Module 2

Canals: Types of canals. alignment of canals. definition of Gross command area, cultural
command area, intensity of irrigation, time factor, crop factor. Unlined and lined canals.
standard sections. Design of canals by lacey’s and Kennedy's method.
Reservoir: definition, investigation for Reservoir site, Storage zones determination of
storage capacity using mass curves, economical height of dam.

➔​ Canal:
A canal is a man-made water channel used to transport water from rivers, reservoirs, or
lakes to agricultural fields for irrigation. Canals help in distributing water efficiently to
different areas.

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➔​ Types of Canals

1. Based on Function

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❖​ Main Canal – The primary canal that carries water from the main water source
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(river/dam) to branch canals.
❖​ Branch Canal – Divides water from the main canal to different areas.
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❖​ Distributary Canal – Carries water from branch canals to individual fields.

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❖​ Field Channel – Small canals that directly deliver water to crops.

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2. Based on Water Flow

❖​ Perennial Canal – Provides water throughout the year from a dam or

reservoir.
❖​ Non-Perennial Canal - Provides water only during certain months, usually
sourced from a dam or reservoir.
❖​ Inundation Canal – Works only during the rainy season when rivers flood.

Perennial Canal

Means: A canal that provides water throughout the year, regardless of seasons.

Non-Perennial Canal

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Means: A canal that supplies water only during certain seasons, typically when the river has enough

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flow.

Inundation Canal

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Means: A canal that gets water only during the flood season when rivers overflow.
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3. Based on Lining
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❖​ Lined Canals – Have cement, brick, or stone lining to prevent water loss.
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❖​ Unlined Canals – Made of soil, allowing water to seep into the ground.
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➔​ Alignment of Canals:
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Alignment of canals refers to the path or direction in which a canal is constructed to supply
water efficiently to agricultural fields.
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The alignment is chosen based on land conditions, water availability, and irrigation needs.
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Types of Canal Alignment:

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1. Contour Canal
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A Contour Canal is a canal that follows the natural contours (elevation levels) of the
land instead of taking a straight path.

This type of canal is designed to maintain a constant slope, minimizing the need for
excessive cutting or filling of earth.

Examples: Contour canals are commonly used in hilly regions of India, such as the
Western Ghats and the Himalayan foothills.
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2. Ridge Canal or Watershed Canal:
A watershed is an area of land where all the water—rainfall, rivers, and
streams—drains into a common outlet, such as a river, lake, or ocean.
A ridge is a long, narrow elevated landform, often found at the highest point between
two slopes.

❖​ Canal is constructed along the highest points (ridges) between two

drainage areas.
❖​ Water can be easily supplied on both sides of the ridge.
❖​ Prevents waterlogging and is suitable for flat lands.

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3. Side Slope Canal

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❖​ Canal is built along the slopes of hills.
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❖​ Used in hilly areas where contour canals are not feasible.
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❖​ Needs proper protective measures to prevent landslides.
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4. Valley Canal

❖​ Canal is aligned through valleys or low-lying areas.

❖​ Collects rainwater runoff and helps in groundwater recharge.
 ❖​ Suitable for areas with natural drainage systems.

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5. Direct Canal (Straight Canal)

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A direct canal is an irrigation canal that takes water directly from a river without any
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intermediate storage, such as a dam or reservoir.
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Canal is constructed in a straight line, regardless of land slopes.
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Commonly used in flat terrains with proper water control structures.

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Needs more excavation and maintenance.

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➔​ Gross Command Area (GCA) & Cultural Command Area (CCA):

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1. Gross Command Area (GCA):​
The total area that can be irrigated by a canal system or irrigation project, including both

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cultivable and non-cultivable land. IL
❖​ Important Points:
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➢​ Includes cultivable land, forests, roads, villages, and barren land.
➢​ Not all of the land is used for farming.
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➢​ Represents the entire area influenced by an irrigation system.

❖​ Example:​
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If a canal can supply water to 10,000 hectares, but only 7,000 hectares is suitable for
farming, the GCA is 10,000 hectares.
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2. Cultural Command Area (CCA):

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The actual area under cultivation that can be irrigated with water from a canal system. It is
part of the Gross Command Area but excludes non-cultivable land.

❖​ Important Points:
➢​ Includes only farmable land (fields, orchards, etc.).
➢​ Excludes villages, roads, forests, and barren land.
➢​ Divided into:
●​ Irrigable Command Area (ICA) – Can be irrigated but not always used.
●​ Net Irrigated Area (NIA) – Actually irrigated land in a season.
 ❖​ Example:​
If out of 10,000 hectares (GCA), only 7,000 hectares is farmland, the CCA is 7,000
hectares.
➔​ Intensity of Irrigation

Intensity of irrigation is the percentage of the total cultivated land that is irrigated during a
particular season or year.

Formula:

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❖​ Factors Affecting Intensity of Irrigation:

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➢​ Availability of water resources

➢​ Type of crop grown
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➢​ Climate and rainfall

➢​ Soil type and irrigation method
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➔​ Time Factor:
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Time factor refers to the ratio of the actual time water is flowing in an irrigation
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system to the total available time.

 ❖​ Importance:
➢​ Helps in efficient water management.
➢​ Ensures better planning of irrigation schedules.
➢​ Reduces water wastage.
➔​ Crop Factor:

Crop factor is a number that shows how much water a crop needs compared to a standard
crop like grass.

A higher crop factor means the plant needs more water, while a lower one means it needs
less.

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Farmers use this to decide how much water to give their crops.

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❖​ Examples of Crop Factor Values (Kc):​
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​ Rice – High crop factor (1.1 – 1.2) → Needs more water​
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​ Maize – Moderate crop factor (0.8 – 1.0) → Needs medium water​
​ Wheat – Low crop factor (0.6 – 0.8) → Needs less water
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❖​ Importance of Crop Factor:​

​ Helps in water-saving irrigation.​
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​ Ensures crops get the right amount of water.​

​ Prevents over-irrigation and waterlogging.
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➔​ Unlined and Lined Canals & Standard Sections

Unlined Canals

Unlined canals are made of natural soil without any protective covering like concrete or
stone.

Important Points:

Low construction cost – Simple to build using natural earth.​

​ More water loss – Due to seepage and evaporation.​
 ​ Less durability – Banks can erode easily.​
​ Suitable for temporary or low-budget projects.

Advantages:

Cheap and easy to construct.​

​ Provides groundwater recharge.​
​ Suitable for areas with low water tables.

Disadvantages:

High water loss due to seepage.​

​ Risk of erosion and collapse.​

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​ Difficult to maintain.

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Lined Canals

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Lined canals have a protective covering (lining) of concrete, bricks, stones, or plastic to
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prevent water loss.
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Important Points:
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High construction cost – But long-lasting.​

​ Less water loss – Prevents seepage and evaporation.​
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​ More durability – Strong and resistant to erosion.​

​ Requires skilled labor for construction.
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Advantages:
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Saves water by preventing seepage.​

​ Reduces maintenance costs.​
​ Faster flow of water, increasing irrigation efficiency.

Disadvantages:

Expensive to build.​
​ Harder to repair if damaged.​
​ Can cause waterlogging in nearby areas if seepage is blocked completely.
Standard Sections of Canals:

Canals are designed with standard cross-sections to ensure efficient water flow and
stability.

Types of Standard Sections:

🔹 Trapezoidal Section (Most common) – Stable, easy to construct, and efficient for
water flow.​
🔹 Rectangular Section – Used in lined canals, especially in urban areas or tunnels.​
🔹 Triangular Section – Used for small drainage channels.​
🔹 Parabolic Section – Used for high-speed water flow.

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Selection of Standard Section Depends On:

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●​ Type of soil – Loose soil needs stronger structures.

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●​ Water velocity – Higher velocity needs lined sections.
●​ Purpose of the canal – Irrigation, drainage, or navigation.
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 ➔​ Design of canals by lacey’s and Kennedy's method.

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Reservoir :
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly
speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir.
However, the term reservoir in water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for
a comparatively large body of water stored on the upstream of a dam.
Upstream Side:
 ●​ This is the side of the dam that faces the reservoir or the body of water being held
back.
●​ It is the higher elevation side where water accumulates and exerts pressure on the
dam/embankment.
●​ Key considerations include the storage capacity of the reservoir, water levels, and
potential for sedimentation.
Downstream Side:
●​ This is the side of the dam where water flows out, either through spillways, outlets, or
turbines in case of hydropower dams.
●​ It is the lower elevation side where the controlled discharge of water occurs.
●​ Key considerations include the energy dissipation, prevention of erosion, and

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maintaining ecological balance in the downstream river.

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Plan of Karanja Reservoir

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​ ​ ​ View of Reservoir
Types of reservoirs :
Types of Reservoirs
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five
types:
1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoirs
4. Distribution reservoirs.
5. Balancing reservoirs

1. Storage reservoirs

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●​ Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they are used to

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conserve water.
●​ Storage reservoirs are constructed to Store the water in the rainy season and to

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release it later when the river flow is low.
●​ Storage reservoirs are usually constructed for irrigation, the municipal water supply
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and hydropower. Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water
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for various purposes, incidentally they also help in moderating the floods and
reducing the flood damage to some extent on the downstream. However, they are
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not designed as flood control reservoirs.

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​ ​ ​ ​ TB Reservoir

2. Flood control reservoirs

●​ A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control It protects the
areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood.
●​ However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible.
 ●​ A flood control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the
flood-mitigation reservoir. Sometimes, it is called a flood protection reservoir.
●​ In a flood control reservoir, the floodwater is discharged downstream till the outflow
reaches the safe capacity of the channel downstream. When the discharge exceeds
the safe capacity. The excess water is stored in the reservoir. The stored water is
subsequently released when the inflow to the reservoir decreases.
●​ However, the discharge in the channel downstream, including local inflow, does not
exceed its safe capacity. A flood control reservoir is designed to moderate the flood
and not to conserve water. However, incidentally some storage is also done during
the period of floods. Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity
to permit rapid drawdown before or after the occurrence of a flood.

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Masaguppi village in Belagavi district was completely submerged under floodwater of the
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Ghataprabha river
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3. Multipurpose Reservoirs:
A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two or more purposes. Most
of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store water for irrigation and
hydropower, and also to effect flood control.

The purpose of a reservoir:

❖​ Water Storage: To store water during periods of surplus (e.g., during the rainy
season) for use during dry periods.
❖​ Irrigation: To supply water for agricultural purposes, ensuring consistent crop
production even in arid regions.
 ❖​ Drinking Water Supply: To provide a reliable source of potable water for communities
and cities.
❖​ Hydropower Generation: To generate electricity by utilizing the potential energy of
stored water.
❖​ Flood Control: To regulate water flow and prevent flooding in downstream areas by
holding back excess water during heavy rains.
❖​ Industrial Use: To supply water for industrial processes and cooling systems in
factories and power plants.
❖​ Recreation: To create opportunities for recreational activities like boating, fishing, and
tourism.
❖​ Navigation: To maintain adequate water levels for navigational purposes in rivers and
canals.
❖​ Environmental and Ecological Balance: To support aquatic ecosystems by
maintaining consistent water flow downstream.

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❖​ Sediment Control: To trap sediments, reducing sedimentation downstream and
preserving river channel capacity.

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​ ​ ​ ​ KRS Reservoir

4. Distribution Reservoir:
●​ A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak demand of
water for municipal water supply or irrigation.
●​ The distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate.
It stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the
period of high demand.
●​ As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a
day or so and not for storing it for a long period.
 ●​ Water is pumped from a water source at a uniform rate throughout the day for 24
hours but the demand varies from time to time.
●​ During the period when the demand of water is less than the pumping rate, the water
is stored in the distribution reservoir.
●​ On the other hand, when the demand of water is more than the pumping rate, the
distribution reservoir is used for supplying water at rates greater than the pumping
rate. Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation.
These are mainly used for municipal water supply.

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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Distribution Reservoir
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5. Balancing reservoir:
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A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the main reservoir for holding
water released from the main reservoir.

A balancing reservoir is a storage structure designed to regulate and stabilize the flow of
water in a system.

It ensures a consistent water supply by compensating for fluctuations in demand or

discharge. These reservoirs are typically used in conjunction with water supply, irrigation, or
hydropower systems to:

●​ Store Excess Water: Collect surplus water during low-demand periods.

 ●​ Release Water Gradually: Provide water during high-demand periods or when the
primary supply is unavailable.
●​ Equalize Flow: Prevent sudden changes in water levels downstream, ensuring a
steady and controlled flow.

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Balancing Reservoir Sundar Nagar, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh
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Selection of site for reservoir:
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The following points should be kept in view while deciding the site of the reservoir.
1.​ The storage capacity of the reservoir should be sufficient to the requirements as per
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design.
2.​ The depth of water in the basin should be more.
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3.​ The basin should have a cup shaped bottom.

4.​ The height of the dam should be as high as possible with minimum possible length.
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5.​ The geological condition at the site should permit minimum percolation losses, with
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maximum run off.

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6.​ The reservoir bottom should be of maximum possible imperviousness. At the dam
site, a firm base should be available to bear the loads of the dam, with minimum
percolation below the dam.
7.​ The cost of the dam should be minimum, because it is the main controlling factor.
8.​ Minimum valuable land should be submerged in the basin of the reservoir.
9.​ Site should be such that the run-off water has the minimum percentage of silt.
10.​Site should be free from such minerals and salts which may make the water unfit for
the purpose for which it shall be stored.
11.​The reservoir basin should have a deep narrow opening at the site, so that length of
the dam should be minimum.
2. Tehri Dam Uttarakhand, height: 260.5 mtr. Length: 575 mtr, River: Bhagirathi

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4. Hirakud Dam Odisha. Total Lenght: 25.79 Km, Length of dam: 4.8 Km, River: Mahanadi.
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5. Surface Runoff.
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Zones of storage of a reservoir:
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Following are the main water storage zones in the reservoirs

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1 Dead Storage
2 Bank Storage
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3 Useful Storage/Live Storage

4 Surcharge Storage
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5 Valley Storage
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1.​ Dead Storage:

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●​ The portion of the reservoir below the lowest outlet level, where water cannot be
utilized for operational purposes.
●​ It allows sediment to accumulate without affecting the usable capacity.
●​ Acts as a foundation for live storage by stabilizing the reservoir bed.
●​ Helps in maintaining ecological balance by supporting aquatic habitats.
●​ Ensures the long-term functionality of the reservoir by trapping sediments.

2.​ Bank Storage:

●​ Water temporarily stored in the banks of the reservoir or river during high water
levels.
●​ Occurs due to the infiltration of water into surrounding soil and rock formations.
●​ Slowly returns to the reservoir or river as water levels recede(Move Back).
●​ Helps in regulating water levels during floods and droughts.
●​ Contributes to the natural hydrological cycle by recharging groundwater.

3.​ Useful Storage or Live Storage:

●​ The portion of the reservoir between the Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL) or
Minimum Pool Level (MPL) and the Full Reservoir Level (FRL).
●​ Supplies water for essential purposes such as irrigation, drinking, and hydropower.
●​ Represents the operational storage capacity of the reservoir.

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●​ Ensures water availability during dry periods.

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●​ Critical for meeting both short-term and long-term water demands.

4.​ Surcharge Storage:

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●​ The temporary storage above the Full Reservoir Level (FRL) and below the
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Maximum Water Level (MWL).
●​ Used to accommodate excess water during floods or heavy rainfall.
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●​ Prevents downstream flooding by releasing water in a controlled manner.

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●​ Reduces the risk of overtopping by maintaining a safe margin.

●​ Exists only temporarily and is emptied as soon as possible after flood events.
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5.​ Valley Storage:

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●​ The natural storage capacity of the valley before the construction of the dam.
●​ Includes the water held in natural depressions, streams, and floodplains.
●​ Provides a baseline for estimating the total storage capacity of the reservoir.
●​ Contributes to flood control by slowing down water flow naturally.
●​ Serves as a reference for calculating additional storage needs after dam
construction.
➔​ Example : Consider a river flowing through a wide valley. After heavy rainfall, the
excess water spreads into the valley, filling the floodplains. This stored water slowly
drains back into the river or infiltrates into the ground, preventing sudden flooding
downstream.
 ◆​ A real-world example is the Ganga River Basin in India, where floodplains
store water during monsoons, reducing flood risks in nearby areas.

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​ Storage Zones

Key Levels of a Reservoir

1.​ Dead Storage Level (DSL):

○​ This is the lowest level in the reservoir below which water cannot be drawn
out through outlets.
○​ Purpose:
■​ Provides space for sediment deposition​ ​ ​
 ■​ Ensures a stable base for reservoir operations.
○​ Water in this zone is not usable for regular purposes.
2.​ Full Reservoir Level (FRL)
○​ The maximum water level that the reservoir is designed to hold under normal
operating conditions.
○​ Purpose:
■​ Defines the live storage capacity of the reservoir.
■​ Ensures optimal use of water for irrigation, drinking, and power
generation.
○​ Water above FRL is reserved for managing exceptional situations like floods.
3.​ Maximum Water Level (MWL)

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○​ The highest level the reservoir can safely hold during flood events without

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overtopping the dam.
○​ Purpose:

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■​ Accommodates floodwaters temporarily.
■​ Prevents downstream flooding by controlled release.
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4. Top Bund Level (TBL)
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●​ The Top Bund Level (TBL) is the highest level or elevation of the dam or
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embankment's crest. It is designed to ensure the safety and structural integrity

of the dam during extreme conditions.
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●​ Purpose
◆​ Provides an additional margin above the Maximum Water Level
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(MWL) to prevent overtopping during extreme floods.

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◆​ Ensures the dam can withstand wave action, settlement, and

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other environmental factors without risk of erosion or failure.

◆​ Offers a flat surface for inspection, maintenance, and
operational activities.
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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Karanja Reservoir

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Reservoir Yield: IL
It refers to the amount of water that can be reliably supplied from a reservoir over a specific
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period, typically in relation to water demands for purposes like irrigation, drinking water,
power generation, and industrial use.
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It represents the capacity of a reservoir to meet the required demand while considering the
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variability of inflow, storage, and outflow.

1. Definition of Yield:
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●​ Reservoir Yield is the maximum reliable amount of water that can be drawn from a
reservoir without exhausting its stored water during the period of interest. It is
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typically measured in cubic meters per second (m³/s) or cubic meters per year
(m³/year).
●​ Yield is influenced by factors like inflow, evaporation, spillway discharge, and
seasonal variations.
 Irrigation Engineering Hydraulic structure

SI Units French word Système International.

International System of units.

Rainfall Millimeters (mm) or Meters (m)

Runoff Cubic meters per second (m³/s)

Cusecs(cubic feet per second) => 1 cusecs=28.317 LPS

Evaporation/ Millimeters (mm)

Transpiration

Infiltration Rate Millimeters per hour (mm/h)

Storage Volume (Lakes, Cubic meters (m³)

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Reservoirs, etc.)

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Discharge Cubic meters per second (m³/s) or Liters per second (L/s)

TMC Thousand Million Cubic Feet (TMCFT or TMC)

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Irrigation Water Depth Millimeters (mm)
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Flow Velocity Meters per second (m/s)
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Water Pressure Pascals (Pa) or Newtons per square meter (N/m²)
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2. Factors Affecting Reservoir Yield:

●​ Inflow Variability: The amount of water entering the reservoir from rainfall, runoff, and
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upstream contributions. Fluctuations in inflow can affect the ability to maintain a

consistent yield.
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●​ Storage Capacity: The total volume of water the reservoir can store, including dead
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storage, live storage, and surcharge storage. The larger the storage capacity, the
higher the potential yield.
●​ Evaporation Losses: In large reservoirs, significant evaporation can reduce the water
available for use, especially in hot climates.
●​ Demand Variability: The water requirements can vary throughout the year,
depending on seasons (e.g., peak demand during dry months for irrigation).
●​ Outflow: Controlled release through outlet gates, spillways, or hydropower turbines.
Proper management of outflows is critical to maintaining yield.
 ●​ Operational Rules: The reservoir’s operational rules, such as maintaining a minimum
storage level (Minimum Drawdown Level, MDDL), will limit the available yield to
ensure operational safety and stability.

3. Methods of Estimating Reservoir Yield:

●​ Average Yield: This is the amount of water that can be supplied consistently over a
long period, typically calculated using historical inflow data and demand patterns.
This helps identify the long-term reliability of the reservoir.
●​ Critical Yield: The lowest amount of water that can be consistently provided during
dry years or droughts. It takes into account the worst-case scenario where inflows
are minimal or irregular.

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●​ Design Yield: The yield that a reservoir is designed to provide based on certain

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criteria, such as expected population growth or agricultural needs, while accounting
for inflow variability and storage.

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Example of Reservoir Yield Calculation:
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Let's say a reservoir has the following characteristics:
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●​ Storage Capacity: 100 million cubic meters (MCM) of live storage.

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●​ Inflow: 50 MCM annually.

●​ Outflow Demand: 40 MCM annually (for irrigation, drinking, and power generation).
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The yield of the reservoir in this case would be approximately 40 MCM annually, as it meets
the outflow demand consistently, with enough inflow to replenish the storage. If inflow drops
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or demand increases, yield may decrease.

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Estimation of capacity of reservoir using mass curve

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Reservoir Sedimentation: The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is known as

Reservoir Silting of Reservoir Sedimentation.

❖​ Rivers Carry Sediment:

➢​ Every river carries sediment particles like sand, silt, and clay.
❖​ Sediment Movement:
➢​ Gravity tries to pull sediment particles down to the riverbed.
➢​ Upward currents in turbulent water can keep fine particles floating.

(Currents – The flow or movement of water in a particular direction. Turbulent Water – Water
that moves in a rough, fast, and unpredictable way.)
❖​ Types of Sediment Load:
➢​ Suspended Load: Fine particles that float in the water.
➢​ Bed Load: Larger particles that move along the riverbed.
❖​ Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs:
➢​ When the river reaches a reservoir, water slows down and becomes less
turbulent.
➢​ Heavier particles (bed load and big suspended particles) settle near the start
of the reservoir.
➢​ Finer particles travel farther before settling.
❖​ Fine Particles and Dam Discharge:
➢​ Some very fine sediments stay in suspension for a long time.

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➢​ These fine particles may exit the dam through sluiceways, turbines, or

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spillways along with discharged water.

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Sediment Accumulation in a typical reservoir

Density Current:

●​ When muddy water enters a reservoir, the heavier (coarser) sediment settles
at the bottom.
●​ Finer sediment stays in suspension and moves separately from the clear
water.

Formation of Density Currents:

●​ The layer of water carrying fine sediment is called a density current because it
is slightly heavier than the clear water.
●​ Due to the density difference, this current does not mix easily with the rest of

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the reservoir water.

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Removing Density Currents:

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●​ If sluiceways (outlets) are positioned at the same depth as the density current,
the fine sediment can be flushed out of the reservoir.
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●​ Proper placement of dam outlets and sluiceways helps remove these
sediments.
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Effect on Trap Efficiency:

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●​ If density currents are vented out, the trap efficiency (the reservoir’s ability to
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hold sediment) can decrease by 2–10%.

●​ This helps in reducing sediment buildup in the reservoir, improving water
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storage capacity over time.

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two rivers (Alaknanda & Bhagirathi ) meet to form Ganga

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Trap Efficiency (Sediment Retention in Reservoirs)

1.​ Definition:
○​ Trap Efficiency is the percentage of sediment that gets deposited in a
reservoir, even after taking measures to reduce it.
2.​ Formula for Trap Efficiency:
○​ Trap Efficiency = (Sediment deposited in reservoir) ÷ (Total sediment
flowing into the river) × 100
3.​ Factors Affecting Trap Efficiency:
○​ It depends on the ratio of reservoir capacity to total inflow of the river.
4.​ Typical Trap Efficiency of Reservoirs:
 ○​ Most reservoirs trap 95–100% of the sediment entering them.
○​ Even with silt control measures, the efficiency cannot be reduced
below 90%.

Life of Reservoir:

1.​ Dead Storage for Sedimentation:

○​ Reservoirs have a "dead storage" capacity specifically for sediment to settle.
○​ However, not all sediment stays in the dead storage.
2.​ Sediment Encroaches on Live Storage:

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○​ Sediment also spreads into the "live storage" area, which is meant for usable

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water.
○​ How much it spreads depends on factors like:
■​ How the reservoir is operated.

D
■​ The shape and features of the valley.
IL
■​ The ratio of reservoir capacity to water inflow.
■​ The amount of sediment in the incoming water.
IV

3.​ Useful Life of a Reservoir:

C

○​ A reservoir is considered useful until its capacity reduces to about 20% of its
original designed capacity.
EC

○​ After this, it becomes less effective for water storage.

4.​ Rate of Sedimentation:
○​ Sedimentation happens faster in the initial years after the reservoir is built.
D

○​ Over time, the rate of sedimentation slows down due to:

N

■​ A decrease in the reservoir's ability to trap sediment (trap efficiency).

G

■​ Settling, consolidation, and shrinking of deposited sediment.

■​ Formation of a delta (sediment buildup) near the reservoir's entrance.
Dam and Types of dams:
A dam is defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across the river or stream. At the back
of this barrier water is stored in the form of a pool or lake or reservoir.
The reservoir side of the dam is called the Upstream (U/S) side and the other side as the
Downstream (D/S) side.

=> The water stored in the reservoir may be used for recreation, drinking water source or
for irrigation purposes.
=> The Reservoir water can be used for the generation of electricity or running mills.
=> During floods the dam also serves as guard to protect the towns and cities on the D/S

T
side

EP
Types of Dams:

D
Dams are classified in following ways
1.​ According to use:
IL
a.​ Storage Dam :
IV
stores water for irrigation, drinking, and power generation.
b.​ Diversion Dam:
C

redirects water flow for irrigation or hydropower without significant storage.

c.​ Detention Dam:
EC

temporarily holds floodwater to prevent downstream flooding.

d.​ CofferDam:
D

It is a temporary dam used to dry out construction sites in water bodies.

N

e.​ Check Dam:

G

slows water flow in streams to reduce erosion and increase groundwater

recharge.
f.​ Multi Purpose Dam:
serves multiple functions like water storage, power generation, flood control,
and irrigation.
g.​ Single Purpose Dam:
It is built for just one function, such as hydropower or irrigation.
2.​ According to hydraulic design
a.​ Overflow Dam:
Overflow Dam is designed to allow excess water to spill over its crest safely,
b.​ Non Overflow Dam:
 Non-Overflow Dam is built to prevent water from flowing over it and is usually
combined with spillways to manage excess water.

3.​ According to materials used

a.​ Rigid Dam:
It is a dam made of strong materials like concrete or masonry that can
withstand water pressure without significant deformation.
b.​ Non Rigid Dam:
It is built with flexible materials like earth or rockfill, allowing slight movement
and absorption of water pressure.
4.​ According to structural design

T
a.​ Gravity Dam: resists water pressure using its own weight.

EP
b.​ Arch Dam: curves upstream to transfer water pressure to the valley walls.
c.​ Buttress Dam: uses supports or buttresses to reduce material usage while

D
holding back water.
IL
IV
C
EC
D
N
G

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Diversion Dam
 T
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Detention Dam

EP
D
IL
IV
C
EC

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ CofferDam
D
N
G

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Check Dam
​ ​ Overflow Dam​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Non Overflow Dam

T
EP
​

D
IL
IV
C
EC

​ ​ ​ ​ Idukki Arch Dam Kerala. Periyar River

D
N
G

​
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Buttress Dam
Factors affecting selection of type of dam:

1.​ Site Conditions

○​ Topography: Valley shape and slope influence the dam type.
○​ Geology: Soil and rock quality affect dam stability and seepage control.
○​ Hydrology: Flow volume and variability determine dam design.
2.​ Purpose of the Dam
○​ Water Storage: Capacity required for irrigation, drinking, or industrial use.
○​ Hydropower Generation: Head (height) required for turbines.
○​ Flood Control: Dams designed to manage floodwaters may require large
capacity.

T
○​ Irrigation & Diversion: May need simpler dams like weirs or barrages.

EP
3.​ Dam Height and Storage Capacity
○​ Large storage requires robust structures like gravity or rockfill dams.
○​ Height requirements influence the type of dam, e.g., arch dams for high head.

D
4.​ Construction Materials and Availability
IL
○​ Availability of materials (earth, rock, cement) at the site.
○​ Impact of local material cost on the dam's economic feasibility.
IV

5.​ Seismic Activity

C

○​ Earthquake-prone areas may require more stable dam types like concrete
gravity or arch dams.
EC

○​ Earthfill dams may need reinforcement in seismic regions.

6.​ Environmental and Ecological Impact
○​ Minimizing ecological disruption is crucial.
D

○​ Type of dam should consider fish migration, water quality, and environmental
N

flow.
G

7.​ Economic Considerations

○​ Cost of construction, operation, and maintenance.
○​ Availability of budget and long-term financial viability.
8.​ Safety and Stability
○​ Stability under extreme conditions (floods, earthquakes).
○​ Safety features such as spillways, outlet works, and structural strength.
Factors governing selection of site for a dam:
The Selection of site for a dam is governed by the following factors.
a.​ Availability of Construction Materials
b.​ Topography of the site.
c.​ Space for Spillways
d.​ Seepage and Uplift Under Dams
e.​ Height of Dam
f.​ Geological Conditions.
g.​ Roadway
h.​ Life of Dam
i.​ Multi Purpose Uses

T
j.​ Availability of Funds.

EP
D
List of Dams in Karnataka IL
Sl. No. Dam Name District Taluka River Primary
IV
Purpose(s)
C

1 Krishna Raja Mandya Srirangapatna Kaveri Water supply,

Sagara (KRS) irrigation
EC

2 Tungabhadra Dam Vijayanagara Hospet Tungabhadra Irrigation,

hydroelectric
D

power
N

3 Basava Sagara Yadgir Shorapur Krishna Irrigation

G

(Narayanpur)

4 Kabini Dam Mysore Heggadadeva Kabini Irrigation,

nakote water supply

5 Almatti Dam Vijayapura Basavana Krishna Irrigation,

Bagewadi hydroelectric
power

6 Bhadra Dam Chikmagalur Bhadravathi Bhadra Irrigation,

hydroelectric
power
7 Supa Dam Uttara Joida Kali Hydroelectric
Kannada power

8 Linganamakki Dam Shivamogga Sagara Sharavathi Hydroelectric

power

9 Vani Vilasa Sagara Chitradurga Hiriyur Vedavathi Irrigation

10 Malaprabha Dam Belagavi Saundatti Malaprabha Irrigation

11 Ghataprabha Dam Belagavi Gokak Ghataprabha Irrigation

T
12 Hemavathi Hassan Gorur Hemavathi Irrigation,

EP
Reservoir water supply

D
13 Harangi Dam Kodagu Somwarpet Harangi Irrigation
IL
14 Rameshwara Lift Raichur Lingasugur Krishna Irrigation
Irrigation
IV
C

15 Markonahalli Dam Tumkur Kunigal Shimsha Irrigation

EC

16 Hidkal Dam Belagavi Hukkeri Ghataprabha Irrigation

17 Renuka Sagara Belagavi Savadatti Malaprabha Irrigation

D

(Naviluteertha)
N

18 Chakra Dam Udupi Kundapura Chakra Hydroelectric

G

power

19 Savehaklu Shivamogga Thirthahalli Haridra Irrigation

Reservoir

20 Mani Dam Dakshina Sullia Kumaradhara Hydroelectric

Kannada power

21 Kodasalli Dam Uttara Yellapur Kali Hydroelectric

Kannada power
22 Kadra Dam Uttara Karwar Kali Hydroelectric
Kannada power

23 Kanva Reservoir Ramanagara Channapatna Kanva Irrigation

24 Karanja Dam Bidar Bhalki Karanja Irrigation

25 Upper Tunga Project Shivamogga Shimoga Tunga Irrigation

26 Varahi Dam Udupi Hebri Varahi Hydroelectric

power

T
27 Chiklihole Reservoir Kodagu Kushalnagar Chiklihole Irrigation

EP
28 Nugu Dam Mysore Heggadadeva Nugu Irrigation

D
nakote
IL
29 Anjanapura Dam Shivamogga Shikaripura Kumudvathi Irrigation
IV

30 Marconahalli Dam Tumkur Kunigal Shimsha Irrigation

C

31 Kallur Dam Chitradurga Molakalmuru Vedavathi Irrigation

EC

32 Upper Bhadra Chikmagalur Tarikere Bhadra Irrigation

Project
D
N

33 Yagachi Dam Hassan Belur Yagachi Irrigation

G

34 Chikkahole Dam Chamarajana Kollegal Chikkahole Irrigation

gar

35 Suvarnavathi Dam Chamarajana Chamarajana Suvarnavathi Irrigation

gar gar

36 Kabini Reservoir Mysore Heggadadeva Kabini Irrigation,

nakote water supply

37 Hemavathi Dam Hassan Gorur Hemavathi Irrigation,

water supply
38 Harangi Reservoir Kodagu Somwarpet Harangi Irrigation

39 Ranganthittu Dam Mandya Srirangapatna Kaveri Irrigation

40 KRS Backwaters Mandya Pandavapura Kaveri Irrigation,

water supply

41 Kabini Backwaters Mysore Heggadadeva Kabini Irrigation,

nakote water supply

42 Almatti Backwaters Vijayapura Basavana Krishna Irrigation,

Bagewadi hydroelectric

T
power

EP
43 Bhadra Backwaters Chikmagalur Bhadravathi Bhadra Irrigation,
hydroelectric

D
IL power

44 Supa Backwaters Uttara Joida Kali Hydroelectric

Kannada power
IV
C

45 Linganamakki Shivamogga Sagara Sharavathi Hydroelectric

Backwaters power
EC

List of Dams in India

D

Sl No Dam Name State District River Purpose

N
G

1 Bhakra Dam Himachal Bilaspur Sutlej Irrigation,

Pradesh Hydropower

2 Pong Dam Himachal Kangra Beas Hydropower,

Pradesh Irrigation

3 Tehri Dam Uttarakhand Tehri Garhwal Bhagirathi Hydropower,

Water Supply

4 Rihand Dam Uttar Pradesh Sonbhadra Rihand Hydropower,

Irrigation
5 Matatila Dam Uttar Pradesh Lalitpur Betwa Irrigation,
Water Supply

6 Gandhisagar Dam Madhya Mandsaur Chambal Hydropower,

Pradesh Irrigation

7 Bargi Dam Madhya Jabalpur Narmada Irrigation,

Pradesh Hydropower

8 Indira Sagar Dam Madhya Khandwa Narmada Irrigation,

Pradesh Hydropower

T
9 Omkareshwar Dam Madhya Khandwa Narmada Hydropower

EP
Pradesh

10 Hirakud Dam Odisha Sambalpur Mahanadi Flood Control,

D
IL Irrigation

11 Mandira Dam Odisha Sundargarh Sankh Industrial

Water Supply
IV
C

12 Mahanadi Delta Odisha Cuttack Mahanadi Irrigation

Barrage
EC

13 Maithon Dam Jharkhand Dhanbad Barakar Hydropower,

Flood Control
D
N

14 Panchet Dam Jharkhand Dhanbad Damodar Flood Control,

Irrigation
G

15 Konar Dam Jharkhand Hazaribagh Konar Irrigation

16 Chandil Dam Jharkhand Seraikela-Kha Subarnarekha Irrigation,

rsawan Water Supply

17 Farakka Barrage West Bengal Murshidabad Ganga Water

Diversion

18 Durgapur Barrage West Bengal Bardhaman Damodar Irrigation

19 Nagarjuna Sagar Telangana Nalgonda Krishna Irrigation,
Dam Hydropower

20 Srisailam Dam Andhra Kurnool Krishna Hydropower,

Pradesh Irrigation

21 Prakasam Barrage Andhra Krishna Krishna Irrigation,

Pradesh Water Supply

22 Dowleswaram Andhra East Godavari Godavari Irrigation

Barrage Pradesh

T
23 Tungabhadra Dam Karnataka Ballari Tungabhadra Irrigation,

EP
Hydropower

24 Almatti Dam Karnataka Vijayapura Krishna Irrigation,

D
IL Hydropower

25 Supa Dam Karnataka Uttara Kali Hydropower

Kannada
IV
C

26 Krishna Raja Sagar Karnataka Mandya Kaveri Irrigation,

Dam Water Supply
EC

27 Kabini Dam Karnataka Mysuru Kabini Irrigation,

Water Supply
D
N

28 Linganamakki Dam Karnataka Shivamogga Sharavathi Hydropower

G

29 Malampuzha Dam Kerala Palakkad Malampuzha Irrigation,

Water Supply

30 Idukki Dam Kerala Idukki Periyar Hydropower

31 Mullaperiyar Dam Kerala/Tamil Idukki Periyar Irrigation

Nadu

32 Mettur Dam Tamil Nadu Salem Kaveri Irrigation,

Water Supply
33 Sathanur Dam Tamil Nadu Tiruvannamal Pennaiyar Irrigation,
ai Water Supply

34 Bhavanisagar Dam Tamil Nadu Erode Bhavani Irrigation

35 Vaigai Dam Tamil Nadu Theni Vaigai Irrigation,

Water Supply

36 Ukai Dam Gujarat Tapi Tapi Irrigation,

Hydropower

37 Sardar Sarovar Dam Gujarat Narmada Narmada Irrigation,

T
Hydropower

EP
38 Dharoi Dam Gujarat Mehsana Sabarmati Irrigation,
Water Supply

39 Kadana Dam Gujarat

D
Mahisagar Mahi Irrigation,
IL
Hydropower
IV

40 Rana Pratap Sagar Rajasthan Chittorgarh Chambal Hydropower,

C

Dam Irrigation
EC

41 Mahi Bajaj Sagar Rajasthan Banswara Mahi Irrigation,

Dam Hydropower
D

42 Bisalpur Dam Rajasthan Tonk Banas Irrigation,

N

Water Supply
G

43 Tawa Dam Madhya Hoshangabad Tawa Irrigation,

Pradesh Hydropower

44 Hasdeo Bango Dam Chhattisgarh Korba Hasdeo Irrigation,

Hydropower

45 Minimata Bango Chhattisgarh Korba Hasdeo Irrigation

Dam

46 Ranganadi Dam Arunachal Lower Ranganadi Hydropower

Pradesh Subansiri
47 Doyang Dam Nagaland Wokha Doyang Hydropower

48 Koyna Dam Maharashtra Satara Koyna Hydropower

T
EP
D
IL
IV
C
EC
D
N
G