Model, also called the Plum

Pudding Model states that an atom can be compared
to a plum pudding where electrons are like dry fruits
in a sphere of positive charge, representing the
pudding. We can also compare this with a
watermelon where the positive charge is comparable
to the edible part of the watermelon, and electrons
are like seeds that are embedded in that sphere.
 Postulates of Thomson’s Atomic Model

•An atom consists of a positively charged sphere or

cloud in which negatively charged electrons are
embedded. The positive charge of the sphere is
uniformly distributed to balance the negative charge
of the electrons.

•An atom is an electrically neutral quantity and the

total positive charge of the atom is balanced by the
total negative charge in the atom.
 Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model
•This model did not account for the presence of positively charged particles in the atom,
which were later identified as protons by Ernest Rutherford. The model assumed that
the positive charge was distributed uniformly throughout the atom.

•The model could not explain the results of the gold foil experiment conducted by
Rutherford, which showed that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is
concentrated in a small, dense nucleus at the centre of the atom.

•The model could not explain the phenomenon of atomic spectra, which is the emission
and absorption of specific wavelengths of light by atoms.

•The model did not explain the presence of Isotopes (Isotopes are atoms with the same
atomic number (same number of protons), but different mass numbers (due to different
numbers of neutrons).
 Rutherford atomic model

Rutherford atomic model was the first step in the evolution of the modern
atomic model.

Rutherford Atomic Model – The plum pudding model given by J. J. Thomson

failed to explain certain experimental results associated with the atomic
structure of elements. Ernest Rutherford, a British scientist conducted an
experiment and based on the observations of this experiment, he explained the
atomic structure of elements and proposed Rutherford’s Atomic Model.
Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment
 Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

A) Most of the alpha particles passed straight

through the gold foil.
B)There was a deflection of the alpha
particles by a small angle.
C)Very small amount of alpha particles
rebounded.

❑ Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-particles

from a radioactive source at a thin sheet (100 nm thickness) of gold. In order
to study the deflection caused to the α-particles, he placed a fluorescent
zinc sulphide screen around the thin gold foil. Rutherford made certain
observations that contradicted Thomson’s atomic model.
 Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

A) A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed
through the sheet without any deflection, and hence most of the space in an
atom is empty.

B) Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles,
and hence the positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. The
positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume.

C) Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles
had nearly 180o angle of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively
charged particles in an atom is very small as compared to the total volume of an
atom.
 Rutherford Atomic Model
According to the Rutherford atomic model:

1.The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is

concentrated in an extremely small volume. He called this
region of the atom as a nucleus.

2.Rutherford’s model proposed that the negatively charged

electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also claimed
that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it
with very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular
paths as orbits.

3.Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a

densely concentrated mass of positively charged particles are
held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.
 Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

▪ It could not explain the stability of an atom.

▪ One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say
anything about the arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his
theory incomplete.
 Bohr’s Model of an Atom

The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into
existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom. Rutherford’s
model introduced the nuclear model of an atom, in which he explained that a
nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
 Introduction to the Bohr Model
Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that electrons
move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not anywhere in between and he also explained
that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy. Rutherford explained the nucleus of an
atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their energy levels.
 Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

❑ According to Bohr Model, an atom consists of a small nucleus (positively

charged) surrounded by negative electrons moving around the nucleus in
orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has more
energy, and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy.
• The electron can move only in certain specified orbits which satisfy certain
quantum conditions. Only those orbits are allowed in which the angular
ℎ
momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of ; where h is the Planck's
2𝜋
constant. While moving along these orbits round the nucleus, an electron does
not radiate energy. These non-radiating orbits are called stationary orbits.
(Electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain stable orbits without emitting
radiation. These special orbits are called stationary orbits or energy levels).

• Emission or absorption of energy takes place when an electron ‘jumps’ from

one permitted orbit to another.
 Let 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 be the energies of an electron in an inner orbit and an outer orbit.
When the electron ‘jumps’ from the inner orbit to the outer orbit, it absorbs an
energy,
ℎ𝜗 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

When the electron ‘jumps’ from the outer orbit to the inner orbit, it emits an
energy,
ℎ𝜗 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

𝜗 = (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 )Τℎ

This is known as Bohr’s frequency condition.

 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom

•Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic
field on the spectra of atoms or splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field).

•It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of
atoms or splitting of spectral lines in an electric field).

•It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

•It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms.

•It could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines.

 Bohr’s Correspondence Principle

Bohr stated that when the quantum number n becomes very large, the
predictions made by quantum theory must agree with those made by classical
physics. This idea is called the Correspondence Principle, proposed by Niels
Bohr.
• It means that quantum mechanics should reproduce the results of classical
mechanics in the limit of large quantum numbers (i.e., for macroscopic
systems).
 Bohr’s Correspondence Principle

When the quantum number involved is large the Bohr frequency approaches the
frequency, which the atom would emit according to classical theory.

❑ When an electron in an atom is in a very high energy level (with a large

quantum number), the frequency of light it emits when it drops to a lower
energy level becomes very similar to the frequency predicted by classical
physics.
 Sommerfeld atomic model

This model explains the fine spectrum of Hydrogen atom. The important
postulates of Sommerfeld atomic model are

1) The orbits may be both circular and elliptical.

 Sommerfeld atomic model

2. When path is elliptical, then there are two axis – major axis & minor axis. When
length of major & minor axis becomes equal then orbit is circular
3. The angular momentum of electron moving in an elliptical orbit is
(𝑘ℎΤ2𝜋). Where k is an integer except zero. Value of k=1,2,3,4……..(n/k)=length of
major axis/length of minor axis.
With increase in value of k, ellipticity of the orbit decreases. When n=k,
then orbit is circular.
4. Sommerfeld suggested that orbits are made up of sub energy levels. These are
s, p, d, f. These sub shells possess slightly different energies. (Each orbit is
characterized by two quantum numbers:)
❖Bohr gave a quantum number ‘n’, which determines the energy of electron.

❖Sommerfeld introduced a new quantum number called Orbital or

Azimuthal Quantum number (l) which determines the orbital angular
momentum of electron.
5. When an electron jumps from one orbit to another orbit, the difference of
energy (ΔE ) depends upon sub energy levels.

6. It explains the splitting of individual spectral lines of hydrogen & thus fine
spectrum . It could not predict the exact number of lines which are actually present
in the fine spectrum.
 Drawbacks of Sommerfeld atomic model

1. This model does not explain the behavior of system having more than one
electron.

2. This model does not explain the Zeeman & Stark effect

3. Sommerfeld's model was unable to explain the spectra of alkali metals

such as sodium, potassium etc.

4. This model does not give any explanation for the intensities of the
spectral lines.
 LASER

(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical

amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation.

❖ Optical amplification in a laser refers to the process by which the intensity of

light (an optical signal) is increased as it passes through a medium due to
stimulated emission of radiation.
 Properties of Laser

❑ The light emitted from a laser is monochromatic, that is, it is of one

colour/wavelength. In contrast , ordinary white light is a combination of many
colours (or wavelengths) of light.

❑ Lasers emit light that is highly directional, that is, laser light is emitted as a
relatively narrow beam in a specific direction. Ordinary light, such as from a
light bulb, is emitted in many directions away from the source.

❑ The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which means that the
wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in space and time. Ordinary light
can be a mixture of many wavelengths.
Differences between ordinary light and Laser beam.
Basic concepts for a laser
• Absorption

• Spontaneous Emission

• Stimulated Emission
 Stimulated absorption

An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level 𝐸1 absorbs the
incident photon radiation of energy ℎ𝜗 and goes to the higher energy level or
excited level 𝐸2 as shown in figure. This process is called absorption.
 Spontaneous Emission

The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of
energy 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜗 spontaneously without any external triggering as
shown in the figure. This process is known as spontaneous emission. Such an
emission is random and is independent of incident radiation.
 Stimulated Emission
The atom in the excited state can also returns to the ground state by external
triggering or inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal
to the energy of the incident photon, known as stimulated emission. Thus,
results in two photons of same energy, phase difference and of same
directionality as shown.
Characteristics of stimulated emission:

❑ For each incident photon, one additional photon is emitted, resulting in two
photons moving in the same direction.

❑ As the emitted photon has exactly the same energy, phase, and direction as
the incident photon, an amplified and unidirectional coherent beam is
produced.

❑ The laser operates based on the principle of stimulated emission.

 Applications of laser
1. Scientific 2. Military

• Spectroscopy • Death ray

• Lunar laser ranging • Defensive applications
• Strategic defense initiative
• Photochemistry • Laser sight
• Laser cooling • Illuminator
• Nuclear fusion • Rangefinder
• Target designator
 Application
3. Medical
Eye surgery
Cosmetic surgery

4. Industry & Commercial

a.Cutting, welding, marking
b. CD player, DVD player
c. Laser printers, laser pointers
d. Photolithography
e. Laser light display
Thank You…