UNIT III

SOLAR PV AND
THERMAL SYSTEMS

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 NOTES
3.1 SOLAR RADIATION
3.1.1 EXTRATERRESTRIAL AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATIONS
The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from
the surface of the sun, though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar
radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known as
Extraterrestrial Radiation, Iext. The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar
constant value due to two reasons. The first is the variation in the radiation
emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than ±1.5 per
cent with different periodicities. The second is the variation of earth–sun distance
arising from earth‟s slightly elliptic path. The variation due to this reason is ±3 per
cent and is given by:
Iext=Isc[1+0.033cos(360n/365)] W/m2
where, n is the day of the year starting from January 1.
The extraterrestrial radiation, being outside the atmosphere, is not affected by
changes in atmospheric conditions. While passing through the atmosphere it is
subjected to mechanisms of atmospheric absorption and scattering depending on
atmospheric conditions, depleting its intensity. A fraction of scattered radiation is
reflected back to space while remaining is directed downwards. Solar radiation
that reaches earth surface after passing through the earth‟s atmosphere is known
as Terrestrial Radiation. The terrestrial radiation expressed as energy per unit
time per unit area (i.e. W/m2) is known as Solar Irradiation. The term Solar
Insolation (incident solar radiation) is defined as solar radiation energy received
on a given surface area in a given time (in J/m2 or kWh/m2). The positions of
extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions are indicated in figure below.

Figure 3.1

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3.1.2 DEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION
The earth‟s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents, suspended dust
and other minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules,
ozone, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, dust,
and water droplets. Therefore, solar radiation is depleted during its passage
through the atmosphere. Different molecules do different things as explained
below:

1. Absorption
Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different molecules. The
absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules, thus raising
their temperatures:
Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and
extreme ultraviolet radiations.
Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (l < 0.38
μm).
Water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the infrared
radiation in the range (l > 2.3 μm) and deplete to some extent the near infrared
radiation below this range.
Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy
irrespective of wavelength.

2. Scattering
Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules (or gaseous particles of different
sizes) involves redistribution of incident energy. A part of scattered radiation is
lost (reflected back) to space while remaining is directed downwards to the
earth‟s surface from different directions as diffuse radiation. It is the scattered
sunlight that makes the sky blue. Without atmosphere and its ability to scatter
sunlight, the sky would appear black, as it does on the moon.
In cloudy atmosphere, (i) a major part of the incoming solar radiation is reflected
back into the atmosphere by the clouds, (ii) another part is absorbed by the
clouds and (iii) the rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffuse
radiation.

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The energy is reflected back to the space by (i) reflection from clouds, plus (ii)
scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles, plus (iii) the reflection
from the earth‟s surface is called the albedo of earth-atmosphere system and has
a value of about 30 per cent of the incoming solar radiation for the earth as a
whole. Thus on the surface of earth we have two components of solar radiation:
(i) direct or beam radiation, unchanged in direction and (ii) diffuse radiation, the
direction of which is changed by scattering and reflection. Total radiation at any
location on the surface of earth is the sum of beam radiation and diffuse
radiation, what is known as global radiation. These terms may be properly defined
as follows:
Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at
the earth surface without change of direction, i.e., in line with sun is called beam
or direct radiation.
Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules is
known as diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique direction.
Global radiation: The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as total
or global radiation.
Even on clear days, there will be some diffuse radiation depending upon the
amount of dust particles, ozone and water vapour present in the atmosphere. On
overcast days when the sun is not visible, all the radiation reaching the ground
will be diffuse radiation. In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from
various directions in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is therefore said
to be anisotropic in nature. However, in many situations (like heavy cloud
cover), the intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably uniform and it thus
becomes isotropic in nature.
The radiation thus available on earth‟s surface is less than that is received outside
the earth‟s atmosphere and this reduction in intensity depends on the
atmospheric conditions (amount of dust particles, water vapour, ozone content,
cloudiness, etc.) and the distance travelled by beam radiation through atmosphere
before it reaches a location on earth‟s surface. The later factor in turn depends on
solar altitude. The path length of solar beam through the atmosphere is
accounted for in the term ‘Air Mass’, which is defined as the ratio of the path
length through the atmosphere, which the solar beam actually traverses up to the
ground to the vertical path length (which is minimum) through the atmosphere.
Thus at sea level the air mass is unity when the sun is at the ‘zenith‟ (highest
position), i.e., when inclination angle a is 90°.
Mathematically:

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The abbreviation AM0 refers to zero (no) atmosphere, AM1 refers to m = 1 (i.e.,
sun overhead, Ɵz= 0), AM2 refers to m = 2 (Ɵz = 60°); and so on.
From the below figure, the air mass may be written as:
m = (BA)/(CA)
= sec Ɵz
= cosec α
(as α + Ɵz = 90°)
where α is inclination angle and Ɵz is zenith angle

Figure 3.2

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 3.1.3 Solar constant
It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a unit surface
area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at the top of
earth‟s atmosphere when earth is at its mean distance from the sun. The value of
solar constant is taken as 1367W/m2.
The extraterrestrial radiation can be determined by suing solar constant as
follows:

Where
Iext is the extraterrestrial radiation,
Isc is the solar constant (1367W/m2),
Rav is the mean distance between the sun and the earth
R is the actual sun-earth distance
It can also be given as

Where n is the number of days from 1st January

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3.1.4 SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
(a) Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (λ) The latitude of a location on earth‟s
surface is the angle made by radial line, joining the given location to the centre of
the earth, with its projection on the equator plane. The latitude is positive for
northern hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere.

Figure 3.3

(b) Declination, (δ) It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun from
the plane of earth‟s equator. It is positive when measured above equatorial plane
in the northern hemisphere. The declination d can be approximately determined
from the equation:

where n is day of the year counted from 1st January.

Figure 3.4

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(c) Hour Angle, (ω) The hour angle at any moment is the angle through which
the earth must turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line with
sun‟s rays. In other words, at any moment, it is the angular displacement of the
sun towards east or west of local meridian (due to rotation of the earth on its
axis). The earth completes one rotation in 24 hours. Therefore, one hour
corresponds to 15° of rotation. At solar noon, as sunrays are in line with local
meridian, hour angle is zero. It is +ve in the forenoon and –ve in the afternoon.
Thus at 06:00 hrs it is +90° and at 18:00 hrs it is –90° as shown in figure below.
We adopt the convention of measuring it from noon based on LAT, being +ve in
the morning and –ve in the afternoon.
It can be calculated as:
ω = [12:00 – Solar Time] (in hours) × 15 degrees

Figure 3.5
(d) Inclination Angle (Altitude), (α) The angle between sun‟s ray and its
projection on horizontal surface is known as inclination angle.

(e) Zenith Angle, (Ɵz) It is the angle between sun‟s ray and perpendicular
(normal) to the horizontal plane.

(f) Solar Azimuth Angle (γs) It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between the
line due south and the projection of sun‟s ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken
as +ve when measured from south towards west.

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 Figure 3.6
(g) Slope (Tilt Angle), (β) It is the angle between inclined plane surface, under
consideration and the horizontal. It is taken to be +ve for the surface sloping
towards south.
(h) Surface Azimuth Angle, (γ) It is the angle in horizontal plane, between the
line due south (OS) and the horizontal projection of normal to the inclined plane
surface (OQ). It is taken as +ve when measured from south towards west.

Figure 3.7

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3.2 MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following instruments:
(i) Pyranometer: A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually
on a horizontal surface but can also be used on an inclined surface. When shaded
from beam radiation by using a shading ring, it measures diffuse radiation only.
(ii) Pyrheliometer: An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long
and narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.
(iii) Sunshine recorder measures the sunshine hours in a day.

3.2.1 Pyranometer
A precision pyranometer is designed to respond to radiation of all wavelengths
and hence measures accurately the total power in the incident spectrum. It
contains a thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular, blackened, hot
junctions, exposed to the sun and cold junctions are completely shaded. The
temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions is the function of
radiation falling on the sensitive surface. The sensing element is covered by two
concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from wind and rain. This also
reduces the convection currents. A radiation shield surrounding the outer dome
and coplanar with the sensing element, prevents direct solar radiation from
heating the base of the instrument. The instrument has a voltage output of
approximately 9 μV/W/m2 and has an output impedance of 650 W. A precision
spectral pyranometer (model: PSP) of Eppley laboratory is shown in figure below.
The pyranometer, when provided with a shadow band (or occulting disc) to
prevent beam radiation from reaching the sensing element, measures the diffuse
radiation only. Such an arrangement of shadow bandstand (model: SBS) is shown
below. Many inexpensive instruments are also available for measuring light
intensity, including instruments based on cadmium sulphide photocells and silicon
photodiodes. These instruments give good indication of relative intensity but their
spectral response is not linear and thus cannot be accurately calibrated.

Figure 3.8

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3.2.2 Pyrheliometer
The normal incidence pyranometer uses a long collimator tube to collect beam
radiation whose field of view is limited to a solid angle of 5.5° (generally) by
appropriate diaphragms inside the tube. The inside of the tube is blackened to
absorb any radiation incident at angles outside the collection solid angle. At the
base of the tube a wire wound thermopile having a sensitivity of approximately 8
mV/W/m2 and an output impedance of approximately 200 W is provided. The
tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam radiation within the
tube by water vapour. A tracker is needed if continuous readings are desired.

Figure 3.9

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3.2.3 Sunshine Recorder
This instrument measures the duration in hours, of bright sunshine during the
course of the day. It essentially consists of glass sphere (about 10 cm in
diameter) mounted on its axis parallel to that of earth, within a spherical section
(bowl). The bowl and glass sphere is arranged in such a way that sun‟s rays are
focused sharply at a spot on a card held in a groove in the bowl. The card is
prepared from special paper bearing a time scale. As the sun moves, the focused
bright sunshine burns a path along this paper. The length of the trace thus
obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the bright sunshine.
Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical segment to take
care of the different seasons of the year.

Figure 3.10

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3.3. SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
Solar thermal power plant comprises power plants which first convert solar
radiation into heat. The resulting thermal energy is subsequently transformed into
mechanical energy by a thermal engine, and then converted into electricity.

For thermodynamic reasons high temperatures are required to achieve the utmost
efficiency. Such high temperatures are reached by increasing the energy flux
density of the solar radiation incident on a collector.

According to the type of solar radiation concentration, solar thermal power plants
are subdivided into:

• Concentrating (point and line focusing systems)

• Non-concentrating systems

• The former Classification can be further made according to:

• type of receiver of the solar radiation

• the heat transfer media and the heat storage system

• additional firing based on fossil fuel energy

Concentrating systems concepts:

Solar tower power plants (i.e. central receiver systems) as point

focusing power plants

Dish/Stirling systems as point focusing power plants

Parabolic trough and Fresnel trough power plants as line focusing

power plants.

Concentrating collectors can reach temperature levels similar to that of existing

fossil-fuel fired thermal power stations (e.g. power plants fired with coal or
natural gas)

Non-concentrating systems concepts:

Solar updraft tower power plants
Solar pond power plants

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 Figure 3.11 Solar Thermal Power Plant

Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that

utilize energy from the Sun to heat a fluid to a high temperature. This fluid then
transfers its heat to water, which then becomes superheated steam. This steam is
then used to turn turbines in a power plant, and this mechanical energy is
converted into electricity by a generator. This type of generation is essentially the
same as electricity generation that uses fossil fuels, but instead heats steam
using sunlight instead of combustion of fossil fuels. These systems use solar
collectors to concentrate the Sun's rays on one point to achieve appropriately high
temperatures.

There are two types of systems to collect solar radiation and store it: passive
systems and active systems. Solar thermal power plants are considered active
systems. These plants are designed to operate using only solar energy, but most
plants can use fossil fuel combustion to supplement output when needed.

Some of the drawbacks include the large amount of land necessary for these
plants to operate efficiently.

As well, the water demand of these plants can also be seen as an issue, as the
production of enough steam requires large volumes of water. A final potential
impact of the use of large focusing mirrors is the harmful effect these plants have
on birds.

Birds that fly in the way of the focused rays of Sun can be incinerated. Some
reports of bird deaths at power plants such as these amount the deaths to about
one bird every two minutes.

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Facts about Solar Thermal Energy
• Solar thermal energy has been used in various ways for millennia, ranging
from simple fire starting with a pocket mirror to solar architecture to capture
heat in buildings.
• 48% of the the sun's energy is in the infrared spectrum, invisible to the
human eye, as heat.
• Solar thermal collectors can employ (absorb) nearly the entire solar spectrum
• The sun is the most abundant and reliable source of energy
• Financially, solar thermal energy conversion systems have reached grid-
parity in many locations
Currently, we (humans) use an abundance of fossil fuels for much of our heat
needs.
While in the long run our society will switch to the source of all of those fossil
fuels (the sun), the reality is that most of you have probably not experienced the
direct impact of a solar thermal energy conversion system on your life.
The truth is that we can do everything that we currently do in our society with
solar energy. Much of the burden can be carried by solar thermal solutions.
One terrific modern day example of a solar thermal energy system is the Drake
Landing Solar Community in Alberta, Canada, where 95% of the the community's
heating needs are supplied by on-site solar thermal collection and a connected
seasonal thermal energy storage system. Our society uses a lot of heat.
We need to keep working to make solar thermal energy solutions make sense and
work well in more places whenever possible.
Process of solar thermal power generation:
Concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system
Increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation
onto a receiver)
Absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy into
thermal energy (i.e. heat) inside the receiver)
Transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit
Conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal engine
(e.g. steam turbine)
Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.

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3.3.1 SOLAR TOWER POWER STATION
Main principles and components:
Central receiver systems in the tower
Mirrors tracking the course of the sun in two axes (Heliostats)
Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation onto a receiver, centrally positioned on
a tower.
In the receiver, radiation energy is converted into heat and transferred to a heat
transfer medium (e.g. air, liquid salt, water/steam).
This heat drives a conventional thermal engine.
To ensure constant parameters and a constant flow of the working medium also
at times of varying solar radiation, either a heat storage can be incorporated into
the system or additional firing using e.g. fossil fuels (like natural gas) or
renewable energy (like biofuels) can be used.

Figure 3.12 Solar Tower Power Station

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Heliostats
Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking system which
ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a certain target point
throughout the day.
heliostats commonly concentrate sunlight by means of a curved surface or an
appropriate orientation of partial areas, so that radiation flux density is increased.

Heliostats consist of
the reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-reflecting
surfaces)
a sun-tracking system provided with drive motors
foundations and control electronics. The individual heliostat‟s orientation is
commonly calculated on the basis of:
the current position of the sun
the spatial position of the heliostats
the target point.
The target value is communicated electronically to the respective drive motors via
a communication line.
This information is updated every few seconds.
The concentrator surface size of currently available heliostats varies between 20
and 150 m2 ; to date, the largest heliostat surface amounts to 200 m².

Faceted glass/metal heliostat metal membrane heliostat

The heliostat field accounts for about half the cost of the solar components of such a
power plant.
This is why tremendous efforts have been made to develop heliostats of good optical
quality, high reliability, long technical life and low specific costs.
Due to economic considerations there is a tendency to manufacture heliostats with
surfaces ranging between 100 m2 and 200 m2 and possibly beyond.
However, there are also approaches to manufacture smaller heliostats to reduce costs by
efficient mass-production.

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Controller:
Heliostats are usually centrally controlled and centrally supplied with
electrical energy.
As an alternative, autonomous heliostats have been developed which are
controlled locally.
There, the energy required for the control processor and the drives is
provided by photovoltaic cells mounted parallel to the reflector surface.

Figure 3.13
Heliostat fields
The layout of a heliostat field is determined by technical and economic
optimization:
Heliostats located closest to the tower present the lowest shading,
Heliostats placed north on the northern hemisphere (or south on the
southern hemisphere) show the lowest cosine losses.
Heliostats placed far off the tower, by contrast, require highly precise
tracking and, depending on the geographic location, have to be placed farer
from the neighboring heliostats.
The cost of the land, the tracking and the orientation precision thus
determine the economic size of the field.
Cosine losses: representing the difference between the amount of energy
falling on a surface pointing at the sun, and a surface parallel to the surface
of the earth.
Tower
The height of the tower, on which the receiver is mounted, is also
determined by technical and economic optimization.
Higher towers are generally more favorable, since bigger and denser
heliostat fields presenting lower shading losses may be applied.
However, this advantage is counteracted by the high requirements in terms
of tracking precision placed on the individual heliostats, tower and piping
costs as well as pumping and heat losses.
Common towers have a height of 80 to 100 m.
Lattice as well as concrete towers are applied.

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 RECEIVER
Receivers of solar tower power stations serve to transform the radiation energy,
diverted and concentrated by the heliostat field, into technical useful energy.
Nowadays, common radiation flux densities vary between 600 and 1,000
kW/m2.
Receivers classification according to:
the applied heat transfer medium (e.g. air, molten salt, water/steam, liquid
metal)
the receiver geometry (e.g. even, cavity, cylindrical or cone-shaped
receivers)
According to heat transfer medium:
Water/steam receiver
Salt receiver
Open volumetric air receiver
Closed (pressurized) air receivers

Water/steam receiver
first solar tower power stations
Similar to conventional steam processes, water is vaporized and partly
superheated in such a heat exchanger (i.e. tube receiver).
Since superheating is prone to unfavorable heat transmission, and due to the
fact that start-up operation or part-load operation require complicated
controls, this approach is currently not developed further.

Figure 3.14

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Salt receiver
The difficulties of heat transmission with a vertical tube receiver, exemplarily
shown in the previous figure, can partly be avoided by an additional heat
transfer medium circuit.
The heat transfer medium applied for this secondary circuit should have a
high heat capacity and good thermal conduction properties.
Molten salt consisting of sodium or potassium nitrate (NaNO3 , KNO3 )
complies with these requirements.
One disadvantage of all such salt receiver:
the salt must be kept liquid also during idle times when there is no solar
radiation. This requires to either heat the whole part of the installation
that is filled with salt (including, among other components, tanks,
tubes, valves) and thus increases the energy consumption of the plant
itself, or to completely flush the salt circuit.
The highly corrosive gas phase of the used salts also has a detrimental
effect, since, for certain operations, undesired evaporation of small
amounts of salt due to local overheating cannot be entirely ruled out.

Open volumetric air receiver

Such volumetric receivers are characterized by a high ratio of absorbing
surface to flow path of the absorbing heat transfer medium air.
Principle: Ambient air is sucked in by a blower and penetrates the radiated
absorber material. The air flow absorbs the heat, so that those absorber
areas facing the heliostat are cooled by the inflowing air.

Figure 3.15

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Advantages:
Air as heat transfer medium presents the advantages of being non-toxic,
noncorrosive, fire-proof, everywhere available and easy to handle

Disadvantages:
low heat capacity requiring large heat transmission surfaces (generally
feasible with volumetric receivers).
their lower thermal masses ensure a smooth start-up of the plant

Closed (pressurized) air receivers

Receivers of solar tower power plants may also be designed as closed
pressurized receivers.
The aperture of such receivers is closed by a fused quartz window, so that
the working medium air may be heated under overpressure and may, for
instance, be directly transferred to the combustor of a gas turbine.
E.g: a group of closed air receivers of a heat capacity of up to 1,000 kW has
been tested at 15 bar.
The obtained air outlet temperatures are slightly above 1,000 °C
For commercial applications several module groups may be added.

Figure 3.16

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 3.3.2 SPHOEBUS/TSA/SOLAIR
Phoebus/TSA/Solair is a power plant concept with an open volumetric air
receiver that provides hot air
The hot air is subsequently passed through a steam generator providing
superheated steam that can be used to drive a turbine/generator unit

Figure 3.17
A natural gas-fired duct burner placed in between the receiver and the
steam generator adds heat to the air if solar radiation is insufficient to supply
the desired steam quantity.
The Phoebus plant can thus not only generate power in times of sunshine
but also during spells of bad weather and during the night; power generation
is thus not exclusively dependent on the available solar radiation.

3.3.3 SOLAR POND

A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that looks like
a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a
flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm,
lower layers of the pond. These ponds can be natural or man-made, but generally
speaking the solar ponds that are in operation today are artificial.

Figure 3.18 Solar Pond

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3.3.3.1 SOLAR POND POWER PLANTS
Solar ponds are power plants that utilize the effect of water stratification as a
basis for the collector.
A basin filled with brine (i.e. a water/salt mixture) functions as collector and
heat storage.
The water at the bottom of the solar pond serves as primary heat storage
from which heat is withdrawn.
The deeper water layers and the bottom of the solar pond itself serve as
absorber for the impinging direct and diffuse solar radiation.
Due to the distribution of the salt concentration within the basin, which
increases towards the bottom of the basin, natural convection and the
ensuing heat loss at the surface due to evaporation, convection and radiation
is minimized.
This is why heat of an approximate temperature between 80 and 90 °C
(approximate stagnation temperature 100 °C) can be extracted from the
bottom.
Heat can then be used for power generation.

System components:
Pond collector
Heat Exchangers
Thermal Engine

Pond collector
Pond collectors are either natural or artificial lakes, ponds or basins that act as
a flat plate collector because of the different salt contents of water layers due
to stratification.
The upper water layers of relatively low salt content are often provided with
plastic covers to inhibit waves.
This upper mixing zone of such pond collectors usually is approximately 0.5 m
thick.
The adjacent transition zone has a thickness of 1 to 2 m, and the lower
storage zone is of 1.5 to 5 m thickness.
Mechanism:
If deeper layers of a common pond or lake are heated by the sun, the heated
water rises up to the surface since warm water has a lower density than cold
water.
The heat supplied by the sun is returned to the atmosphere at the water
surface.

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 This is why, in most cases, the mean water temperature approximately equals
ambient temperature.
In a solar pond, heat transmission to the atmosphere is prevented by the salt
dissolved in deeper layers, since, due to the salt, water density at the bottom
of the pond is that high, that the water cannot rise to the surface, even if the
sun heats up the water to temperatures that are close to the boiling point.
The salt concentration of the different layers must thus increase with
increasing depth.
In a first phase, this ensures stable water stratification.
The upper, almost salt-less layer only acts as transparent, heat-insulating cover
for the cooling, heat-storing deeper layers at the pond bottom.

Attentions:
To ensure stable stratification of a solar pond, with increasing depth the
temperature increase must not exceed density increase (i.e. salt content).
This is why all relevant parameters must be continuously monitored in order
to take appropriate measures (e.g. heat withdrawal, salt supply) in due time.
To achieve the utmost collector efficiency, a high portion of the solar
radiation must reach the absorption zone. Yet, this can only be achieved, if
the top layers are of sufficient transmission capability.
Monitoring:
During the operation of a solar pond, the transmissivity, the salt content and
the temperature must be regularly monitored.
The timely course of these parameters must be measured from the water
surface to the ground in order to determine the heat quantity that can be
withdrawn from the pond or to determine the measures to maintain the
respective required salt concentration and the water quality (prevention of
turbidity due to particulate matter, algae or bacteria).

Figure 3.19

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Heat exchangers
Basically, there are two methods to withdraw heat from a solar pond: The
working fluid of the thermal engine flows through tube bundle heat
exchangers installed within the storage zone of the solar pond, and is
thereby heated up.
The hot brine can also be pumped from the storage zone by means of an
intake diffuser, subsequently be transmitted to the working fluid of the
thermal engine and eventually be re-supplied to greater depths of the pond
by another diffuser, once the brine has cooled down.
The technical approach allows adjusting the position of the intake diffuser to
the depth of the highest temperature.
Secondly, heat losses by the pond bottom are reduced, since the cooled
water is recycled to the pond near the bottom.
Thermal Engine
To convert solar thermal energy into mechanical and afterwards in electrical
energy, usually Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) processes are applied.
These are basically steam cycles which utilize a low-boiling, generally
organic, cycle fluid.
Such processes permit to provide electrical energy also at low useful
temperature differences.

Plant Concepts
Plant diagram of a solar pond power plant
The water absorbs the incident direct and diffuse radiation, similar to the
absorber of a conventional solar collector, and is heated up.
The technically adjusted salt concentration prevents natural convection and
the resulting heat loss at the surface due to evaporation, convection and
radiation.
Water can thus be withdrawn from the storage zone at the bottom at an
approximate temperature of 80 – 90°C.
This heat can subsequently be used for power generation by an ORC process

Figure 3.20 Solar Pond Power Plant

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3.3.3.2 WORKING OF SOLAR POND

The key characteristic of solar ponds that allow them to function effectively as
a solar energy collector is a salt-concentration gradient of the water.
This gradient results in water that is heavily salinated collecting at the bottom
of the pond, with concentration decreasing towards the surface resulting in
cool, fresh water on top of the pond.
This collection of salty water at the bottom of the lake is known as the "storage
zone", while the freshwater top layer is known as the "surface zone".
The overall pond is several meters deep, with the "storage zone" being one or
two meters thick.
These ponds must be clear for them to operate properly, as sunlight cannot
penetrate to the bottom of the pond if the water is murky.
When sunlight is incident on these ponds, most of the incoming sunlight
reaches the bottom and thus the "storage zone" heats up. However, this newly
heated water cannot rise and thus heat loss upwards is prevented.
The salty water cannot rise because it is heavier than the fresh water that is on
top of the pond, and thus the upper layer prevents convection currents from
forming.
Because of this, the top layer of the pond acts as a type of insulating blanket,
and the main heat loss process from the storage zone is stopped.
Without a loss of heat, the bottom of the pond is warmed to extremely high
temperatures - it can reach about 90°C.

Figure 3.21: The Concept of Solar pond (a) Variation of density

(b) Three zones in pond (c) Variation of temperature

38
 If the pond is being used to generate electricity this temperature is high
enough to initiate and run an organic Rankine cycle engine.

It is vital that the salt concentrations and cool temperature of the top layer are
maintained in order for these ponds to work.

The surface zone is mixed and kept cool by winds and heat loss by
evaporation.

This top zone must also be flushed continuously with fresh water to ensure
that there is no accumulation of salt in the top layer, since the salt from the
bottom layer diffuses through the saline gradient over time.

Additionally, a solid salt or brine mixture must be added to the pond frequently
to make up for any upwards salt loses.

ADVANTAGES :
One benefit of using these ponds is that they have an extremely large thermal
mass.
Since these ponds can store heat energy very well, they can generate
electricity during the day when the Sun is shining as well as at night.

Figure 3.22 Solar pond electric power plant

39
DISADVANTAGES :
Despite being a source of energy, there are numerous thermodynamic
limitations as a result of the relatively low temperatures achieved in these
ponds.
Because of this, the solar-to-electricity conversion is fairly inefficient - generally
less than 2%.
As well, large amounts of fresh water are necessary to maintain the right salt
concentrations all through the pond.
This is an issue in places where fresh water is hard to come by, especially in
desert environments.
These ponds also do not work well at high latitudes as the collection surface is
horizontal and cannot be tilted to collect more sunlight.

APPLICATIONS :
The heat from solar ponds can be used in a variety of different ways.
They are ideal for use in heating and cooling buildings as they can maintain a
fairly stable temperature.
These ponds can also be used to generate electricity either by driving a
thermo-electric device or some organic Rankine engine cycle - simply a turbine
powered by evaporating a fluid (in this case a fluid with a lower boiling point).
Finally, solar ponds can be used for desalination purposes as the low cost of
this thermal energy can be used to remove the salt from water for drinking or
irrigation purposes.

40
3.4 THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM WITH PCM
Latent Heat Storage (Storage in Phase Change Materials
PCM)
In this class of storage, energy is stored by virtue of latent heat of change of
phase of the storage medium. Phase change materials have considerably higher
thermal energy storage densities as compared to sensible heat storage materials
and are able to absorb or release large quantities of energy at a constant
temperature. Therefore, these systems are more compact but more expensive
than sensible heat storage systems.

Various phase changes that can occur are:

• solid-solid (lattice change)
• solid-gas
• solid-liquid
• liquid-gas

Solid-gas and liquid-gas transformations are not employed in spite of large latent
heats as large changes in volume make the system complex and impracticable. In
solid-solid transition, heat is stored as the material is transformed from one
crystalline form to another. These transitions involve small volume changes;
however, most of them have small latent heats.
For phase-change storage media, salt hydrates called Glauber‟s salt
(Na2SO4.10H2O) are preferred. The solid-liquid transformations include storage in
salt hydrates. Certain inorganic salts, which are soluble in water and form
crystalline salt hydrates, are employed. Let an inorganic salt, which is soluble in
water represented by X(Y) n. The crystalline salt hydrate is symbolized by X(Y) n.
mH2O. On heating up to transition temperature, the hydrate crystals release
water of crystallization and the solid remainder (anhydrous salt) dissolves in the
released water as following reaction takes place:

41
One problem with most salt hydrates is that the released water of crystallization is
not sufficient to dissolve all the solid phase present. Due to density difference, the
anhydrous salt settles down at the bottom of the container. This incongruent
melting makes the process irreversible since the anhydrous salt at the bottom is
unable to find water for recrystallization to the original hydrate. The
recrystallization of an incongruently melting salt can be achieved either by (i) the
use of suspension media or thickening agent or by (ii) mechanical means
(vibration, stirring, etc.)
Other potential phase change materials apart from salt hydrates are paraffin‟s
(e.g. C18 H38, etc., alkanes containing 14 to 40 C-atoms) and non-paraffin
organic materials (e.g. esters, fatty acids, alcohols and glycols), which are suitable
at certain situations.

Heat transfer properties of phase change storage materials

42
3.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact
produce an electrical charge when struck by light or any other radiant energy.
When light strikes crystals such as silicon or germanium (p-n junction) in which
electrons are usually not free to move from n-region to p-region due to the
potential barrier, the light provides the energy (e.m.f.) needed to free some
electrons from the bound condition depending on the absorption of solar energy
(Figure 3.23).

Figure 3.23 Generation of emf across junction to move the charge carriers.
Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in
one direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge,
and this results in a negative voltage with respect to the other side, as in the case
of a battery in which one electrode has negative voltage with respect to the other.
The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as
light falls on the junction of two materials.
3.6 BASIC PRINCIPAL OF SPV CONVERSION
Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight. The solar
photovoltaic (PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that when
sunlight strikes a solar voltaic cell, it releases electrons from the p-n junction of
the cell and pushes these electrons across a potential barrier or electric field at
the junction. These electrons then travel through an external circuit to return to
their usual state and in this process create electric power.
The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV or solar
cell converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of energy packets
called photons.
These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to different
wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be
reflected, absorbed or can pass through the p-n junction. The absorbed photons
in the p-n junction generate electricity.

43
Figure.3.23 Photon generating pairs of electron and hole to move electric current in
the external circuit.

A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction with a large surface area. The n-type
material is kept thin to allow light to pass through it and strike the p-n junction.
The light travels in packets of energy called photons. The generation of electric
current takes place inside the depletion zone of the p-n junction.
The depletion zone as explained previously is the area around the p-n junction
where the electrons from the n-region diffuse into the holes of the p-region.
When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atoms in n-region of silicon, it
will dislodge an electron from any atom, thereby creating a free electron and hole
pair.
The free electron and hole pair has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion
zone. If a wire is connected from the cathode at n-type silicon to an anode of p-
type silicon, electrons flow through the wire.

The electron is attracted to the positive charge of p-type material and travels
through the external load (bulb or resistance), thereby creating a flow of electric
current. The hole created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative
charge of the n-type material and travels to back electrical contact. As the
electron reaches the p-type silicon from the back electrical contact, it combines
with the hole, thereby restoring the electrical neutrality (Figure 3.23).

44
3.7 SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY
Solar Cell
The solar cell consists of
(i) p-type silicon material layer,
(ii) n-type silicon material layer,
(iii) front metallic grid and
(iv) opaque back metal contact as shown in Figure 3.24

The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness about 100 350 mm. A
thin layer of n-type silicon having thickness of about 2 mm is diffused on this bulk
material, providing p-n junction. A metallic grid at top with n-type material and an
opaque back metal contact at the bottom of p-type material are provided which also
act as negative and positive terminals.

Solar PV Module
A Single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has
(1) A very small output
(2) No protection against dust moisture , mechanical impacts and atmospheric
harsh condition

Figure 3.24 Construction of a solar cell. (a) Side view of the solar cell. (b) Top
view of the solar cell.

45
3.7.1 Solar PV Module
Suitable voltage and adequate power can be obtained by suitably interconnecting a
number of solar cells. This assembly of solar cell is called solar module. Solar cells
are provided with transparent cover and these are hermetically sealed for assembly
into solar module.
It is necessary that all solar cells should match as closely as possible with each other
so that peak power of the module is the algebraic sum of the peak power of
individual solar cells. A typical module is shown in Figure 3.25.

Figure 3.25 Solar PV module with 36 solar cells.

3.7.2 The construction of a solar PV panel.

Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in
series and parallel to obtain the power of desired voltage and current. When
modules are connected in series, it is desirable that each module should produce
maximum power at the same current. When solar PV modules are connected in
parallel, it is desirable that each module should produce maximum power at the
same voltage. A frame is used to mount several modules to form a solar PV panel as
shown in Figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26 A solar PV panel of four modules.

46
In the panel, bypass diodes are installed across each module so that any defective
module can be bypassed by the output of remaining modules.
The blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of modules
which enable the output of the remaining series strings should not be absorbed by
the failed string. A typical panel with the series and the parallel connections is
shown in Figure 3.27.

Figure 3.27 A typical panel with the series and the parallel connection.
3.7.3 Solar PV Array
A PV array consists of a number of solar panels which are installed in an array
field. The solar panels may be installed as stationary facing the sun or installed
with some tracking mechanism. The installation should ensure that no panel
should cast shadow on any of the neighboring panels and those panels can be
easily maintained.

Figure 3.28

47
 3.8.TYPES OF SOLAR CELL
The solar cells depending on the type of material used can be classified as
(1) single crystal silicon solar cell,
(2) polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cell,
(3) cadmium sulphide-cadmium telluride cell,
(4) copper indium diselenide cell
(5) gallium arsenide cell.

3.8.1 Single crystal silicon

It is produced from silicon dioxide which is reduced to silica with 1% impurities. It
is first purified to polycrystalline form and then further converted into the single
crystal state. The conversion process into single crystal state is very expensive.
The single crystal p-type silicon is obtained in the form of a long cylindrical block
(diameter of about 6-15 cm). The block is sawed using diamond cutter to obtain a
number of silicon slices or wafers having thickness of about 300 μm. The p-type
silicon wafers are then exposed to phosphorous vapour (doping material) in a
furnace so that phosphorous can diffuse into the silicon wafer for a short depth,
thereby forming n-silicon region over the p-silicon bulk material. The efficiency of
single crystal silicon is about 22%. It is most efficient and robust. It has two main
drawbacks:
(i)it needs high energy to produce and hence is costly and
(ii) it requires high intensity of radiation to produce solar electricity.

Figure3.29

48
 3.8.2 Polycrystalline and amorphous silicon
The cells made of these materials are cost-effective but these have lower
efficiency compared to a single crystal silicon cell. The process to produce
polycrystalline silicon cells is similar to that of single crystal silicon except that the
costly step of converting polycrystalline state to the single crystal is not required.
The polycrystalline silicon is directly melted, doped with phosphorous and cooked to
the desired shape and size. This helps in economy of materials and energy
consumption for the production of cells.
Amorphous silicon cells are produced using thin film technology. These
cells are a cheaper alternative to single crystal or multicrystallinc cells. The main
drawbacks are that they have low efficiency (4-8%) and they degrade easily when
used in outdoor applications. These cells are useful for indoor lights, pocket
calculator, electronic watches and electronic instruments.

3.8.3 Cadmium sulphide cadmium telluride cells

These cells are also produced using thin film technology. The cells require
very less material. In thin film technology, the semiconductor (cadmium telluride) is
vapourised and its film (10 μm) is deposited on a thin layer (12 μm) of cadmium
sulphide. A barrier layer of copper sulphide is then deposited on top of the CdS-CdTe
cell. The cell consists of n-type CdS and p-type CdTe. The cell has efficiency of 10%
and it has no deterioration during outside applications.

3.8.4 Copper indium diselenide

It is a thin film polycrystalline cell made from copper indium diselenide. It
has an efficiency of about 14%. Its properties remain stable. It has an easier
manufacturing process.

3.8.5 Gallium arsenide

The cell has thin film of n-type and p-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) grown
on a suitable substrate. The efficiency of the cell is about 20%, but it has high cost
of production. The cell has high performance in extraterrestrial applications.

49
3.9 TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM
The classification of solar PV systems is shown in Figure 3.30

Figure 3.30 Classification of solar PV systems.

Central Power Station System

This type of solar power station is similar to other conventional power stations which
are required to feed generated power into some national grid. This type of solar
power stations are designed to meet high peak daytime load only and these have
large generation capacity in megawatt (up to 6 MW). Only few such power stations
have been installed worldwide as the capital cost of these plants is high.

Stand-Alone System
Solar PV power station is planned and located at the load centre. Its complete
electricity generation is meant to meet the electrical load of any remote area,
village or installation. Energy storage is essential to meet the requirement during
non-sunshine hours. A typical stand-alone solar PV system is shown in Figure
3.31.

50
 The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) senses the voltage and current outputs
from the solar array and then suitably adjusts the operating point to obtain
maximum power output from the solar array as possible from the climatic
conditions. The solar electric output in direct current is converted into alternating
current and it is fed into the load. The excess power is preferably stored by
charging the dumped in the electric heaters. When the sun radiation is
unavailable, the batteries supply the electricity through the converter.

Figure 3.31 A schematic layout of a stand-alone solar PV system.

Grid Interactive Solar PV System

In grid interactive solar PV system, the system first meets the requirement of house,
village or installation and then all excess power is fed to an electric grid during
sunshine hours (Figure 3.32).

Figure 3.32 Grid interactive solar PV system.

This arrangement helps in preventing any dumping of electricity as required in the
stand-alone solar PV system. The second advantage of this system is that during
absence of insufficient sunshine, the supply of electricity is maintained from the
electric grid, thereby eliminating any need of battery. This system is very popular in
the United Kingdom, where two-way electric meters provided to record (i) the
electricity generated and supplied by rooftop PV system of various houses to the
electric grid system during non-peak sunshine hours and (ii) electricity supplied to
the houses from the electric grid during non-sunshine hours. The difference of two
is paid to consumers or vice versa.

51
Small Consumer Systems
These systems are designed to meet the power requirement of low energy devices
which are generally used for indoor applications, such calculators, watches and
electric devices.

Hybrid Solar PV System

The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide electric power by some other
means besides solar electricity. It is difficult and uneconomical to provide all of the
power from only solar PV system. It may be more economical to meet the power
requirement by some other means, such as windmills, fuel cells and diesel or petrol
generators. The best hybrid solar PV system is the one in which no amount of solar
PV generated power is wasted.

Advantages and Disadvantages of PV System

Advantages are as follows:
(i) It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of moving
parts. (ii) It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.
(iii) It works without any noise. (iv) It is non-polluting.
(v) It has long lifespan.
(vi) It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution system.
Disadvantages are as follows:
(i) It has high cost of installation.
(ii) It has low efficiency.
(iii) It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient power.
(iv) Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store energy to
use during non-sunshine hours.

3.10 SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS

In case the p-n junction is forward biased, electrons from p-region start moving
towards the positive terminal of the battery, thereby reducing the potential barrier at
the junction (Figure 3.33). This facilitates the flow of current through the p-n
junction. In case the junction is reversed biased, the potential barrier at the junction
increases, which further reduces the possibility of any flow of current through the
junction. The Current Voltage (I vs V) characteristic of a p-n junction is shown in
Figure 3.34.

52
 Figure.3.33 The p-n junction forward biased.

Figure 3.34 Current Voltage characteristic of p-n junction when forward and
backward biased.
As the voltage (V) increases, the current (I) in the junction also increases. However,
there is a very small reverse saturation current (I0) instead of zero current when
reversed voltage is applied. The flow of current can be given by diode current
equation (Schottky equation)

where I0 is the reverse saturation current and VT is the voltage equivalent of

temperature and it is given by

53
 Here, k is the Boltzmann constant,
T is the temperature in kelvin and
q is the charge of an electron.

The current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction (solar cell) gets modified due to
photon or solar generated current (Isc) flowing through the p-n junction as this (Isc)
is added with the reverse leakage current (I0). The diode current equation is now
modified as

V= 0; that is junction is short circuited.

where Vsc is the open circuit voltage. The above relation shows that when junction
is radiated with suns ray and it is short-circuited at its terminals, there is a finite
current called short circuit current (Isc) that flows through the external circuit made
with the short circuiting of the junction terminals. The magnitude of Isc depends
upon solar radiation. Figure 3.35 shows current voltage characteristics at
different isolations which include (i) dark, (ii) lesser amount of radiation, and (iii)
larger amount of radiation. Hence, p-n junction can be considered an energy source
or e.m.f having open circuit voltage as Voc and short circuit current as Isc.

54
 Figure 3.35 Current voltage characteristics at different isolation levels.
In case we use standard convention in which current flowing out from a positive
terminal of any energy source is always taken as positive and apply the same
convention on a solar cell, the current and voltage characteristic can be redrawn
with suitable modification as shown in Figure 3.36, and mathematically the current
voltage relationship can be written as follows:

Figure 3.36 Current voltage characteristics of solar cell and maximum power point
(Pm).

55
3.11 EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELLS
Energy conversion efficiency (h) is defined as the ratio of power output of cell (in
watts) at its maximum power point (PMAX) and the product of input light power (E,
in W/m2) and the surface area of the solar cell (S in m2) under standard
conditions
η= maximum output power/(irradiance × area) = PMAX/(E × S)
The performance of a photovoltaic device defines the prediction of the power that
the cell will produce. Current–voltage (I–V) relationships, which measure the
electrical characteristics of solar cell devices, are represented by I–V curves.
These I–V curves are obtained by exposing the cell to a constant level of light
while maintaining a constant cell temperature, varying the resistance of the load,
and measuring the current that is produced.
By varying the load resistance from zero (a short circuit) to infinity (an open
circuit), researchers can determine the highest efficiency as the point at which the
cell delivers maximum power. The power is the product of voltage and current.
Therefore, on the I–V curve, the maximum power point (PMAX) occurs where the
product of current and voltage is a maximum. No power is produced at the short-
circuit current with no voltage or at open-circuit voltage with no current.

Therefore, the maximum power generated is expected to be somewhere between

these two points. Maximum power is generated at only one place on the power
curve, at about the „knee‟ of the curve. This point represents the maximum
efficiency of the solar device at converting sunlight into electricity.

3.12 FILL FACTOR

Another term defining the overall behavior of a solar cell is the fill factor (FF). It is
a measure of squareness of the I–V characteristics of the solar cell and is defined
as
FF = Maximum output power/(open-circuit voltage × short-circuit current)
It is the available power at the maximum power point (PMAX) divided by the
product of open circuit voltage (VOC) and short-circuit current (ISC) as
FF = PMAX/(VOC × ISC) = (VMP × IMP)/(VOC × ISC)
where VMP and IMP are the voltage and current at the maximum power point.
The above equation can be redefined as,
FF = (h × S × E)/(VOC × ISC)

56
Factors Limiting the Efficiency of the Cell
1. Wavelength of solar spectrum: Cell response to only a portion of wavelength
available in the solar spectrum. Photon with wavelength >1.1 μm does not have
sufficient energy to create electron–hole pair in silicon cell.
2. Temperature: Normal operating temperature of silicon cells can reach 60°C in
peak sunlight and these temperature decreases the efficiency of the cells.
Therefore, it is important to provide heat sinks of the best quality available.
Gallium arsenide cells are capable of operating at high temperature where
focused energy can be used.
3. Mounting of the cells: It should be to a heat sink (usually an aluminium plate)
either heat conductive but electrically insulated. This will reduce operating
temperatures and make the cell more efficient. In case free water source is
available, heat sinks can be water cooled.
4. Arrangement and maintenance of solar cell: The negative side of the cells
usually faces the sun and has antireflection coatings. These coatings should be
protected from dust, bird dropping, by a clear plastic or glass cover. Accumulated
dust on the cover will reduce the output power by about 10%.
5. Position of the cell: The cell or panel should be positioned either facing south
in the north of equator or facing north in the south of equator for maximum
power output and fixed panel applications. The angle off the ground should be
equal to the latitude of the place for year around average or can be changed
monthly to face the sun at noon for more efficiency.
3.13 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS (SERIES AND PARALLEL
ARRAYS)
As single solar cell has a working voltage and current of about 0.5 V and 50 mA,
respectively, they are usually connected together in series (positive to negative)
to provide larger voltages. Parallel connection of several strings of cells will give
rise to higher current output compared with single series string of cells.

Photovoltaic panels (as shown in Fig) are made in a wide range of sizes for
different purposes. They generally fall into one of three basic categories:
Low voltage or low power panels are made by connecting between 3 and 12 small
segments of amorphous silicon photovoltaic with a total area of a few square
centimetres for voltages between 1.5 and 6 V and outputs of a few milliwatts.
Although each of these panels is very small, the total production is large. They
are used mainly in watches, clocks and calculators, cameras, and devices for
sensing light and dark, such as night lights.

57
Small panels of 1–10 W and 3–12 V, with areas from 100 cm2 to 1,000 cm2 are
made by either cutting 100 cm2 single or polycrystalline cells into pieces and
joining them in series, or by using amorphous silicon panels. The main uses are
for radios, toys, small pumps, electric fences, and trickle charging of batteries.

Large panels, ranging from 10 to 60 W, and generally either 6 or 12 V, with areas

of 1,000 cm2 to 5,000 cm2 are usually made by connecting from 10 to 36 full-sized
cells in series. They are used either separately for small pumps and caravan
power (lights and refrigeration) or in arrays to provide power for houses,
communications, pumping, and remote area power supplies (RAPS).
If the load resistance is very low, the cell acts as if it is shortened at the output of
light falling on it. If the load resistance is very high, the cell acts as if it is open-
circuited and the voltage rises very rapidly to maximum voltage. The current at a
voltage is limited by the amount of sunlight and load resistance. This
characteristic is ideal for charging battery.
For charging, a 12 V battery by a 2 cm × 2 cm (0.3 V battery charging voltage),
silicon cells required = 12/0.3 = 40 cells in series string.
A number of optimal solar array designs are available. However, the arrangement
of series–parallel array has been most preferable, as it results in optimal
performance characteristic under many conditions including shading, cell failure,
non-uniform illumination, and unequal I–V characteristics.

A diode is placed in series with the positive terminal of battery as shown in

Figure. This will prevent reverse current flow (a small battery drain) when the
cells are not receiving sufficient light to chary battery.

Figure 3.36

58
Number of Solar Cell Required in Series
Solar cells must be electrically connected in series to provide the bus voltage (VB)
to the space craft load or batteries and any voltage drops in the blocking diodes
(VD) and in the wiring (Vw).
The required number of cells (NS) in series is calculated as
NS = (VB + VD + Vw)/VMP
VMP = solar cell voltage at maximum power (or battery charging voltage) under
operating temperature and intensity. For silicon diode, VD = 0.7 V

Number of Solar Cell in Parallel Strings

Let NP be the number of parallel strings; IL is the load current; and IMP is the
current corresponding to maximum power point on I–V plot. Therefore,
NP = (the load current)/(current corresponding to maximum power point on I–V
plot.
NP = IL / IMP

3.14 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge
controllers used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under
certain conditions. The voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power
is called „maximum power point‟ (or peak power voltage). Maximum power varies
with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar cell temperature.
A MPPT, or maximum power point tracker is an electronic DC to DC converter that
optimizes the match between the solar array (PV panels), and the battery bank or
utility grid. To put it simply, they convert a higher voltage DC output from solar
panels (and a few wind generators) down to the lower voltage needed to charge
batteries.

Several algorithms were proposed to accomplish MPPT controller. Published MPPT

methods include:
(1) Perturb and Observe (PAO) ,
(2) Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT), and
(3) Constant Reference Voltage/Current.

59
Perturb and Observe (PAO):
Perturb-and-observe (P&O) method, also known as perturbation method is a
type of MPPT algorithm. The concept behind the “perturb and observe” method is
to modify the operating voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until you
obtain maximum power from it. It is often referred to as hill climbing method,
because they depend on the fact that on the left side of the MPP, the curve is
rising (dP/dV > 0) while on the right side of the MPP the curve is falling (dP/dV <
0). Perturb and observe is the most commonly used MPPT method due to its ease
of implementation. Perturb and observe method may result in top-level efficiency,
provided that a proper predictive and adaptive hill climbing strategy is adopted.

Algorithm:
The voltage to a cell is increased initially. If the output power increases, the
voltage is continually increased till the output power starts decreasing. Once the
output power starts decreasing, the voltage to the cell is decreased till maximum
power is reached. This process is continued till the MPP is attained. This results in
an oscillation of the output power around the MPP.
Drawback:
One of the major drawbacks of the perturb and observe method is that under
steady state operation, the output power oscillates around the maximum power
point.
This algorithm can track wrongly under rapidly varying irradiation conditions.

Incremental Conductance Technique (ICT):

Incremental conductance (INC) method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method
utilizes the incremental conductance (dI/dV) of the photovoltaic array to compute
the sign of the change in power with respect to voltage (dP/dV). INC method
provides rapid MPP tracking even in rapidly changing irradiation conditions with
higher accuracy than the Perturb and observe method.
Algorithm:
The power-voltage curve's slope is null at the MPP, negative to the right of the
MPP and positive to the left of the MPP. INC computes the maximum power point
by comparison of the incremental conductance (ΔI/ΔV) to the instantaneous
conductance (I/V). When the incremental conductance is zero, the output voltage
is ascertained to be the MPP voltage and fixed at this voltage until the MPP
encounters a change due to the change in irradiation conditions. Then the
process above is repeated until a new maximum power point is reached.

60
Advantage:
This technique has an advantage over the perturb and observe method because it
can stop and determine when the Maximum Power Point is reached without
having to oscillate around this value.
It can perform Maximum Power Point Tracking under rapidly varying irradiation
conditions with higher accuracy than the perturb and observe method.
Drawback:
It can produce oscillations and can perform erratically under rapidly changing
atmospheric conditions.
The computational time is increased due to slowing down of the sampling
frequency resulting from the higher complexity of the algorithm compared to the
P&O method.

CONSTANT REFERENCE VOLTAGE/CURRENT:

Constant voltage method is a type of MPPT algorithm. This method makes use of
the fact that the ratio of maximum power point voltage and the open circuit
voltage is 0.76. It is the simplest MPPT control method.

Algorithm:
The operating point of the PV array is kept near the MPP by regulating the array
voltage and matching it to a fixed reference voltage Vref. The Vref value is set
equal to the maximum power point voltage of the characteristic PV module or to
another calculated best fixed voltage. One of the approximations of this method is
that, variations encountered by individual panels need not be considered as the
constant reference voltage can be considered as the maximum power point
voltage. The data for this method varies with geographical location and has to be
processed differently for different geographical locations. The CV method does not
require any input. It is important to observe that when the PV panel is in low
insolation conditions, the CV technique is more effective than either the P&O
method or the IC method (analyzed below) .
Drawback:
The current from the photovoltaic array must be set to zero momentarily to
measure the open circuit voltage and then afterwards set to 76% of the
measured voltage.
Energy is wasted during the time time the current is set to zero.
The approximation setting the voltage to 76% of the measured voltage is not
accurate.

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3.15 APPLICATION OF SOLAR CELL SYSTEMS
Solar Water Pumps
There are more than 10,000 solar powered water pumps in use in the world
today. They are widely used on farms to supply water to livestock. In
developing countries, they are used extensively to pump water from wells and
rivers to villages for domestic consumption and irrigation of crops. In solar
water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar electricity
instead of conventional electricity drawn from utility grid. A solar photovoltaic
water pumping system consists of a photovoltaic array mounted on a stand and
a motor-pump set compatible with the photovoltaic array. It converts the solar
energy into electricity, which is used for running the motor pump set. The
pumping system draws water from the open well, bore well, stream, pond,
canal, etc.

Solar Vehicle
It is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar
energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the
sun‟s energy directly into electric energy. The term „solar vehicle‟ usually
implies that solar energy is used to power all or part of a vehicle‟s propulsion.
Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or controls
or other auxiliary functions.

Solar Lanterns
When the Petromax-type solar lantern is plugged into a solar photovoltaic cell,
its rechargeable battery stores the electricity produced so that it can be used to
light home or power a radio. When fully charged, the lantern will give light for
4 to 5 h, and the radio will run for 15 h. If both are used simultaneously, the
listening and lamp time will be shorter.

Solar Panels on Spacecraft

Spacecraft operating in the inner solar system usually rely on the use of
photovoltaic solar panels to derive electricity from sunlight. In the outer solar
system, where the sunlight is too weak to produce sufficient power,
radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) are used as a power source.

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Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems
These are power systems energized by photovoltaic panels that are connected
to the utility grid. Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems comprise
photovoltaic panels, battery charging regulators, solar inverters, power
conditioning units, and grid-connected equipments. When conditions are right,
the grid-connected PV system supplies the excess power, beyond consumption
by the connected load, to the utility grid. Residential grid-connected
photovoltaic power systems that have a capacity less than 10 kW can meet the
load of most consumers. It can feed excess power to the grid, which, in this
case, acts as a battery for the system.

Cathodic Protection Systems

Cathodic protection is a method of protecting metal structures from corrosion.
It is applicable to bridges, pipelines, buildings, tanks, wells, and railway lines.
To achieve cathodic protection, a small negative voltage is applied to the metal
structure and this prevents it from oxidizing or rusting. The positive terminal of
the source is connected to a sacrificial anode that is generally a piece of scrap
metal, which corrodes instead of the structure. Photovoltaic solar cells are
often used in remote locations to provide this voltage.

Rural Electrification
Storage batteries are widely used in remote areas to provide low-voltage
electrical power for lighting and communications as well as for vehicles. A
photovoltaic-powered battery charging system usually consists of a small solar
cell array and a charge controller. These systems are widely used in rural
electrification projects in developing countries.

Water Treatment Systems

In remote areas, electric power is often used to disinfect or purify drinking
water. Photovoltaic cells are used to power a strong ultraviolet light that can be
used to kill bacteria in drinking water. This can be combined with a solar-
powered water pumping system. Desalination of brackish water can be
achieved via PV-powered reverse osmosis systems.

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