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palm-3930292 paL40056-fm September 26, 2019 17:50

System Dynamics
Fourth Edition

William J. Palm III

University of Rhode Island
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm September 26, 2019 17:50

viii Preface

used program in system dynamics courses and by practitioners in the field. Simulink,
which is based on MATLAB and uses a diagram-based interface, is increasing in pop-
ularity because of its power and ease of use. In fact, students convinced the author to
use Simulink after they discovered it on their own and learned how easy it is to use! It
provides a useful and motivational tool.
It is, however, not necessary to cover MATLAB or Simulink in order to use the
text, and it is shown how to do this later in the Preface.

TEXT OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 introduces the basic terminology of system dynamics, covers commonly used
functions, and reviews the two systems of units used in the text: British Engineering
(FPS) units and SI units. These are the unit systems most commonly used in system
dynamics applications. The examples and homework problems employ both sets of
units so that the student will become comfortable with both. Chapter 1 also covers
some basic methods for parameter estimation. These methods are particularly useful
for obtaining numerical values of spring constants, damping coefficients, and other
parameters commonly found in system dynamics models. The chapter also contains
introductions to differential equations and to MATLAB, and it presents the first of the
text’s several case studies: design of motion-control systems. The material on function
identification and least-squares fitting, formerly in Chapter 1 in the third edition, is now
in Appendix C.
Chapter 2 covers differential equations in more depth, and develops the Laplace
transform method for solving differential equations with applications to equations hav-
ing step, ramp, sine, impulse, and other types of forcing functions. It also introduces
transfer function models.
Chapter 3 covers rigid-body dynamics, including planar motion. This chapter con-
tinues the motion-control case study by showing how to select a suitable motor and
gear system.
Chapter 4 covers modeling of mechanical systems having stiffness and damping,
and it applies the analytical methods developed in Chapter 2 to solve the models. This
chapter then introduces the second case study: design of vehicle suspensions.
Chapter 5 develops block diagrams and the state-variable model, which is useful
for certain analytical techniques as well as for numerical solutions. The optional sec-
tions of this chapter introduce Simulink, which is based on block-diagram descriptions,
and apply the chapter’s concepts using MATLAB. This chapter concludes with further
coverage of the vehicle suspension case study.
Chapter 6 treats modeling of electric circuits, operational amplifiers, electro-
mechanical devices, sensors, and electroacoustic devices. It also discusses how motor
parameters can be obtained, and it returns to the motion-control case study and shows
how to analyze motor and amplifier performance.
Part I of Chapter 7 covers fluid systems. Part II covers thermal systems. These
two parts are independent of each other. A background in fluid mechanics or heat
transfer is not required to understand this chapter, but students should have had
elementary thermodynamics before covering the material on pneumatic systems in
Section 7.5.
Chapters 8 and 9 cover analysis methods in the time domain and the frequency
domain, respectively.
Chapter 8 integrates the modeling and analysis techniques of earlier chapters with
an emphasis on understanding system behavior in the time domain, using step, ramp,
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm September 26, 2019 17:50

Preface ix

and impulse functions primarily. The chapter covers step-response specifications such
as maximum overshoot, peak time, delay time, rise time, and settling time.
Chapter 9 demonstrates the usefulness of the transfer function for understanding
and analyzing a system’s frequency response. It introduces Bode plots and shows how
they are sketched and interpreted to obtain information about time constants, resonant
frequencies, and bandwidth. The chapter returns to the vehicle-suspension case study,
and shows how to use frequency response methods to evaluate suspension performance.
Chapters 10, 11, and 12 deal with a major application of system dynamics, namely,
control systems. Chapter 10 is an introduction to feedback control systems, including the
PID control algorithm applied to first- and second-order plants. The chapter concludes
with thorough coverage of feedback control applied to the motion-control case study.
Chapter 11 deals with control systems in more depth and includes design methods
based on the root locus plot and practical topics such as compensation, controller tun-
ing, actuator saturation, reset windup, and state-variable feedback, with emphasis on
motion-control systems. Chapter 12 covers series compensation methods and design
with the root locus plot and the Bode plot.
Chapter 13 covers another major application area, vibrations. Important practical
applications covered are vibration isolators, vibration absorbers, modes, and suspen-
sion system design. This chapter is now on the text website to allow room for the new
case studies in earlier chapters.

ALTERNATIVE COURSES IN SYSTEM DYNAMICS

The choice of topics depends partly on the desired course emphasis, partly on the stu-
dents’ background in differential equations and dynamics, and partly on whether the
course is a quarter or semester course.
Fluid and thermal systems are covered in Chapter 7, which has been shortened in
this edition. Some students may have had courses in fluid mechanics and heat transfer,
but probably have not been exposed to the system dynamics viewpoint, which focuses
on the analogies between fluid and thermal resistance and capacitance and the corre-
sponding electrical concepts. The theory and methods of the remaining chapters do not
depend on Chapter 7, but some examples do.
In the author’s opinion, a basic semester course in system dynamics should include
most of the material in Chapters 1 through 7, and Chapters 9 and 10. At the author’s
institution, the system dynamics course is a junior course required for mechanical engi-
neering majors, who have already had courses in dynamics and differential equations.
It covers Chapters 1 through 10, with brief coverage of Chapter 7 and Chapter 8, and
with some MATLAB and Simulink sections omitted. This optional material is then
covered in a senior elective course in control systems, which also covers Simulink, and
Chapters 11 and 12.
The text is flexible enough to support a variety of courses. The sections dealing
with MATLAB and Simulink are at the end of the chapters and may be omitted. If
students are familiar with Laplace transform methods and linear differential equations,
Chapter 2 may be covered quickly. If students are comfortable with rigid-body planar
motion, Chapter 3 may be used for a quick review.

GLOSSARY AND APPENDICES

There is a glossary containing the definitions of important terms, five appendices, and
an index. Appendices D and E are on the text website.
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm September 26, 2019 17:50

x Preface

Appendix A is a collection of tables of MATLAB commands and functions, organized

by category. The purpose of each command and function is briefly described in the tables.
Appendix B is a brief summary of the Fourier series, which is used to represent a
periodic function as a series consisting of a constant plus a sum of sine terms and cosine
terms. It provides the background for some applications of the material in Chapter 9.
Appendix C covers function identification, and shows how to use MATLAB to fit
models to scattered data using the least-squares method.
Appendix D is a self-contained introduction to MATLAB, and it should be read
first by anyone unfamiliar with MATLAB if they intend to cover the MATLAB and
Simulink sections. It also provides a useful review for those students having prior ex-
perience with MATLAB.
Appendix E covers numerical methods, such as the Runge-Kutta algorithms, that
form the basis for the differential equation solvers of MATLAB. It is not necessary to
master this material to use the MATLAB solvers, but the appendix provides a back-
ground for the interested reader.
Answers to selected homework problems are given following Appendix C.

CHAPTER FORMAT
The format of each chapter follows the same pattern, which is
1. Chapter outline
2. Chapter objectives
3. Chapter sections
4. MATLAB sections (in most chapters)
5. Simulink section (in most chapters)
6. Chapter review
7. References
8. Problems
This structure has been designed partly to accommodate those courses that do not
cover MATLAB and/or Simulink, by placing the optional MATLAB and Simulink ma-
terial at the end of the chapter. Chapter problems are arranged according to the chap-
ter section whose concepts they illustrate. All problems requiring MATLAB and/or
Simulink have thus been placed in separate, identifiable groups.

OPTIONAL TOPICS
In addition to the optional chapters (11, 12, and 13), some chapters have sections deal-
ing with material other than MATLAB and Simulink that can be omitted without af-
fecting understanding of the core material in subsequent chapters. All such optional
material has been placed in sections near the end of the chapter. This optional material
includes:
1. Function discovery, parameter estimation, and system identification techniques
(Sections 8.4 and 9.6)
2. General theory of partial-fraction expansion (Section 2.7)
3. Impulse response (Sections 2.6 and 4.6)
4. Motor performance (Section 6.6)
5. Sensors and electroacoustic devices (Section 6.8)
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm September 26, 2019 17:50

Preface xi

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
The following are considered to be the major distinguishing features of the text.
1. MATLAB. Standalone sections in most chapters provide concise summaries
and illustrations of MATLAB features relevant to the chapter’s topics.
2. Simulink. Standalone sections in Chapters 5 through 12 provide extensive
Simulink coverage not found in most system dynamics texts.
3. Parameter estimation. Coverage of function discovery, parameter estimation,
and system identification techniques is given in Sections 1.3, 8.4, 9.6, and
Appendix C. Students are uneasy when they are given parameter values such as
spring stiffness and damping coefficients in examples and homework problems,
because they want to know how they will obtain such values in practice. These
sections show how this is done.
4. Motor performance evaluation. Section 6.6 discusses the effect of motor
dynamics on practical considerations for motor and amplifier applications, such
as motion profiles and the required peak and rated continuous current and torque,
and maximum required voltage and motor speed. These considerations offer
excellent examples of practical applications of system dynamics but are not
discussed in most system dynamics texts.
5. System dynamics in everyday life. Commonly found illustrations of system
dynamics are important for helping students to understand the material and its
relevance. This text provides examples drawn from objects encountered in
everyday life. These examples include a storm door closer, fluid flow from a
bottle, shock absorbers and suspension springs, motors, systems with gearing,
chain drives, belt drives, a backhoe, a water tower, and cooling of liquid in a cup.
6. Case studies and theme applications. Two common applications provide
themes for case studies, examples, and problems throughout the text. These are
motion-control systems, such as a conveyor system and a robot arm, and vehicle
suspension systems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to acknowledge and thank the many individuals who contributed to this effort.
At McGraw-Hill, my thanks go to the editors who helped me through four editions:
Tom Casson, who initiated the project, Jonathan Plant, Lora Neyens, Bill Stenquist,
and Thomas Scaiffe. I am grateful to Tina Bower and Laura Bies for their patience and
help with the fourth edition.
The University of Rhode Island provided an atmosphere that encourages teaching
excellence, course development, and writing, and for that I am appreciative.
I am grateful to my wife, Mary Louise; and my children, Aileene, Bill, and Andrew,
for their support, patience, and understanding through forty years of textbook creation.
Finally, thanks to my grandchildren, Elizabeth, Emma, James, and Henry, for many
enjoyable diversions!
William J. Palm III
Kingston, Rhode Island
March 2019
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm October 30, 2019 21:29

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

William J. Palm III is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical, Industrial, and Systems

Engineering at the University of Rhode Island. In 1966 he received a B.S. from Loyola
College in Baltimore, and in 1971 a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and Astronautical
Sciences from Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
During his forty-four years as a faculty member, he has taught nineteen courses.
One of these is a junior system dynamics course, which he developed. He has
authored nine textbooks dealing with modeling and simulation, system dynamics,
control systems, vibrations, and MATLAB. These include MATLAB for Engineering
Applications, fourth edition (McGraw-Hill, 2019), A Concise Introduction to MATLAB
(McGraw-Hill, 2008), and Differential Equations for Engineers and Scientists (McGraw-
Hill, 2013) with Yunus Çengel. He wrote a chapter on control systems in the Mechanical
Engineers’ Handbook, fourth edition (M. Kutz, ed., Wiley, 2014), and was a special
contributor to the fifth editions of Statics and Dynamics, both by J. L. Meriam and
L. G. Kraige (Wiley, 2002).
Professor Palm’s research and industrial experience are in control systems, robotics,
vibrations, and system modeling. He was the Director of the Robotics Research Center
at the University of Rhode Island from 1985 to 1993, and is the co-holder of a patent for
a robot hand. He served as Acting Department Chair from 2002 to 2003. His industrial
experience is in automated manufacturing; modeling and simulation of naval systems,
including underwater vehicles and tracking systems; and design of control systems for
underwater vehicle engine test facilities.

xii
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1
H A P T E R

Introduction
CHAPTER OUTLINE CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 2 When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
1.2 Units 9 1. Define the basic terminology of system dynamics.
1.3 Developing Linear Models 11
2. Apply the basic steps used for engineering problem
1.4 Introduction to Differential Equations 17 solving.
1.5 A Case Study in Motion Control 21
3. Apply the necessary steps for developing a
1.6 MATLAB Review 28 computer solution.
1.7 Chapter Review 34
4. Use units in both the FPS and the SI systems.
Problems 35
5. Develop linear models from given algebraic
expressions.
6. Use direct integration to solve dynamics problems
involving a differential equation in which the
derivative can be isolated.
7. Model and design a simple motion-control system
for a single rotational load.
8. Use MATLAB to perform simple calculations and
plotting, and use the MATLAB help system.

T his chapter introduces the basic terminology of system dynamics, which includes
the notions of system, static and dynamic elements, input, and output. Because
we will use both the foot-pound-second (FPS) and the metric (SI) systems of
units, the chapter introduces these two systems. Developing mathematical models of
input-output relations is essential to the applications of system dynamics. Therefore, we
begin our study by introducing some basic methods for developing algebraic models
of static elements. We show how to use the methods of function identification and
parameter estimation to develop models from data, and how to fit models to data that
have little scatter. ■

1
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM DYNAMICS

This text is an introduction to system dynamics. We presume that the reader has some
background in calculus (specifically, differentiation and integration of functions of
a single variable) and in physics (specifically, free body diagrams, Newton’s laws
of motion for a particle, and elementary dc electricity). In this section we establish
some basic terminology and discuss the meaning of the topic “system dynamics,” its
methodology, and its applications.

1.1.1 SYSTEMS
The meaning of the term system has become somewhat vague because of overuse. The
original meaning of the term is a combination of elements intended to act together to
accomplish an objective. For example, a link in a bicycle chain is usually not considered
to be a system. However, when it is used with other links to form a chain, it becomes
part of a system. The objective for the chain is to transmit force. When the chain is
combined with gears, wheels, crank, handlebars, and other elements, it becomes part
of a larger system whose purpose is to transport a person.
The system designer must focus on how all the elements act together to achieve
the system’s intended purpose, keeping in mind other important factors such as safety,
cost, and so forth. Thus, the system designer often cannot afford to spend time on the
details of designing the system elements. For example, our bicycle designer might not
have time to study the metallurgy involved with link design; that is the role of the chain
designer. All the systems designer needs to know about the chain is its strength, its
weight, and its cost, because these are the factors that influence its role in the system.
With this “systems point of view,” we focus on how connections between the
elements influence the overall behavior of the system. This means that sometimes we
must accept a less-detailed description of the operation of the individual elements to
achieve an overall understanding of the system’s performance.
Figure 1.1.1 illustrates a liquid-filled tank with a volume inflow f (say in cubic
feet per second). The liquid height is h (say in feet). We see in Example 1.4.2 that
the functional relationship between f and h has the form f = bhm , where b and m are
constants. We would not call this a “system.” However, if two tanks are connected as
shown in Figure 1.1.2, this connection forms a “system.” Each tank is a “subsystem”

Figure 1.1.1 The effect Figure 1.1.2 Two connected tanks.

of liquid height h on the
out flow rate f .

f1

f2

h
h1

f h2
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 3

h1 Figure 1.1.3 A system

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 diagram illustrating how the
f1 f2 two liquid heights affect
(Tank 1) (Tank 2)
h2 each other.

whose liquid height is influenced by the other tank. We can obtain a differential equation
model for each height by using the single-tank relationship f = bhm and applying the
basic physical principle called conservation of mass to express the connection between
the two tanks. This results in a model of the entire system.
We often use diagrams to illustrate the connections between the subsystems.
Figure 1.1.2 illustrates the physical connection, but Figure 1.1.3 is an example of a di-
agram showing that the height h1 affects the height h2 , and vice versa. (The flow goes
from the higher height to the lower one.) Such a diagram may be useful for a nontechni-
cal audience, but it does not show how the heights affect each other. To do that, we will
use two other types of diagrams—called simulation diagrams and block diagrams—to
represent the connections between the subsystems and the variables that describe the
system behavior. These diagrams represent the differential equation model.

1.1.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Like the term “system,” the meanings of input and output have become less precise.
For example, a factory manager will call a meeting to seek “input,” meaning opinions
or data, from the employees, and the manager may refer to the products manufactured
in the factory as its “output.” However, in the system dynamics meaning of the terms,
an input is a cause; an output is an effect due to the input. Thus, one input to the bicycle
is the force applied to the pedal. One resulting output is the acceleration of the bike.
Another input is the angle of the front wheel; the output is the direction of the bike’s
path of travel.
The behavior of a system element is specified by its input-output relation, which
is a description of how the output is affected by the input. The input-output relation
expresses the cause-and-effect behavior of the element. Such a description, which is
represented graphically by the diagram in Figure 1.1.4, can be in the form of a table
of numbers, a graph, or a mathematical relation. For example, a force f applied to a
particle of mass m causes an acceleration a of the particle. The input-output or causal
relation is, from Newton’s second law, a = f ∕m. The input is f and the output is a.
The input-output relations for the elements in the system provide a means of speci-
fying the connections between the elements. When connected together to form a sys-
tem, the inputs to some elements will be the outputs from other elements.
The inputs and outputs of a system are determined by the selection of the system’s
boundary (see Figure 1.1.4). Any causes acting on the system from the world exter-
nal to this boundary are considered to be system inputs. Similarly, a system’s outputs
are the outputs from any one or more of the system elements that act on the world out-
side the system boundary. If we take the bike to be the system, one system input would
be the pedal force; another input is the force of gravity acting on the bike. The outputs

Figure 1.1.4 A system

input-output diagram,
showing the system
Inputs System Outputs boundary.

Boundary
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

may be taken to be the bike’s position, velocity, and acceleration. Usually, our choices
for system outputs are a subset of the possible outputs and are the variables in which we
are interested. For example, a performance analysis of the bike would normally focus
on the acceleration or velocity, but not on the bike’s position.
Sometimes input-output relations are reversible, sometimes not. For example, we
can apply a current as input to a resistor and consider the resulting voltage drop to be
the output (v = iR). Or we can apply a voltage to produce a current through the resistor
(i = v∕R). However, acceleration is the cause of a change in velocity, but not vice
versa. If we integrate acceleration a over time, we obtain velocity v; that is, v = ∫ a dt.
Whenever an output of an element is the time integral of the input and the direction
of the cause-effect relation is not reversible, we say that the element exhibits integral
causality. We will see that integral causality constitutes a basic form of causality for
all physical systems.
Similar statements can be made about the relation between velocity and displace-
ment. Integration of velocity produces displacement x: x = ∫ v dt. Velocity is the cause
of displacement, but not vice versa.
Note that the mathematical relations describing integral causality can be reversed;
for example, we may write a = dv∕dt, but this does not mean that the cause-and-effect
relation can be reversed.

1.1.3 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELEMENTS

When the present value of an element’s output depends only on the present value of its
input, we say the element is a static element. For example, the current flowing through
a resistor depends only on the present value of the applied voltage. The resistor is thus
a static element. However, because no physical element can respond instantaneously,
the concept of a static element is an approximation. It is widely used, however, because
it results in a simpler mathematical representation; that is, an algebraic representation
rather than one involving differential equations.
If an element’s present output depends on past inputs, we say it is a dynamic ele-
ment. For example, the present position of a bike depends on what its velocity has been
from the start.
In popular usage, the terms static and dynamic distinguish situations in which no
change occurs from those that are subject to changes over time. This usage conforms
to the preceding definitions of these terms if the proper interpretation is made. A static
element’s output can change with time only if the input changes and will not change
if the input is constant or absent. However, if the input is constant or removed from
a dynamic element, its output can still change. For example, if we stop pedaling, the
bike’s displacement will continue to change because of its momentum, which is due to
past inputs.
A dynamic system is one whose present output depends on past inputs. A static
system is one whose output at any given time depends only on the input at that time. A
static system contains all static elements. Any system that contains at least one dynamic
element must be a dynamic system. System dynamics, then, is the study of systems that
contain dynamic elements.

1.1.4 MODELING OF SYSTEMS

Table 1.1.1 contains a summary of the methodology that has been tried and tested by
the engineering profession for many years. These steps describe a general problem-
solving procedure. Simplifying the problem sufficiently and applying the appropriate
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 5

Table 1.1.1 Steps in engineering problem solving.

1. Understand the purpose of the problem.

2. Collect the known information. Realize that some of it might turn out to be not needed.
3. Determine what information you must find.
4. Simplify the problem only enough to obtain the required information. State any assumptions
you make.
5. Draw a sketch and label any necessary variables.
6. Determine what fundamental principles are applicable.
7. Think generally about your proposed solution approach and consider other approaches before
proceeding with the details.
8. Label each step in the solution process.
9. If you use a program to solve the problem, hand check the results using a simple version of the
problem. Checking the dimensions and units, and printing the results of intermediate steps in
the calculation sequence can uncover mistakes.
10. Perform a “reality check” on your answer. Does it make sense? Estimate the range of the
expected result and compare it with your answer. Do not state the answer with greater
precision than is justified by any of the following:
a. The precision of the given information.
b. The simplifying assumptions.
c. The requirements of the problem.
Interpret the mathematics. If the mathematics produces multiple answers, do not discard some
of them without considering what they mean. The mathematics might be trying to tell you
something, and you might miss an opportunity to discover more about the problem.

fundamental principles is called modeling, and the resulting mathematical description

is called a mathematical model, or just a model. When the modeling has been finished,
we need to solve the mathematical model to obtain the required answer. If the model is
highly detailed, we may need to solve it with a computer program.
Modeling is the art of obtaining a quantitative description of a system or one of
its elements that is simple enough to be useful for making predictions and realistic
enough to trust those predictions. For example, consider a potato being heated in an
oven. The oven designer wants to design an oven that is powerful enough to bake a
potato within a prescribed time (Figure 1.1.5). Note that because the oven has yet to be
designed, we cannot do an experiment to obtain the answer. Potatoes vary in size and
shape, but a good estimate of the required oven power can be obtained by modeling
the potato as a sphere having the thermal properties of water. Then, using the ther-
mal systems methods given in Chapter 7, we can predict how long it will take to bake
the potato.
It often is necessary to choose between a very accurate but complicated model and
a simple but not so accurate model. Complicated models may be difficult to solve, or
they may require experimental data that are unavailable or hard to find. There usually
is no “right” model choice because it depends on the particular situation. We aim to

Oven Figure 1.1.5 A potato

modeled as a sphere of
water.
Ideal Actual
175°C

Water Potato
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

choose the simplest model that yields adequate results. Just remember that the predic-
tions obtained from a model are no more accurate than the simplifying assumptions
made to develop the model. That is why we call modeling an art; it depends partly on
judgment obtained by experience.
The form of a mathematical model depends on its purpose. For example, design
of electrical equipment requires more than a knowledge of electrical principles. An
electric circuit can be damaged if its mounting board experiences vibration. In this
case, its force-deflection properties must be modeled. In addition, resistors generate
heat, and a thermal model is required to describe this process. Thus, we see that devices
can have many facets: thermal, mechanical, electrical, and so forth. No mathematical
model can deal with all these facets. Even if it could, it would be too complex, and thus
too cumbersome, to be useful.
For example, a map is a model of a geographic region. But if a single map contains
all information pertaining to the roads, terrain elevation, geology, population density,
and so on, it would be too cluttered to be useful. Instead, we select the particular type
of map required for the purpose at hand. In the same way, we select or construct a
mathematical model to suit the requirements of a particular study.
The examples in this text follow the steps in Table 1.1.1, although for compactness
the steps are usually not numbered. In each example, following the example’s title, there
is a problem statement that summarizes the results of steps 1 through 5. Steps 6 through
10 are described in the solution part of the example. To save space, some steps, such as
checking dimensions and units, are not always explicitly displayed. However, you are
encouraged to perform these steps on your own.

1.1.5 MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Because system dynamics deals with changes in time, mathematical models of dynamic
systems naturally involve differential equations. Therefore, we introduce differential
equation solution methods starting in this chapter. Additional methods, such as those
that make use of computers, are introduced in subsequent chapters.

1.1.6 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Often dynamic systems require a control system to perform properly. Thus, proper
control system design is one of the most important objectives of system dynamics.
Microprocessors have greatly expanded the applications for control systems. These
new applications include robotics, mechatronics, micromachines, precision engineer-
ing, active vibration control, active noise cancellation, and adaptive optics. Recent
technological advancements mean that many machines now operate at high speeds and
high accelerations. It is therefore now more often necessary for engineers to pay more
attention to the principles of system dynamics. Starting in Chapter 10, we apply these
principles to control system design.

1.1.7 APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical systems are loosely defined as those whose operating principles are pri-
marily Newton’s laws of motion. The bicycle is an example of a mechanical system.
Chapters 3 and 4 deal with mechanical systems. The topic of mechanical vibrations
covers the oscillations of machines and structures due either to their own inherent flex-
ibility or to the action of an external force or motion. This is treated in Chapter 13.
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 7

Figure 1.1.6 A vehicle suspension system. Figure 1.1.7 A robot arm.

Waist rotation
Frame mount

Coil spring

Tie rod Three wrist

Shoulder rotations
Shock absorber rotation
Steering arm
Frame mount

Elbow
rotation

Wishbone

One of our major theme applications in mechanical systems is vehicle dynamics.

This topic has received renewed importance for reasons related to safety, energy effi-
ciency, and passenger comfort. Of major interest under this topic is the design of vehi-
cle suspension systems, whose elements include various types of springs and shock ab-
sorbers (Figure 1.1.6). Active suspension systems, whose characteristics can be changed
under computer control, and vehicle-dynamics control systems are undergoing rapid
development, and their design requires an understanding of system dynamics.

1.1.8 APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Electromechanical systems contain both mechanical elements and electrical elements
such as electric motors. Two common applications of system dynamics in electrome-
chanical systems are in (1) motion-control systems and (2) vehicle dynamics. There-
fore, we will use these applications as major themes in many of our examples and
problems. Chapter 6 introduces electrical and electromechanical systems.
Figure 1.1.7 shows a robot arm, whose motion must be properly controlled to move
an object to a desired position and orientation. To do this, each of the several motors
and drive trains in the arm must be adequately designed to handle the load, and the
motor speeds and angular positions must be properly controlled. Figure 1.1.8 shows
a typical motor and drive train for one arm joint. Knowledge of system dynamics is
essential to design these subsystems and to control them properly.
Mobile robots are another motion-control application, but motion-control applica-
tions are not limited to robots. Figure 1.1.9 shows the mechanical drive for a conveyor
system. The motor, the gears in the speed reducer, the chain, the sprockets, and the
drive wheels all must be properly selected, and the motor must be properly controlled
for the system to work well. In subsequent chapters we will develop models of these
components and use them to design the system and analyze its performance.
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1.8 Mechanical drive for a robot arm joint. Figure 1.1.9 Mechanical drive for a conveyor system.

Arm Load
Drive chains
Gears

Tachometer

Sprocket 2 Drive wheels

Drive shaft
Chain

Motor
Sprocket 1

Reducer

Motor

1.1.9 APPLICATIONS IN FLUID SYSTEMS

A fluid system is one whose operation depends on the flow of a fluid. If the fluid is
incompressible, that is, if its density does not change appreciably with pressure changes,
we call it a liquid, or a hydraulic fluid. On the other hand, if the fluid is compressible,
that is, if its density does change appreciably with pressure changes, we call it a gas, or
a pneumatic fluid.
Figure 1.1.10 shows a commonly seen backhoe. The bucket, forearm, and upper
arm are each driven by a hydraulic servomotor. A cutaway view of such a motor is
shown in Figure 1.1.11. We will analyze its behavior in Chapter 7. Compressed air
Figure 1.1.10 A backhoe. Figure 1.1.11 A hydraulic servomotor.

Piston Return Supply Return

rod y Pilot
Cylinder valve

Operator
controls Spool

Port

Hydraulic
x lines

Hydraulic
lines

m A

Piston
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

1.2 Units 9

Table 1.1.2 Steps for developing a computer solution.

1. State the problem concisely.

2. Specify the data to be used by the program. This is the “input.”
3. Specify the information to be generated by the program. This is the “output.”
4. Work through the solution steps by hand or with a calculator; use a simpler set of data
if necessary.
5. Write and run the program.
6. Check the output of the program with your hand solution.
7. Run the program with your input data and perform a reality check on the output.
8. If you will use the program as a general tool in the future, test it by running it for a range of
reasonable data values, and perform a reality check on the results. Document the program with
comment statements, flow charts, pseudo-code, or whatever else is appropriate.

cylinders and the common storm door closer are examples of pneumatic systems, and
we encounter them in Chapter 7.

1.1.10 APPLICATIONS IN THERMAL SYSTEMS

A thermal system is one whose behavior depends primarily on the exchange of heat.
The oven-potato application we saw earlier is an example of a thermal system. Many
thermal systems involve fluid flow, such as with a steam engine or an air conditioner,
and so we often speak of thermo-fluid systems. These examples also have mechanical
components such as pistons, and so we could refer to them as thermo-fluid-mechanical
systems, although we rarely use such cumbersome terminology. The designation as
thermal, fluid, or mechanical depends on what aspect of the system we are analyzing.
Thermal systems are first treated in Chapter 7, with more applications covered in later
chapters.

1.1.11 COMPUTER METHODS

The computer methods used in this text are based on MATLAB and Simulink. R 1
If
you are unfamiliar with MATLAB, Appendix D on the textbook website contains a
thorough introduction to the program. No prior experience with Simulink is required;
we will introduce the necessary methods as we need them. For the convenience of those
who prefer to use a software package other than MATLAB or Simulink, we have placed
all the MATLAB and Simulink material in optional sections at the end of each chapter.
They can be skipped without affecting your understanding of the following chapters. If
you use a program, such as MATLAB, to solve a problem, follow the steps shown in
Table 1.1.2.

1.2 UNITS
In this book we use two systems of units, the FPS system and the metric SI. The com-
mon system of units in business and industry in English-speaking countries has been
the foot-pound-second (FPS) system. This system is also known as the U.S. customary
system or the British Engineering system. Much engineering work in the United States
has been based on the FPS system, and some industries continue to use it. The metric
Système International d’Unités (SI) nevertheless is becoming the worldwide standard.

1 Simulink is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Until the changeover is complete, engineers in the United States will have to be familiar
with both systems.
In our examples, we will use SI and FPS units in the hope that the student will
become comfortable with both. Other systems are in use, such as the meter-kilogram-
second (mks) and centimeter-gram-second (cgs) metric systems and the British system,
in which the mass unit is a pound. We will not use these, in order to simplify our cov-
erage and because FPS and SI units are the most common in engineering applications.
We now briefly summarize these two systems.

1.2.1 FPS UNITS

The FPS system is a gravitational system. This means that the primary variable is force,
and the unit of mass is derived from Newton’s second law. The pound is selected as the
unit of force and the foot and second as units of length and time, respectively. From
Newton’s second law of motion, force equals mass times acceleration, or
f = ma (1.2.1)
where f is the net force acting on the mass m and producing an acceleration a. Thus,
the unit of mass must be
force pound
mass = =
acceleration foot/(second)2
This mass unit is named the slug.
Through Newton’s second law, the weight W of an object is related to the object
mass m and the acceleration due to gravity, denoted by g, as follows: W = mg. At the
surface of the earth, the standard value of g in FPS units is g = 32.2 ft/sec2 .
Energy has the dimensions of mechanical work; namely, force times displacement.
Therefore, the unit of energy in this system is the foot-pound (ft-lb). Another energy unit
in common use for historical reasons is the British thermal unit (Btu). The relationship
between the two is given in Table 1.2.1. Power is the rate of change of energy with time,
and a common unit is horsepower. Finally, temperature in the FPS system can be
expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or in absolute units, degrees Rankine.

1.2.2 SI UNITS
The SI metric system is an absolute system, which means that the mass is chosen as the
primary variable, and the force unit is derived from Newton’s law. The meter and the

Table 1.2.1 SI and FPS units.

Unit name and abbreviation
Quantity SI Unit FPS Unit
Time second (s) second (sec)
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Force newton (N) pound (lb)
Mass kilogram (kg) slug
Energy joule (J) foot-pound (ft-lb),
Btu (= 778 ft-lb)
Power watt (W) ft-lb/sec,
horsepower (hp)
Temperature degrees Celsius (◦ C), degrees Fahrenheit (◦ F),
degrees Kelvin (K) degrees Rankine (◦ R)
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52

1.3 Developing Linear Models 11

Table 1.2.2 Unit conversion factors.

Length 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 mile = 5280 ft 1 km = 1000 m
Speed 1 ft /sec = 0.6818 mi /hr 1 mi /hr = 1.467 ft /sec
1 m /s = 3.6 km /h 1 km /h = 0.2778 m /s
1 km /hr = 0.6214 mi /hr 1 mi /hr = 1.609 km /h
Force 1 N = 0.2248 lb 1 lb = 4.4484 N
Mass 1 kg = 0.06852 slug 1 slug = 14.594 kg
Energy 1 J = 0.7376 ft-lb 1 ft-lb = 1.3557 J
Power 1 hp = 550 ft-lb /sec 1 hp = 745.7 W
1 W = 1.341 × 10−3 hp
Temperature T ◦ C = 5 (T ◦ F − 32)∕9 T ◦ F = 9T ◦ C∕5 + 32

second are selected as the length and time units, and the kilogram is chosen as the mass
unit. The derived force unit is called the newton. In SI units the common energy unit
is the newton-meter, also called the joule, while the power unit is the joule/second, or
watt. Temperatures are measured in degrees Celsius, ◦ C, and in absolute units, which
are degrees Kelvin, K. The difference between the boiling and freezing temperatures of
water is 100◦ C, with 0◦ C being the freezing point.
At the surface of the earth, the standard value of g in SI units is g = 9.81 m/s2 .
Table 1.2.2 gives the most commonly needed factors for converting between the
FPS and the SI systems.

1.2.3 OSCILLATION UNITS

There are three commonly used units for frequency of oscillation. If time is measured
in seconds, frequency can be specified as radians /second or as hertz, abbreviated Hz.
One hertz is one cycle per second (cps). The relation between cycles per second f
and radians per second 𝜔 is 2𝜋f = 𝜔. For sinusoidal oscillation, the period P, which is
the time between peaks, is related to frequency by P = 1∕f = 2𝜋∕𝜔. The third way of
specifying frequency is revolutions per minute (rpm). Because there are 2𝜋 radians per
revolution, one rpm = (2𝜋∕60) radians per second.

1.3 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS

A linear model of a static element has the form y = mx + b, where x is the input and y
is the output of the element. As we will see in Chapter 2, solution of dynamic models
to predict system performance requires solution of differential equations. Differential
equations based on linear models of the system elements are easier to solve than ones
based on nonlinear models. Therefore, when developing models we try to obtain a
linear model whenever possible. Sometimes the use of a linear model results in a loss
of accuracy, and the engineer must weigh this disadvantage with advantages gained by
using a linear model. In this section, we illustrate some ways to obtain linear models.

1.3.1 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS FROM DATA

If we are given data on the input-output characteristics of a system element, we can first
plot the data to see whether a linear model is appropriate, and if so, we can
extract a suitable model. Example 1.3.1 illustrates a common engineering problem—
the estimation of the force-deflection characteristics of a cantilever support beam.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
3. Character of Nero.—Nero was the incarnation of depravity—the very
name by which men are accustomed to express the fury of unrestrained
malignity. Bad as he was, he was not worse than Rome. She had but her
due. Nay, when he died the rabble and the slaves crowned his statue with
garlands and scattered flowers over his grave. And why not? Nero never
injured the rabble, never oppressed the slave. He murdered his mother, his
brother, his wife, and was the tyrant of the wealthy, the terror of the
successful. He rendered poverty sweet, for poverty alone was secure; he
rendered slavery tolerable, for slaves alone or slavish men were promoted
to power. The reign of Nero was the golden reign of the populace, and the
holiday of the bondman.—Bancroft.

REVIEW.

1. Of what did Messiah warn his followers?

2. What reason may be assigned for the hatred of the world towards the
people of God?

3. What special reason can you assign for the persecution of the Christians
by the Jews?

4. What can you say of the bitterness and extent of the first great
persecution?

5. What circumstance rendered the Jewish power to injure the Christians

unequal to the malice?

6. Describe the great conflict between the Jews and the Romans.

7. By what means did the Christians living at Jerusalem escape the

calamities of those times?

8. What makes it difficult to understand why the Romans persecuted the

Christians?

9. What can you say of the charges of immorality as justifying Roman

persecution? (Note 1).
10. What of the charge of treason? (Note 2).

11. What was the true cause of the persecution?

12. Who was the first emperor to enact laws against the Christians?

13. What was the character of Nero? (Note 3).

14. What was the incentive which prompted Nero to persecute the
Christians?

15. What was the duration and extent of the first Roman persecution?

16. Under whose reign did the second Roman persecution begin?

17. On what was the persecution based?

 SECTION II.
1. Condition of the Church in the Second Century.—During the second
century the church had many seasons of immunity from persecution. The
Roman emperors for the most part were of a mild and equitable character,
and at the beginning of the century there were no laws against the
Christians, as those enacted both by Nero and Domitian had been repealed.
The first by the senate, the second by his successor, Nerva.[15] Still it must
not be supposed that the saints were free from persecution. Their troubles
arose, however, rather from the tumults of the rabble at the instigation of the
pagan priests than from any desire of the emperors to oppress them.

2. As the Christians had no temples, no altars, no clouds of incense, no

smoking victims—in short, as they had none of the pomp and circumstance
in their simple religion which attended pagan worship, they were open to
the charge of atheism by the great body of the people of the Roman empire;
and, in their judgment, deserved the severest tortures and death.

If the empire had been afflicted by any recent calamity, [remarks

Gibbon], by a plague, a famine, or an unsuccessful war; if the Tiber
had, or if the Nile had not, risen above its banks; if the earth had
shaken, or if the temperate order of the seasons had been interrupted,
the superstitious pagans were convinced that the crimes and impurities
of the Christians, who were spared by the excessive lenity of the
government, had at length, provoked the divine justice.[16]

And however virtuous the emperors were, however mild or equitable in

character the governors of the provinces, it is certain they did not hesitate to
appease the rage of the people by sacrificing a few obnoxious victims.

3. The Persecution Under Marcus Aurelius.—The strangest fact of all

connected with the persecutions of this century is that the saints suffered
most under the most virtuous of the emperors—Marcus Aurelius [Mar-cus
Au-re-li-us], who allowed the judges to put many of the saints accused of
crime to torture. Among those of note who fell in this persecution were
Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna (see note 1, end of section.) and Justin
Martyr, the philosopher. The persecution was most severe in Gaul (France),
the churches of Lyons and Vienne being well nigh utterly destroyed. The
unparalleled cruelties practiced upon the saints in those cities are related at
length by Eusebius[17] in letters written by those who survived the
persecution. (See note 2, end of section.)

4. Edicts of Severus.—Early in the third century a law was enacted by the

Emperor, Severus [Se-ver-us,] making it criminal for any reason to abandon
the religion of his fathers for that of the Christians or the Jews. The object
of the law was to stay the propagation of Christianity which was spreading
abroad on every hand; and while it was not intended to increase the
hardships of those already Christians, it nevertheless encouraged the
governors and judges of some of the provinces—especially those of Egypt
and other parts of Africa and Asia—to sorely afflict the saints. Many of the
poor were put to death—thousands of them if we may credit Eusebius—and
many of the rich intimidated into paying large sums of money to the judges
to secure them from torture and death. Still this persecution was not long
continued, nor was it general throughout the empire, and after it subsided
there was a long period of peace—pity it is that we have to say that it was
more hurtful to the church than the periods of the cruelest persecution.

5. Persecution Under Decius Trajan.—In the middle of this century under

Decius Trajan [De-ci-us Tra-jan] the severest and most disastrous
persecution of all befell the Christians. The emperor must have been
impelled both by his fear of the Christians and his attachment to the ancient
religion of the Romans to publish his terrible edicts by which he hoped to
destroy the Christian church. The governors of the provinces were ordered,
on pain of forfeiting their own lives, either to exterminate all Christians
utterly, or bring them back by pains and tortures to the religion of their
fathers. Even Gibbon, whose constant effort is to belittle the sufferings of
the early Christians, says of this persecution:

The bishops of the most considerable cities were removed by exile or

death; the vigilance of the magistrates prevented the clergy of Rome
during sixteen months from proceeding to a new election and it was
 the opinion of the Christians that the emperor would more patiently
endure a competitor for the purple than a bishop in the capital.[18]

6. For more than two years the persecution raged with unmitigated fury; and
great multitudes of Christians, in all the Roman provinces, were butchered
in the most inhuman manner.

This persecution, [writes Dr. Mosheim], was more cruel and terrific
than any which preceded it; and immense numbers, dismayed, not so
much by the fear of death as by the dread of the long continued
tortures by which the magistrates endeavored to overcome the
constancy of the Christians, professed to renounce Christ, and
procured for themselves safety, either by sacrificing—i. e., offering
incense before the idols—or by certificates purchased with money.[19]
(See note 3, end of section.)

7. The immediate successors of Decius continued this persecution, which

with a pestilential disease which prevailed in many of the Roman provinces,
greatly increased the hardships of the saints; but the latter part of the
century passed away in peace.

8. The Diocletian Persecution.—In the commencement of the fourth

century a peculiar state of affairs existed in the Roman empire. In 284 A.
D., Diocletian [Di-o-kle-shan], a native of Dalmatia [Dal-ma-shi-a], whose
parents were slaves, was proclaimed emperor. The year following, feeling
that the extent of the empire was too vast to be managed by a single mind,
he chose a colleague, one Maximian [Max-im-i-an], an unlettered soldier,
with whom he shared the authority of emperor and the title of "Augustus."
Soon afterwards they each chose a colleague with whom they shared their
authority. These were Constantinus [Con-stan-ti-nus] Chlorus [Klo-rus] and
Galerius [Ga-le-ri-us]. On their ascension to this honor they each took the
title of "Caesar," and so matters stood at the opening of the fourth century.

9. The church had peace at the opening of this century, and at first there
were no indications that it would be broken. But early within that period
Diocletian was persuaded to undertake the suppression of the Christian
religion. This he attempted by demanding that the Christians give up their
sacred books; if they refused they were put to death. The constancy of all
the Christians, no, not even that of all their bishops and clergy, was equal to
this trial, and many voluntarily surrendered the sacred writings in their
possession, to save themselves from punishment and death.

10. The royal palace at Nicomedia being twice set on fire, soon after the
first edict of Diocletian was published, the crime was charged to the
Christians, and led to the issuance of a second edict which caused many
Christians to suffer the penalties inflicted on incendiaries—torture and
death. Following this came rebellion against Roman authority in Nicomedia
and Syria. This too was charged to the intrigue of Christians (see notes 4
and 5, end of section), and was made a pretext for throwing all bishops and
ministers into prison. A third edict authorized the employment of torture to
compel them to offer sacrifices to the gods of the heathen. It was hoped by
Diocletian that if these leaders of the church could be forced into acts of
apostasy the people would follow. A great multitude, therefore, of excellent
men in all parts of Christendom—excepting Gaul—were put to death, and
others condemned to labor in the mines.

11. But Diocletian was disappointed in the effects of these assaults on the
leaders of the church. The members thereof remained obdurate in their
adherence to the Christian faith; whereupon he issued a fourth edict,
directing the magistrates to compel all Christians to offer sacrifice to the
gods and to use tortures for that purpose. As the governors yielded strict
obedience to these orders, the Christian church was reduced to the last
extremity.[20]

12. With the exception of Gaul, [says Schlegel], streams of Christian

blood flowed in the provinces of the Roman empire. Everywhere the
Christian temples lay in ruins, and assemblies for worship were all
suspended. The major part had forsaken the provinces and taken refuge
among the barbarians. Such as were unable or unwilling to do this,
kept themselves concealed, and were afraid for their lives if they
appeared in public. The ministers of Christ were either slain, or
mutilated and sent to the mines, or banished from the country. The
avaricious magistrates had seized upon nearly all their church property
and their private possessions. Many, through dread of undergoing
torture, had made away with their own lives and many apostatized
 from the faith; and what remained of the Christian community
consisted of weak, poor, and timorous persons.[21]

Truly it would appear from this that the beast unto whom was given power
"to make war with the saints and overcome them"[22] had at last triumphed.

13. End of Pagan Persecution.—This, however, was to be the last great

persecution of the Christians by the heathens. In 305 Diocletian, to the
surprise of his own and all succeeding ages, resigned the empire and
compelled his associate, Maximian, to do the same. This left the empire in
the hands of the two Caesars, who became the emperors. Like their
predecessors they chose colleagues; but Constantius Chlorus, dying at York,
in Britain, his son, Constantine [Kon-stan-tin], afterwards called the Great,
was proclaimed emperor by the army. The associate of his father, Galerius,
and the two Caesars refused to ratify the election, and civil war ensued
which lasted for eighteen years. Finally, however, Constantine prevailed
over all his rivals and became sole emperor, A. D., 323. Being, like his
father, favorably disposed towards Christianity, his accession to the throne
brought universal peace to the church.

14. The Luminous Cross Seen by Constantine.—It was during the above-
mentioned civil war, while marching against the forces of Maxentius [Max-
en-ti-us], one of the rebellious Caesars, that Constantine and his army are
said to have seen near midday, in the heavens, a luminous cross bearing this
inscription in Greek: "By This Conquer." The same night Christ appeared to
him in a dream accompanied with the same sign and instructed him to make
a standard bearing the cross as a protection against his enemies. The
circumstance is related at great length in the life of Constantine by
Eusebius, on whose sole authority the story rests. It is regarded as
suspicious that he makes no reference to the matter in Ecclesiastical
History, written only twelve years after the event. (See note 7, end of
section.) The story is altogether rejected by some writers as the cunning
invention of interested priests seeking to make the cross an object of
veneration; and even Christian writers of high standing—among them
Mosheim—consider the story to be doubtful.

15. Constantine and his Friendliness to Christianity.—With the

accession of Constantine to the imperial throne, as before remarked, the
peace of the church was assured. His father had favored the Christians, and
in the cruel persecution under Diocletian, he kept the provinces of Gaul free
from the effusion of Christian blood; and his son seems to have fallen heir
to his father's friendliness for the Christian faith.

16. It is difficult to determine the motives of Constantine for favoring the

Christian cause and resolving upon the destruction of the pagan religion.
Whether it was the appearance of the miraculous cross in the heavens, as
some aver, the influence of Helena, his mother,[23] as Theodoret claims, or
through the arguments of an Egyptian priest who promised him absolution
for the crime of murder if he would accept Christianity.[24] But let the
motive be what it may, benevolence, policy, conviction or remorse, coupled
with a hope of forgiveness, Constantine from the time of his accession to
the throne became the avowed protector of the Christian church; and at
length by his powerful influence made Christianity the reigning religion of
the Roman empire.[25] The exiles were recalled; those condemned to labor in
the mines were released; those who had been robbed of their property were
reinstated in their possessions, and the demolished Christian temples were
ordered to be rebuilt and enlarged. The church militant after the emperor's
edicts of toleration became the church tranquil, so far as external opposition
was concerned. Her ministers were welcomed to the court of the emperor,
admitted to the imperial table, and even accompanied the monarch in his
expeditions. Wealth, honor and imperial patronage were bestowed almost
without measure on the Christian church. From the position of a despised,
persecuted religion, Christianity was suddenly exalted to the very throne of
the Roman world. Yet these things which are usually accounted among the
good fortunes of the church, were, as we shall yet see, disastrous to the
purity of the Christian religion.

17. Progress of the Church Under the Patronage of Constantine.—The

court of Constantine was converted, of course; but it is to be feared that it
was the hope of wealth and honor, the example of the emperor, his
exhortations, his irresistible smile, rather than the truths of Christianity
which wrought a change in the hearts of the obsequious crowd that filled
the palace. A number of cities manifested a forward zeal in a voluntary
destruction of their temples and idols, but it is more than likely that the
municipal distinctions and popular donations which were held out as a
reward for such conduct, rather than belief in the Christian faith are what
inspired the iconoclasts. Twelve thousand men and a proportionate number
of women and children were baptized in a single year in Rome; but how far
did the twenty pieces of gold and a white garment promised to each convert
by the emperor influence the conversion of this great number? Nor was the
influence of Constantine in respect to the Christian religion confined within
the provinces of the empire. It extended to the barbarous peoples outside;
who, while they had held in disdain a despised and proscribed sect, soon
learned to esteem a religion which had been so lately embraced by the
greatest monarch, and the most civilized nation of the globe.[26]

18. The Character of Constantine.—It is as difficult to come to a right

conclusion as to the real character of Constantine as it is to decide the
motives which led him to accept the Christian religion; for in the former as
in the latter case the authorities are conflicting. The Christians who were
favored by his actions extol him for his virtues; while the pagans who were
despoiled by him, execrate him for his crimes. It is certain, however, that he
put to death his own son Crispus, and his wife Fausta, on a suspicion that
was at least precarious. He cut off his brother-in-law Licinius, and his
offending son, contrary to his plighted word; and, according to Schlegel and
Gibbon, he was much addicted to pride and voluptuousness:

He pursued the great objects of his ambition through the dark and
bloody paths of war and policy, and after the victory, abandoned
himself without moderation to the abuse of his good fortune. As he
advanced in years he seems to have declined in the practice of virtue,
blighting in his old age, when a convert to the Christian faith, and
famed as the protector of the Christian church, the fair promises he
gave in his youth, and while a pagan, of being a truly virtuous prince.
It is not likely that the patronage of such an emperor would contribute
to the real progress of religion or assist in the establishment of the
church of Christ.

NOTES.

1. The Martyrdom of Polycarp.—Presently the instruments prepared for

the funeral pile were applied to him. As they were on the point of securing
him with spikes, he said: "Let me be thus, for he that gives me strength to
bear the fire, will also give me power, without being secured by you with
these spikes, to remain unmoved on the pile." They therefore did not nail
him, but merely bound him to the stake. But he, closing his hands behind
him, and bound to the stake as a noble victim selected from the great flock
an acceptable sacrifice to Almighty God, said: "Father of thy well-beloved
and blessed Son, Jesus Christ, through whom we have received the
knowledge of thee, the God of angels and power and all creation, and of all
the family of the righteous, that live before thee, I bless thee that thou hast
thought me worthy of the present day and hour to have a share in the
number of the martyrs and in the cup of Christ, unto the resurrection of
eternal life, both of the soul and body, in the incorruptible felicity of the
Holy Spirit. Among whom may I be received in thy sight this day as a rich
and acceptable sacrifice, as thou the faithful and true God hast prepared,
hast revealed and fulfilled. Wherefore on this account, and for all things I
praise thee, I bless thee; I glorify thee through the eternal High Priest, Jesus
Christ, thy well beloved Son. Through whom be glory to thee with Him in
the Holy Ghost, both now and forever. Amen." After he had repeated Amen,
and had finished his prayer, the executioners kindled the fire.—Eusebius.

2. A Second Century Persecution.—Would the reader know what a

persecution in those days was, I would refer him to a circular letter written
by the church at Smyrna soon after the death of Polycarp, who it will be
remembered had lived with St. John; and which letter is entitled a relation
of that Bishop's martyrdom. "The sufferings," say they, "of all the other
martyrs were blessed and generous which they underwent according to the
will of God. For so it becomes us, who are more religious than others, to
ascribe the power and ordering of all things unto him. And indeed who can
choose but admire the greatness of their minds, and that admirable patience
and love of their Master, which then appeared in them? Who when they
were so flayed with whipping, that the frame and structure of their bodies
were laid open to their very inward veins and arteries, nevertheless endured
it. In like manner, those who were condemned to the beasts and kept a long
time in prison, underwent many cruel torments, being forced to lie upon
sharp spikes laid under their bodies, and tormented with divers other sorts
of punishments; that so, if it were possible, the tyrants by the length of their
sufferings might have brought them to deny Christ."—Paley.
3. The Persecution Under Decius Trajan.—This persecution was more
terrible than any preceding one, because it extended over the whole empire,
and because its object was to worry the Christians into apostasy by extreme
and persevering torture.—The certificated or libellatici, are supposed to be
such as purchased certificates from the corrupt magistrates, in which it was
declared that they were pagans and had complied with the demands of the
law, when neither of these was fact. To purchase such a certificate was not
only to be partaker in the fraudulent transaction, but it was to prevaricate
before the public in regard to Christianity, and was inconsistent with that
open confession of Christ before men, which He Himself requires.—
Murdock. (Note in Mosheim, vol. I., cent. iii., p. 1, ch. ii.)

4. The Insurrection of Syria and Nicomedia.—Some degree of

probability could be attached to the charge against the Christians of causing
the insurrection from the fact that their inconsiderate zeal sometimes led
them to deeds which had an aspect of rebellion. At the commencement of
this persecution, for example, a very respectable Christian tore down the
imperial edict against the Christians which was set up in a public place.—
Schlegel.

5. Unwise Zeal of the Christians.—Several examples have been preserved

of a zeal impatient of those restraints which the emperors had provided for
the security of the church. The Christians sometimes supplied by their
voluntary declaration the want of an accuser, rudely disturbed the public
service of paganism, and rushing in crowds round the tribunal of the
magistrates, called upon them to pronounce and to inflict the sentence of the
law. The behavior of the Christians was too remarkable to escape the notice
of the ancient philosophers; but they seemed to have considered it with
much less admiration than astonishment. Incapable of conceiving the
motives which sometimes transported the fortitude of believers beyond the
bounds of prudence or reason, they treated such an eagerness to die as the
strange result of obstinate despair, of stupid insensibility or of suspicious
frenzy.—Gibbon.

6. Spirit of the Christian Martyrs.—The spirit of the Christian martyrs, at

least of the first three centuries, may be learned from the epistle of Ignatius
of Antioch, who, early in the second century was taken from Syria to Rome,
where he suffered martyrdom by being thrown to the wild beasts. On his
journey to Rome, under sentence of death, he wrote an epistle to the Roman
saints from which the following passage is taken: "I write to the churches
and I declare to all, that willingly I die for God, if it be that you hinder me
not. I beg of you, do not become to me an unseasonable love. Let me be of
the beasts, by whose means I am enabled to obtain God. I am God's wheat,
and by the teeth of the beasts am I ground, that I may be found God's pure
bread. Rather entreat kindly the beasts that they may be a grave for me and
may leave nothing of my body; that not even when I am fallen asleep, I may
be a burden upon any man. Then I shall be in truth a disciple of Jesus
Christ, when the world seeth not even my body. Supplicate our Lord for me,
that by these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God. I am not
commanding you like Peter and Paul; they were apostles, I am a condemned
convict; they were free, I am hitherto a slave. But if I suffer I am a free man
of Jesus Christ, and I shall rise from the dead, in him a free man. And now
since I am in bonds, I learn to desire nothing. From Syria to Rome I am cast
among beasts by sea and by land, by night and by day; since I am bound
between ten leopards, who get worse when I do good to them. But by their
ill-treatment I am furthered in my apprenticeship; still by that I am not
justified. May I have to rejoice of the beasts prepared for me! and I pray
that they may be found ready for me, and I will kindly entreat them quickly
to devour me, and not as they have done to some, being afraid of them, to
keep from touching me. And should they not be willing, I will force
them."—Ignatius' Epistle to the Romans.

7. Constantine's Luminous Cross.—Now if this narrative [by Eusebius] is

all true, and if two connected miracles were actually wrought as here stated,
how happens it that no writer of that age, except Eusebius, says one word
about the luminous cross in the heavens? How came it that Eusebius
himself said nothing about it in his Ecclesiastical History, which was
written twelve years after the event, and about the same length of time
before his life of Constantine? Why does he rely solely on the testimony of
the emperor and not even intimate that he even heard of it from others;
whereas, if true, many thousands must have been eye-witnesses of the fact.
What mean his suggestions, that some may question the truth of the story;
and his caution not to state anything as a matter of public notoriety, but to
confine himself simply to the emperor's private representation to himself. *
* * But how came the whole story of the luminous cross to be unknown to
the Christian world, for more than twenty-five years, and then to transpire
only through a private conversation between Eusebius and Constantine?—
Murdock.

REVIEW.

1. From what source did the persecution of the church come during the 2nd
century?

2. What charge did pagan priests bring against the Christians?

3. What in the estimation of the ignorant pagans gave the color of truth to
their charge?

4. To what circumstance were the calamities which befell the empire

usually attributed?

5. What strange fact meets us in connection with the persecution of the 2nd
century?

6. What two noted martyrs were put to death in the reign of Marcus
Aurelius?

7. Describe the martyrdom of Polycarp.

8. What was the nature of some of the tortures inflicted on the Christians?
(Note 2).

9. What was the nature and purpose of the edicts of Severus?

10. What was the effect of this persecution and the period of peace which
followed it?

11. What can you say of the persecution under Trajan?

12. What does Gibbon say of it?

13. How long did it continue?

14. What means of avoiding the severe tortures were offered the Christians?

15. What was the effect of this persecution?

16. What other circumstance added to the afflictions of the Christians?

17. What changes in respect to the Roman government took place early in
the 4th century?

18. What method did Diocletian adopt for the suppression of the Christian
religion?

19. What special crimes were charged to the Christians in the reign of
Diocletian?

20. What can you say of the zeal of the Christians? (Note 4 and 5).

21. What effect did these persecutions have on the church?

22. What event put a stop to the pagan persecutions?

23. Relate the circumstances which led to Constantine becoming emperor of

Rome.

24. What effect did his accession to the throne have upon the Christian
church?

25. By what circumstance is Constantine said to have been converted to the

Christian religion?

26. What evidences exist against the probability of this story?

27. What good service did the father of Constantine do the Christians in the
Diocletian persecution?

28. What are the several motives assigned for Constantine's friendliness to
the Christian church?

29. What can you say of the emperor's treatment of the Christians?
30. What considerations very likely influenced converts when Constantine
extended his patronage to the church?

31. What was the character of Constantine?

 SECTION III.
1. The Accusations of the Pagans.—The simplicity of the Christian
religion was made a reproach to the church of Christ by the pagan priests.
The saints were accused of atheism, an accusation which found support in
the fact that the primitive church had no temples, no incense, no sacrifice,
no incantations, pomp or ceremony in its worship. "The Christians have no
temples, therefore they have no gods," was an argument sufficiently
convincing to the heathen. It was but natural, perhaps, that the Christians
should seek to cast off this reproach; but the desire to do so led to the
introduction of many ceremonies quite at variance with the religion of Jesus
Christ, and eventually subverted it altogether.

2. Outward Ordinances of the Christian Religion.—The outward

ordinances of the gospel consisted of baptism, the laying on of hands for the
imparting of the Holy Ghost, and the Lord's Supper. The laying on of hands
was also employed in ordaining men to the Priesthood and in administering
to the sick. In the latter case it was accompanied by anointing with oil.

3. While it does not appear that there was any specific law commanding or
regulating fasts, the ancient saints occasionally joined abstinence from their
food with their prayers, and especially when engaged in great undertakings.
But the frequency of his fasts and the time of their continuance were left to
each man's judgment.

4. They met on the first day of the week—Sunday—for worship (see note 1,
end of section) the meetings, during the first century, being held in most
instances in private houses. The ceremonies were of the simplest character.
They consisted of reading the scriptures, the exhortation of the president of
the assembly—"neither eloquent nor long, but full of warmth and love;" the
testimony of such as felt moved upon by the Holy Ghost to bear testimony,
exhort or prophesy; the singing of hymns; the administration of the
Sacrament and prayers.[27] (See note 2, end of section.)
5. Baptism.—Baptism was administered by immersing the candidate in
water. The only pre-requisites were faith in Jesus Christ and repentance. As
soon as the candidate professed these he was admitted into the church by
baptism.[28] In a short time, however, the simplicity of this ordinance was
corrupted and burdened with useless ceremonies. In the second century the
newly baptized converts, since by baptism they had been born again, were
taught to exhibit in their conduct the innocence of little infants. Milk and
honey, the common food of infants, were administered to them, after their
baptism, to remind them of their infancy in the church. Moreover, since by
baptism they were released from being servants of the devil, and became
God's free men, certain forms borrowed from the Roman ceremony of
manumission of slaves were employed in baptism. As by baptism also they
were supposed to be made God's soldiers, like newly enlisted soldiers in the
Roman army, they were sworn to obey their commander, etc.

6. Further Additions of Ceremonies to Baptism.—A century later (the

third) further ceremonies were added. It was supposed that some evil spirit
was resident in all vicious persons and impelled them to sin. Therefore,
before entering the sacred font for baptism, an exorcist by a solemn,
menacing formula declared them free from the bondage of Satan, and hailed
them servants of Christ.[29] After baptism the new converts returned home,
"decorated with a crown and a white robe, the first being indicative of their
victory over the world and their lusts, the latter of their acquired
innocence."[30]

7. We have already noted the fact that baptism was administered in the days
of the apostles as soon as profession of faith and repentance were declared,
but in the second and third century baptism was only administered twice a
year, and then only to such candidates as had gone through a long
preparation and trial.[31] The times chosen for the administration of the
ordinance were on the vigils of Easter and Whitsuntide;[32] and in the fourth
century it had become the custom to accompany the ceremony with lighted
wax candles, to put salt—an emblem of purity and wisdom—in the mouth
of the baptized, and everywhere a double anointing was administered to the
candidates, the one before, the other after, baptism.[33]
8. The Form of Baptism Changed.—It must have been early in the third
century that the form of baptism began to be changed. Up to this time it had
been performed only by immersion of the whole body. But in the first half
of the third century, Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, during a controversy
respecting the re-baptism of those who in times of persecution had denied
the faith, decided that those whose weak state of health did not permit them
to be immersed, were sufficiently baptized by being sprinkled.[34] The first
case of this kind of baptism is related by Eusebius. The person to whom it
was so administered was Novatus [No-va-tus], a desperate heretic, who
created a schism in the church and became the founder of a sect. He was
among the number of so-called Christians who put off baptism as long as he
dared; in order to enjoy a life of sin and then through baptism, just before
death, obtain forgiveness for them—a custom very prevalent in those times.
Novatus being attacked with an obstinate disease, and supposed to be at the
point of death, was baptized by having water sprinkled upon him as he lay
in bed; "if indeed," says Eusebius, "it be proper to say one like him did
receive baptism."[35]

9. This innovation continued to spread until now the general rule among so-
called Christian sects is to baptize by sprinkling or pouring. For this change
there is no warrant of revelation. It destroys the symbol there is in baptism
as taught by Messiah and his apostles—that of a burial and resurrection—of
a death and a birth—a death unto sin, a birth unto sin, a birth unto
righteousness. (See notes 3 and 4, end of section.) It is one of those
innovations which changed an ordinance of the everlasting covenant.

10. Baptism Misapplied.—About the time that the form of administering

baptism was changed it began to be misapplied, that is, it was administered
to infants. Just when this custom came into vogue may not be determined,
but clearly it has no warrant for its existence either in the doctrines or
practice of the apostles or any New Testament writer. (See note 5, end of
section.) No truth is more plainly taught by the apostles than that baptism is
for the remission of sins, and must be preceded by faith and repentance; and
as infants are incapable of sin, or of exercising faith, or of repenting,
evidently they are not fit subjects for baptism.
11. Still it became the custom in the latter part of the second century or
early in the third to baptize infants. In the year 253 A. D., a council of sixty
bishops, in Africa—at which Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, presided, took
under consideration the question whether infants should be baptized within
two or three days after birth, or whether it should be deferred until the
eighth day, as was the custom of the Jews in respect to circumcision. The
council decided that they should be baptized at once, that is within a day or
two after birth.[36] It will be observed that the question was not as to whether
infants should be baptized or not, but when they should be baptized, within
a day or two after birth or not until they were eight days old. The matter
was treated in the council as if infant baptism was a custom of long
standing. This proves, not that infant baptism is a correct doctrine, or that it
was derived from the teachings and examples of the apostles—as some
aver[37]—but that in a century or so after the introduction of the gospel, men
began to pervert it by changing and misapplying its ordinances. The false
doctrine of infant baptism is now practiced by nearly all so-called Christian
churches, Catholic and Protestant.

12. The Sacrament.—Much as the simple rite of baptism was burdened

with useless ceremonies, changed in its form and misapplied, it was not
more distorted than was the sacrament of the Lord's supper. The nature of
the sacrament—usually called the eucharist—and the purposes for which it
was instituted are so plain that he who runs may read.

13. From Paul's description of the ordinance, it is clear that the broken
bread was an emblem of Messiah's broken body; the wine an emblem of his
blood, shed for sinful man; and his disciples were to eat the one and drink
the other in remembrance of him until he should return; and by this
ceremony show forth the Lord's death.[38]

14. It was designed as a memorial of Messiah's great atonement for

mankind, a token and witness unto the Father that the Son was always
remembered. It was to be a sign that those partaking of it were willing to
take upon them the name of Christ, to always remember him, and keep his
commandments. In consideration of these things being observed, the saints
were always to have the Spirit of the Lord to be with them.[39] In this spirit
and without great ceremony (see note 7, end of section) the sacrament was
administered for some time.

15. Administration of the Sacrament Corrupted.—In the third century

there were longer prayers and more ceremony connected with the
administration of the sacrament than in the century preceding. Disputations
arose as to the proper time to administer it. Some considered the morning,
others the afternoon, and some the evening the most suitable time. All were
not agreed either as to how often the ordinance should be celebrated. Gold
and silver vessels were used, and neither those doing penance, nor those
unbaptized, though believers, were permitted to be present at the
celebration of the ordinance; "which practice, it is well known, was derived
from the pagan mysteries."[40] Very much of mystery began to be associated
with it even at an early date. The bread and the wine through the prayer of
consecration were considered to undergo a mystic change by which they
were converted into and became the very body and the very blood of Jesus
Christ; so that they were no longer regarded as emblems of Messiah's body
and blood, but the body and blood itself.[41] This is the doctrine of
transubstantiation.

16. The dogma established, it was but a short step to the "elevation of the
host;" that is, the elevation of the bread and wine before they were
distributed, so that they might be viewed with reverence by the people.
Thus came the adoration of the symbols.

17. Institution of the Mass.—Hence came also the mass, or the idea of a
sacrifice being connected with the celebration of the eucharist. It was held
that as Jesus was truly present in the bread and wine he could be offered up,
and was truly offered up as an oblation to his Eternal Father. The death of
the victim was not supposed to occur in reality but mystically, in such a
way, however, as to constitute a true sacrifice, commemorative of that of the
cross, and not different from it in essence. The same victim was present,
and offered up by Christ through his minister, the priest. The sacrifice at the
cross was offered with real suffering; true shedding of blood, and real death
of the victim; in the mass it was taught there was a mystical shedding of
blood and a mystical death of the same victim.
18. Into such absurdities was the simple sacrament of the Lord's supper
distorted! When attended with all the pomp and ceremony of splendid
altars, lighted tapers, processions, elevations and chantings: offered up by
priests and bishops clad in splendid vestments and in the midst of clouds of
incense, accompanied by mystic movements and genuflections of bishops
and priests, the church could congratulate itself on having removed the
reproach at the first fastened upon the Christians for not having altars and
sacrifice. The mass took away the reproach; and the new converts to
Christianity were accustomed to see the same rites and ceremonies
employed in this mystical sacrifice of the Son of God as they had seen
employed in offering up of sacrifice to their pagan deities. (See notes 8 and
9, end of section.)

19. Suppression of Half the Sacrament.—In time the idea became

prevalent that as the body and blood of Messiah were equally and entirely
present under each "species"—that is, equally and entirely present in the
bread and in the wine—it was equally and entirely given to the faithful
whichever they received. This idea, of course, rendered it unnecessary to
partake of both bread and wine—hence the practice of communion in one
kind. That is, the sacrament was administered by giving bread alone to the
communicant. To remark that this was changing the ordinance of the
sacrament as instituted by Messiah—suppressing half of it in fact—can
scarcely be necessary since it is so well known that Jesus administered both
bread and wine when instituting the sacred ordinance.[42]

NOTES.

1. Reasons Why the Ancient Saints Worshiped on Sunday.—But Sunday

is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first
day on which God, when he changed the darkness and matter, made the
world; and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead; for
the day before that of Saturn he was crucified, and on the day after it, which
is Sunday, he appeared to his apostles and disciples and taught them these
things which we have given to you also for your consideration.—Justin
Martyr.

2. Description of Christian Public Worship in the Second Century.—On

the day which is called Sunday there is an assembly in the same of all who
live in cities or in country districts; and the records of the apostles, or the
writings of the prophets, are read as long as we have time. Then the reader
concludes, and the president verbally instructs and exhorts us to the
imitation of these excellent things. Then we all rise together and offer up
our prayers. And, as I said before, when we have concluded our prayer,
bread is brought, and wine and water, and the president in like manner
offers up prayers and thanksgivings with all his strength, and the people
give their assent by saying Amen; and there is a distribution and a partaking
by every one of the eucharistic elements [the sacrament,] and to those who
are not present they are sent by the hands of the deacons. And such as are in
prosperous circumstances, and wish to do so, give what they will, each
according to his choice; and what is collected is placed in the hands of the
president, who assists the orphans and widows, and such as through
sickness or any other cause are in want; and to those who are in bonds, and
to strangers from afar, and, in a word, to all who are in need, he is a
protector.—Justin Martyr.

3. Baptism a Symbol of Burial and Resurrection.—In writing to the

saints of Rome, Paul says: "Know ye not, that so many of us as were
baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death? Therefore we are
buried with him by baptism into death; that like as Christ was raised up
from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in
newness of life. For if we have been planted together in the likeness of his
death, we shall be also in the likeness of his resurrection." (Rom. vi:3-5.) In
writing to the saints of Colosse, the same apostle reminds them that they
had been "Buried with him [Christ] in baptism, wherein also ye are risen
with him through the faith of the operation of God who hath raised him
from the dead." (Col. ii: 12.)

In these passages the terms "buried" and "planted" are in plain allusion to
the manner in which the saints had received the ordinance of baptism,
which could not have been by sprinkling or pouring, as there is no burial or
planting in the likeness of Christ's death, or being raised in likeness of his
resurrection in that; but in immersion there is.—"The Gospel—Roberts,"
page 173.
4. The Manner of Baptism Instituted Among the Nephites.—"Verily I
say unto you, that whoso repenteth of his sins through your words, and
desireth to be baptized in my name, on this wise shall ye baptize them:
Behold, ye shall go down and stand in the water, and in my name shall ye
baptize them. And now behold, these are the words which ye shall say,
calling them by name, saying, Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I
baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost. Amen. And then shall ye immerse them in the water and come forth
again out of the water. And after this manner shall ye baptize in my
name."—Jesus to the Nephites.

5. Infant Baptism not Ordained of Christ or the Apostles.—As faith and

baptism are constantly so closely connected together in the New Testament,
an opinion was likely to arise that where there could be no faith there could
be no baptism. It is certain that Christ did not ordain infant baptism. * * We
cannot prove that the apostles ordained infant baptism; from those places
where the baptism of a whole family is mentioned (Acts xvi:33; I Cor. i:
16), we can draw no such conclusions, because the inquiry is still to be
made whether there were any children in those families of such an age that
they were not capable of any intelligent reception of Christianity; for this is
the only point on which the case turns.—Neander "Church History," vol. I.,
page 360.

6. Infant Baptism Forbidden Among the Nephites.—The word of the

Lord came to me by the power of the Holy Ghost, saying: * * * Behold, I
came into the world not to call the righteous, but sinners unto repentance;
the whole need no physician, but they that are sick; wherefore little children
are whole for they are incapable of committing sin; wherefore the curse of
Adam is taken from them in me, that it hath no power over them; and the
law of circumcision is done away in me. * * * Wherefore, my beloved son,
I know that it is solemn mockery before God that ye should baptize little
children. * * * Awful is the wickedness to suppose that God saveth one
child because of baptism, and the other must perish because he hath no
baptism. Wo be unto him that shall pervert the ways of the Lord after this
manner, for they shall perish, except they repent.—Mormon to Moroni
(Book of Moroni, chapter viii.)
7. Manner of Administering the Sacrament—Second Century.—When
the Christians celebrated the Lord's supper which they were accustomed to
do chiefly on Sundays, they consecrated a part of the bread and wine of the
oblations, by certain prayers pronounced by the president, the bishop of the
congregation. The wine was mixed with water, and the bread was divided
into small pieces. Portions of the consecrated bread and wine were
commonly sent to the absent and the sick, in testimony of fraternal affection
towards them. There is much evidence that this most holy rite was regarded
as very necessary to the attainment of salvation.—Mosheim.

8. Pagan Rites Introduced into the Christian Worship—Fourth

Century.—The Christian bishops introduced, with but slight alterations,
into the Christian worship, those rites and institutions by which formerly
the Greeks and Romans, and other nations had manifested their piety and
reverence towards their imaginary deities; supposing that the people would
more readily embrace Christianity, if they saw that the rites handed down to
them from their fathers still existed unchanged among the Christians, and
perceived that Christ and the martyrs were worshiped in the same manner
as formerly their gods were. There was, of course, little difference in these
times, between the public worship of the Christians and that of the Greeks
and Romans. In both alike there were splendid robes, mitres, tiaras, wax
tapers, crosiers, processions, illustrations, images, golden and silver vases,
and numberless other things.—Mosheim.

9. Superstitious Observances Connected with the Eucharist—Eighth

Century.—As evidence of the superstition which was associated with the
eucharist, note the following: "If any one through negligence, shall destroy
the eucharist, i. e. the sacrifice, let him do penance one year. * * * If he lets
it fall on the ground, carelessly, he must sing fifty Psalms. Whoever
neglects to take care of the sacrifice, so that worms get into it, or it lose its
color or taste, must do penance thirty or twenty days; and the sacrifice must
be burned in the fire. Whoever turns up the cup at the close of the solemnity
of the mass must do penance forty days. If a drop from the cup should fall
on the altar, the minister must suck up the drop and do penance three days;
and the linen cloth which the drop touched, must be washed three times,
over the cup, and the water in which it was washed be cast into the fire."—
Decisions of Pope Gregory III. (Harduin's Concilia.)
REVIEW.

1. What reproach did the simplicity of the Christian religion lead to?

2. What effect did the endeavor to get rid of that reproach have on the
Christian religion?

3. Enumerate the outward ordinances of the gospel.

4. What can you say of Christian fasts?

5. On what day did the Christians meet for worship?

6. What reasons do the early church fathers give for holding public worship
on that day? (Note 1).

7. Describe the meetings of the early Christians. (Note 2.)

8. How was baptism administered in the early church?

9. What does baptism represent? (Note 3).

10. Tell how the simplicity of this ordinance was changed.

11. What additions were made to the ceremony of baptism in the third
century?

12. When was the form of baptism changed?

13. Relate the first known case of baptism by sprinkling.

14. In what way was the ordinance of baptism misapplied?

15. Was infant baptism ordained of the apostles? (Note 5).

16. About when was infant baptism introduced into the church?

17. Does the antiquity of infant baptism prove it to be a correct doctrine?

18. What does it prove?

19. What was said to the Nephites about infant baptism? (Note 6).

20. For what was the sacrament of the Lord's supper instituted?

21. Give Paul's description of the introduction of the sacrament. (Note).

22. About what time was the manner of administering the sacrament
changed?

23. What was the nature of those changes?

24. What custom crept into the practice of the Christian church that was
forbidden by Jesus among the Nephites? (Note).

25. What can you say of the antiquity of the doctrine of transubstantiation?

26. What is the mass?

27. What reproach did the institution of the mass remove from the
Christians?

28. At what cost was the reproach removed?

29. Who introduced pagan rites into Christian worship?

30. Why was it done? (Note 8.)

31. What reason is given for suppressing half the sacrament?

 SECTION IV.
1. Early Church Organization Not Perpetuated.—We have already
stated in Part I of this work that the church organization established by
Messiah—consisting of apostles, prophets, seventies, bishops, etc.—was
designed to be perpetual. It is a singular fact, however, that aside from
filling up the vacancy in the quorum of the twelve—occasioned by the fall
of Judas Iscariot—there is no account in any of the writings of the apostles
or fathers of the first centuries—on the eastern hemisphere[43]—of any
attempt to perpetuate the quorum of the twelve by filling up the vacancies
occasioned by the death of the original apostles. The same may also be said
of the quorum of the seventies.

2. The reason for this will doubtless be found in the fact that in the very
days of the apostles the great apostasy which was to end eventually in the
subversion of the Christian religion, had begun. (See note 2, end of section.)
And since "the mystery of iniquity" had already begun its work in the days
of the apostles, and men were rapidly proving themselves unworthy of the
church of Christ, the Lord did not permit his servants to perpetuate these
quorums of the higher Priesthood.

3. Establishment of the Church by the Apostles.—Whenever in their

travels the apostles converted any considerable number of persons, in a city
or district, they organized them into a church, or, speaking more precisely,
into a branch of the great universal church of Christ, and appointed either a
bishop or an elder to preside over them. As long as the apostles lived they
were regarded as the presiding authority of the universal church, and were
looked to for counsel and instruction in all difficult matters that arose
concerning doctrine or discipline. Their decisions were accepted as final,
and well might it be so, since these men were guided in their counsels by
revelation[44] as well as by the wisdom which their large experience in
company with Jesus Christ had given them.
4. But when the apostles died, and no one succeeded to their authority, the
branches of the church were left separate and independent organizations,
united, it is true, in faith and charity, but the visible, general presidency
recognized in the apostles and cheerfully submitted to by all sections of the
church, ceased when the apostles passed away, and each branch was left an
independent organization of itself.[45] There is no evidence that there was
such a thing as subordination among the churches when so left, or rank
among the bishops. Each church was a sort of independent commonwealth,
of which the bishop was president and a vassal to no other bishop.[46]

5. Manner of Electing Bishops.—The manner in which bishops were first

elected was for the apostles to nominate them, and then for the whole
church over which they were to preside to sustain them by their vote. After
the apostles had passed away then "other men of repute" made the
nominations and the people sustained them as at first.[47] The duties and
powers of the bishops in the first and in the greater part of the second
century were limited to conducting the public worship, administering the
ordinances of the gospel, settling difficulties which arose between brethren,
attending in person the sick and the poor. They also were made the
custodians and managers of the public fund. In all these duties they were
assisted by the elders [presbyters] and the deacons of the church. Yet neither
the bishops nor the elders, nor both of them together, seem to have had
power to ordain or determine anything without the approbation and consent
of the members of the church. The principle of common consent was
closely adhered to in the primitive church. (See note 3, end of section.)

6. Equality Among Bishops Changed.—This equality of rank among the

bishops, together with the simple form of church government, described
above, was soon changed. The bishops who lived in cities either by their
own labors or those of the elders associated with them, raised up new
churches in the adjacent villages and hamlets. The bishops of these rural
districts being nominated and ordained by the bishops presiding in the city,
very naturally, perhaps, felt themselves under the protection and dependent
upon the city bishops. This idea continued to grow until these "bishops of
the suburbs and the fields," were looked upon as a distinct order of officers,
possessing a dignity and authority above the elders, and yet subordinate to
the bishops of the cities, who soon came to be designated as archbishops.
7. The Origin of Metropolitans.—Gradually and almost imperceptibly the
church in its government began to follow the civil divisions of the Roman
empire. The bishops of the metropolis of a civil province, in time, came to
be regarded as having a general supervision of all the churches in that
province, over the archbishops and indirectly over the suburban bishops or
suffragans, as they began to be called, and finally, bishops merely. The
bishops of these provinces were soon designated as metropolitans.

8. The Rise and Influence of Councils.—Concurrent with these changes

arose the custom, first derived from the Greeks, of holding provincial
councils. The bishops living in a single province met in council to confer
upon matters of common interest to the churches of the province. These
provincial councils met at stated times of the year, usually in the spring and
autumn. At the first the attending bishops looked upon themselves as
merely the representatives of their respective churches, without jurisdiction
further than to discuss and come to agreement on matters of common
concern. But gradually they usurped the power to order by decree where at
first they were accustomed to advise or entreat—so easy is it to change the
language of exhortation to that of command! Nor was it long ere the decrees
of these provincial councils were forced upon the respective churches as
laws to be implicitly obeyed. There was some resistance to this at first from
the lower orders of the clergy; but that resistance was quickly overcome by
the activity and ambition of the bishops, who were only too glad to escape
from the restraints which the doctrine of "common consent"—a doctrine
which made it necessary for the bishops to submit any matter of importance
to their respective churches for the approbation of the people—imposed
upon them. (See note 4, end of section.)

9. Conduct of Lower Clergy.—As many changes occurred among the

lower orders of the clergy as among the bishops. The elders and deacons
became too proud to attend to the humble duties of their offices and hence a
number of other officers were added to the church, while the elders and
deacons spent much of their time in indolence and pleasure.

10. Corruption of Church Officials.—To the evils of contention for power

and place, which had its origin in arrogance and ambition—unbecoming
those who profess to be followers and servants of Jesus Christ—must be
added the vices of dissipation and voluptuousness. Many bishops, in the
third century, affected the state of princes, especially those who had charge
of the more populous and wealthy congregations; for they sat on thrones,
surrounded by their ministers and other signs of their power, and dazzled
the eyes and the minds of the populace with their splendid attire.[48]

11. Church Government Modeled on the Plan of the Civil Government.

—It was reserved for the fourth century to see the church government more
completely modeled on the plan of the civil government of the Roman
empire, to witness more pride and arrogance in its rulers, and an increase of
vices both in clergy and people. Early in this century, it will be
remembered, Constantine, the emperor of Rome, avowed his conversion to
Christianity, and as might have been expected that fact produced great
changes in the fortunes of the church. It not only put an end to its
persecutions but loaded its bishops with new honors and enlarged powers.

12. In saying that the church government was modeled upon the plan of the
civil government we would not be understood as saying that the first was a
fac simile of the second; there were some differences between them, but the
civil divisions of the empire suggested the ecclesiastical divisions.

13. Under Constantine the Roman empire was divided into four prefectures,
containing thirteen dioceses, embracing one hundred and sixteen provinces.
Officers called praetorian prefects presided over the four prefectures—
exarchs over the dioceses and governors over the provinces. The Bishops of
Rome, Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria having gained a pre-
eminence over all other metropolitans were made to correspond with the
four prefectures by Constantine, and assumed, before the close of the
century, the title of patriarchs. Next to the patriarchs stood the bishops,
whose jurisdiction extended over several provinces, corresponding to the
civil exarchs,[49] though the bishops of this dignity did not equal in number
the civil exarchs. Next came the metropolitan bishops, whose jurisdiction
was limited to a single province. They corresponded to the civil governors
of the provinces, whose authority was limited in like manner. After the
metropolitans came the arch-bishops,[50] and then the bishops. Some of the
latter were exempt from the jurisdiction of both metropolitans and arch-
bishops, and hence were called independent bishops.
14. Pre-Eminence of the Bishops of Rome.—The distinctions of rank
among the bishops of the Christian church first arose largely through the
opulence and civil importance of the respective cities and provinces over
which they presided—the membership of the church and its wealth usually
bearing a just proportion to the size and civil importance of the city in
which it was located. It is not surprisingg, therefore, that the metropolitans
and patriarchs also struggled for pre-eminence upon the same basis. That
basis gave the bishop of Rome great advantage; for, as stated by Gibbon,
"the Roman church was the greatest, the most numerous, and, in regard to
the west, the most ancient of all the Christian establishments, many of
which had received their religion from the pious labors of here
missionaries." The fact, too, that for so many ages Rome had been the
capital of the great empire led men naturally to give pre-eminence to the
church established there.

15. Another thing which went far to establish the supremacy of the bishop
of Rome was the tradition that Peter, the chief or "prince" of the apostles,
had founded that church; that he became its first bishop; that the bishops
succeeding him succeeded to his apostleship and to whatever of pre-
eminence he held over his fellow apostles; and that pre-eminence, it is
claimed, amounted to the right of presidency over the universal church.

16. Objections to the Claims of the Bishop of Rome.—That Peter, aided

by Paul, did found the church at Rome there is little cause to doubt. It is
also true that Peter was the chief or president of the apostles; that to him
had been given the keys of the kingdom of heaven.[51] But that he became
the bishop of Rome, or that the bishops of Rome succeeded to the
apostleship and to that power which made him the president of the universal
church of Christ, we cannot allow.

17. Our first reason for saying that Peter was not bishop of Rome is that the
office of apostle and bishop are not identical. If Peter presided at all over
the church at Rome he did so by virtue of his apostleship, not by becoming
its bishop; but as his apostleship would give him the right to act in minor
offices of the church—on the principle that the greater authority includes
the lesser—he may have presided for a time over the church at Rome.
18. Our second reason is that according to the very best authority on the
subject, one Linus and not Peter was the first bishop of Rome. Irenaeus
writing in the second century, says:

The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul] then, upon founding and erecting
the church [at Rome], committed the office of administering the
church to Linus. Of this Linus, Paul speaks in the epistle to Timothy.
To him succeeded Anacletus [An-a-cle-tus], and after him in the third
place from the apostles, Clement received the bishopric.[52]

From this it plainly appears that Peter and Paul organized a church at Rome,
and as in other cities they appointed a bishop to preside over it. Peter no
more became the bishop of Rome than he did of the church at Jerusalem, or
Paul of Antioch, Ephesus, or Corinth.

19. The bishop of Rome did not succeed to the apostleship of Peter, much
less to the pre-eminence which he held among the apostles; and that for the
very good reason that the office of bishop and that of apostle, as remarked
above, are not identical. It would require an apostle to succeed an apostle,
and as there is no account of an apostle being ordained to succeed to Peter's
office, we conclude he had no successor. Here we might let the matter rest,
but it will be proper to notice the arguments which are made by those who
contend that the bishops of Rome are the true successors to the office and
mission of the Apostle Peter.

20. Scripture Basis of the Claims of the Bishop of Rome to Pre-

Eminence.—On one occasion Jesus said to his disciples, "Whom say ye
that I am? And Simon Peter answered, * * * Thou art the Christ, the Son of
the living God." To this Jesus said: "Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona; for
flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in
heaven. And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will
build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."[53] He
then gave to Peter the keys of the kingdom of heaven—power to bind and
loose on earth and in heaven. The argument is that since Peter, some time
before this, had been given the name Cephas, which means a stone,[54]
therefore when Jesus said, "Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build
my church," it is claimed that he meant than on Peter he would build his
church.[55]

21. That this is a clear misconception of the scripture is apparent. If

Messiah had meant to found the church on Peter, how unfortunate that he
did not say, Thou art Cephas, a stone, and upon thee will I build my church!
etc. But he did not. He first assured Peter that the knowledge he had
received that Jesus was the Christ, the Son of the living God, was received
by revelation from God—"And I say unto thee, That thou art Peter, and
upon this rock [principle] will I build my church," etc.; i.e., upon the
principle of God revealing to men that Jesus was the Christ[56]—on the
principle of revelation.

22. Another passage quoted in support of the theory that the apostles had
successors in the bishops of Rome is found in the following: Jesus after his
resurrection said to his apostles:

All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth. Go ye therefore and

teach all nations; * * * and lo I am with you always even unto the end
of the world.[57]

This is the argument—

The apostles themselves were only to live the ordinary term of man's
life: therefore the commission of preaching and ministering, together
with the promise of divine assistance, regards the successors of the
apostles, no less than the apostles themselves. This proves that there
must have been an uninterrupted series of successors of the apostles, in
every age since their time; that is to say, successors to their doctrine, to
their jurisdiction, to their orders, and to their mission.[58]

Against this argument we put that of the late Apostle Orson Pratt:

We do not admit that the promise—"Lo, I am with you always, even

unto the end of the world," had any reference to any persons whatever
only the eleven disciples mentioned. * * * * They were the only
persons whom he [Jesus] addressed and to whom he made this great
promise. "But," says Dr. Milner, "they were only to live the ordinary
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