Open Elective Subject

solar energy
SOLENERGY
EC
The Next Sunshine Sector 339

Z.H.Khan
 Introduction of solar energy
•  In modern world, energy is primary requirement for human culture. The
country in which more energy produce is more developed then other.

•  Energy is very important for doing any work. All the energy sources that
are being used today can be classified into two groups; renewable and
non-renewable. Renewable energy is derived by natural processes and
that are resupply carious forms, it derives directly from the sun.

•  Energy generated from solar, wind, ocean, tidal, hydropower, biomass,

geothermal resources, bio fuels and hydrogen is renewable resources.

•  Non-renewable energy is energy sources that cannot resupply in the near

future such as coal, oil, petroleum and natural gas. Renewable and non-
renewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy
sources as electricity.
•  Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energy-
called solar energy. It radius more energy in one day than the world use in
one year. This energy comes from within the sun itself.

•  Like most stars, the sun is big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and
helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called
nuclear fusion. It takes the sun’s energy just a little over eight minutes to
travel the 93 million miles to earth. Solar energy travels at the speed of
light, or 18600 miles per second, or 3.0 × 108 meters per second.

•  Only a small part of the visible radiant energy (light) that the sun emits
into space ever reaches the earth, but that is more than enough to supply
all our energy needs. Every hour enough solar energy reaches the earth to
supply our nation’s energy needs for a year. Solar energy considered a
renewable energy source due to this fact.
•  Largest member of the solar system
•  Diameter : 1.39 × 109 m
•  An average distance of 1.495 × 1011 m from the
earth.
•  At the innermost region, the core temperature is
estimated between 8 × 106 to 40 × 106 K. the
core has a density of about 100 times that of
water and pressure of 109 atm.
•  The most abundant element in sun is hydrogen.
•  It is an plasma state.
•  Due to high temperature and pressure , the sun
continuously generating heat by thermonuclear
fusion reaction ( two light nuclei combine and
produce a heavier nucleus ) which convert
hydrogen atoms to helium atoms. The energy
released in accordance with following reaction.

4 1 H1 2He4 + 26.7 Mev

 Solar radiation and solar constant
•  All substances solids , liquids and gases at temperature above zero emit energy in
form of electromagnetic waves. This energy is called radiation. Radiation is a
process by which heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a
lower temperature when the bodies are separated them.
•  A perfect radiator ( called black body ) emits energy from its surface at a rate Q is
given by
𝑸 = 𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
•  Where ,
𝜎 = stefan boltzman constant = 5.67 × 10 − 8 𝑊Τ 2
𝑚 𝐾
4
A = heat transfer surface area of the body , 𝑚2
T = absolute temperature of body , K
•  For a real body , 𝑸 = 𝟄𝝈𝑨𝑻𝟒
𝟄= 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
R𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒃lack 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚
where , 𝟄= Emissivity of the surface
Absorptivity , reflectivity and
transmissivity
 Solar constant (ISC )
•  Solar constant ( ISC) : Total energy received from the sun per unit time on
a surface of unit area kept perpendicular to the radiation in space just
outside the earth’s atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance from
the sun.

•  a standard value of solar constant is 1353 𝑊 Τ 𝑚 2 .

•  The earth is closet to the sun in the summer and furthest away in the
winter. This variation in distance produces a nearly sinusoidal varation in
the intensity of solar radiation I that reaches earth.

•  The value on any day can be calculated from the equation ,

𝐈 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒏
= 1 + 0.33 𝐜𝐨𝐬[ 𝟑𝟔𝟓 ]
ISC
Where, n = the day of year
 Extraterrestrial radiation (solar radiation
outside the earth’s atmosphere)

•  Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of earth is known as

extraterestrial radiation.
•  The extraterestrial radiation available at mean sun-earth distance for zero
air mass and 1353 W/𝑚 2 as the solar constant.
•  About 99% of the extraterestrial radiation has wavelengths in the range
from 0.2 to 4 µm with maximum spectral intensity at 0.48 µm (green
portion of visible range).
•  About 6.4% of extraterestrial radiation energy is contained in the
ultraviolet region (λ ˃ 0.38), another 48% is contained in the visible region
(0.38 µm ˂ λ ˂ 0.78 µm) and the remaining 45.6% is contained in the
infrared region (λ˃0.78).
 Solar radiation at the earth’s surface
(Terrestrial radiation)
•  The solar radiation that reaches the earth surface after passing through the earth’s
atmosphere is known as terrestrial radiation.
•  Solar Radiation Types: i)Beam(direct) ii) Diffused iii)Global Radiation

•  A selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs different molecules. The

absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecule and hence rising
their temperatures. Ozone absorb an ultraviolet radiation,𝑁2,
𝑂2 and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and extreme ultraviolet
radiations. 𝐻2O and 𝐶𝑂2absorb almost completely the infrared radiation. Dust
particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiation irrespective of
wavelength.

•  Solar radiation propagation in a straight line and received at the earth

surface without change of direction i.e in line with the sun is called direct
or beam radiation.

•  Solar radiation scattered by dust particle and air molecules (or gaseous
particle of different sizes) is lost (reflected back) to space and the
remaining is directed down ward to the earth’s surface from different
direction is called diffuse radiation. i.e the radiation received at the
earth surface after being subjected to “Scattering” or “absorption” in
the atmosphere is called “diffused radiation”.
•  The energy reflected back to the space by reflection from cloud, scattering
by the atmospheric gases and dust particle, and by reflection from earth
surface is called albedo of earth atmospheric system and has a value of
about 30% of the incoming solar radiation for the earth as a whole.
•  The sum of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to as ‘total or global
radiation ( insulation) .
•  The radiation, therefore, available on the earth’s surface (terrestrial
radiation) is less that what is received outside the earth’s atmosphere
(extraterrestrial radiation).
•  This reduction in intensity depends on atmospheric condition and distance
travelled by beam radiation through the atmosphere before it reaches a
location on the earth’s surface.
•  A term called air mass(m) is often used as a measure of the distance
travelled by beam radiation through the atmosphere before it reaches a
location on the earth’s surface.

mass of the atmosphere through which 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎

𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 passers
𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔,𝒎 = mass it would pass through if the sun is directly
overhead (i.e at the Zenith)
Solar Insolation
•  Solar Insolation is a measure of solar radiation (energy) received on a
given surface area in a given time.

•  It is expressesd as Average Solar irradiance in Watt/meter2 or (KWh/

m2/day) .

•  Solar irradiance is a measure of how much solar power we are getting

at our location.
The inverse square law
The total energy emitted by the sun is 63,000,000 W/sq. m. The intensity
of solar radiation striking the earth is determined by the Inverse Square
Law.
This means that the total radiant energy striking the earth’s surface is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance. For double the
distance, this energy reduces to a quarter of the original energy.
Only about 40% of the solar energy which is intercepted by the earth is
passed through the atmosphere and is available for solar applications.
•  During the process of nuclear fusion, the sun produces energy
that in form of electronicmagnetic waves (radiation).

•  Solar insolation is affected by factors such as atmosphere,

angle of the sun and distance. The thinner the atmosphere in
which the sun is passing through, the more the insolation.

•  Insolation is also at its highest when the sun is directly

overhead in an area. This is also the shortest distance between
the sun and an area. When the angle of the sun to an area
increases, the distance increases, and a lot of energy is lost
through reflection
 Solar radiation measurements
•  Three types of instruments are generally used to measure three
different aspects of solar radiation as follow :

•  To measure global or diffuse radiation: A Pyranometer is

designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal
surface, but can also be used on an inclined surface. Pyranometer
also measure diffused radiation by using a shading ring.

•  To measure beam or direct radiation: A pyrheliometer is used to

measure beam radiation by using a long narrow tube to collect only
beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.
•  To measure sunshine hours in a day: A sunshine recorder is used
to measure the duration in hours or bright sunshine during the course
of the day.
Pyranometer
Note the double glass in the dome and the weatherproof cable coming out of the side
that carries electrical signals, corresponding to the strength of the solar radiation, out to
a computer. Photo by Steve Wilcox courtesy of US Department of Energy/National
Pyranometer
The basic idea of a thermocouple: two dissimilar metals (gray curves) are joined
together at their two ends. If one end of the thermocouple is placed on something
hot (the hot junction) and the other end on something cold (the cold junction), a
voltage (potential difference) develops. You can measure it by placing a
voltmeter (V) across the two junctions.

Thermopile :- A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy
into electrical energy. It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually
in series or, less commonly, in parallel.
 pyrheliometer

A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar

irradiance. Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed
onto a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be
recorded.
pyrheliometer
Sunshine recorder