UNIT1

1. Briefly explain evolution of network architecture from first generation(1G) to fifth

generation(5G) in telecom space.
Key features (technology) of the 1G system

 Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz

 Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels with a bandwidth of 30 KHz)
 Technology: Analogue switching
 Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Mode of service: voice only
 Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Disadvantages of 1G system

 Poor voice quality due to interference

 Poor battery life
 Large-sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)
 Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)
 A limited number of users and cell coverage
 Roaming was not possible between similar systems

2G – Second generation communication system

GSM
The second generation of mobile communication systems introduced a new digital
technology for wireless transmission, also known as Global System for Mobile
Communication (GSM). GSM technology became the base standard for further
development in wireless standards later. This standard was capable of supporting up to
14.4 to 64kbps (maximum) data rate, which is sufficient for SMS and email services.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems developed by Qualcomm were also
introduced and implemented in the mid-1990s. CDMA has more features than GSM
regarding spectral efficiency, number of users, and data rate.

Key features of the 2G system

 The digital system (switching)

 SMS services are possible
 Roaming is possible
 Enhanced security
 Encrypted voice transmission
 First internet at a lower data rate
 Disadvantages of the 2G system
 Low data rate
 Limited mobility
 Less features on mobile devices
 Limited number of users and hardware capability

2.5G and 2.75G system

In order to support higher data rates, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was
introduced and successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rates up to 171kbps
(maximum).
EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution was also developed to improve the data rate for
GSM networks. EDGE was capable of supporting up to 473.6kbps (maximum).
Another popular technology CDMA2000 was also introduced to support higher data rates
for CDMA networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps data rate
(maximum).

3G – Third-generation communication system

Third-generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS –
Universal Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication Systems. UMTS has a data rate of
384kbps, and it supports video calling for the first time on mobile devices.
After the introduction of the 3G mobile communication system, smartphones became
popular across the globe. Specific applications were developed for smartphones that
handle multimedia chat, email, video calling, games, social media, and healthcare.

Key features of the 3G system

 Higher data rate

 Video calling
 Enhanced security, more users, and coverage
 Mobile app support
 Multimedia message support
 Location tracking and maps
 Better web browsing
 TV streaming
 High-quality 3D games

3.5G to 3.75 Systems

In order to enhance the data rate in existing 3G networks, two technology improvements
are introduced to the network. HSDPA – High-Speed Downlink Packet Access and HSUPA
– High-Speed Uplink Packet Access, developed and deployed to the 3G networks. 3.5G
network can support up to 2mbps data rate.
3.75 system is an improved version of the 3G network with HSPA+ High-Speed Packet
Access Plus. Later this system will evolve into a more powerful 3.9G system known
as LTE (Long Term Evolution).
 Disadvantages of 3G systems

 Expensive spectrum licenses

 Costly infrastructure, equipment, and implementation
 Higher bandwidth requirements to support a higher data rate
 Costly mobile devices
 Compatibility with older generation 2G systems and frequency bands

Key features of the 4G system

 Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps

 Enhanced security and mobility
 Reduced latency for mission-critical applications
 High-definition video streaming and gaming
 Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

Disadvantages of the 4G system

 Expensive hardware and infrastructure

 Costly spectrum (in most countries, frequency bands are too expensive)
 High-end mobile devices compatible with 4G technology are required, which is
costly
 Wide deployment and upgrade are time-consuming
2.What is the role of MME? Discuss the functions of MME.

3.Compare and Contrast between access stratum and non access stratum.

In 4G & 5G, the signalling between UE and mobile network can be divided into two types:
the Access Stratum (AS) and the Non-Access Stratum (NAS), each responsible for
different functions.

Access Stratum (AS) signalling handles the radio interface and communication between
the user equipment (UE) and the radio access network (RAN). It deals with the
establishment, maintenance, and termination of radio bearers, which are the logical
channels used to transmit user data and control information over the air interface

Non-Access Stratum (NAS) signalling the handles the signaling and communication
between the UE and the core network (CN). It is responsible for controlling the mobility
and session management of the UE.
4.
With a neat diagram explain LTE evolution and network architecture.

LTE is a standard for wireless broadband communication that offers high data rates,
low latency, and improved spectral efficiency compared to its predecessors.The
initial release of LTE, often referred to as LTE-Advanced, provided a significant boost
in data rates, with a theoretical maximum download speed of 100 Mbps and upload
speed of 50 Mbps. It introduced the use of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access (OFDMA) for downlink and Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
(SC-FDMA) for uplink, enhancing spectral efficiency.The real 4G as designated by
3GPP is LTE-A. LTE uses flat network architecture without radio network
controller(RNC).The base station in 4G is called evolved node B (enodeB).
Radio Access Network (RAN):
The LTE RAN is responsible for wireless communication between User Equipment (UE)
devices and the network.
It includes eNodeBs (Evolved NodeB or base stations) that manage radio resources,
handle handovers, and provide the wireless link to UEs.
Evolved Packet Core (EPC):The EPC is the core network of LTE, responsible for packet-
switched data transmission.
Key components of the EPC include the MME (Mobility Management Entity), SGW
(Serving Gateway), and PDN GW (Packet Data Network Gateway).
Backhaul and Transport Network:
The LTE network includes a backhaul and transport network that connects eNodeBs and
core network elements.
This network uses various technologies like fiber optics, microwave links, and Ethernet
to ensure high-speed data transmission.LTE supports voice services through
technologies like VoLTE (Voice over LTE) or CSFB (Circuit Switched Fallback), ensuring
backward compatibility with older networks.

5. With a Neat diagram explain protocol stack for control plane and user plane.
USER PLANE

CONTROL PLANE

1. Upper Layers:
- RRC (Radio Resource Control)
- PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol)
- RLC (Radio Link Control)
- MAC (Medium Access Control)
- SDAP (Service Data Adaptation Protocol)

2. Lower Layers:
- PHY (Physical Layer)

The gNodeB, also known as the gNB, is a key component in the 5G RAN and is
responsible for radio transmission and reception. Let's explore the functionalities of
the gNodeB:

gNodeB (gNB) Functionalities:

1. Radio Resource Control (RRC): The RRC layer manages the radio resources,
connection setup, mobility procedures, and other radio-related control functions. It
is responsible for configuring and reconfiguring the gNB and UE (User Equipment) for
various services and states.
2. PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol): PDCP is responsible for packet data
delivery and header compression. It ensures the integrity and confidentiality of user
data by applying encryption and integrity protection. PDCP also performs header
compression to reduce overhead.

3. RLC (Radio Link Control): RLC provides error correction, retransmission, and
segmentation of data units. It ensures reliable data transmission over the radio link.
RLC can operate in three modes: Transparent Mode, Unacknowledged Mode, and
Acknowledged Mode.

4. MAC (Medium Access Control): MAC is responsible for scheduling and controlling
access to the physical resources. It coordinates the transmission and reception of
data between the gNB and UE. It also manages the uplink and downlink scheduling.

5. Service Data Adaptation Protocol (SDAP): SDAP is responsible for mapping QoS
(Quality of Service) flows to logical channels and their corresponding QoS
requirements. It ensures that the QoS requirements of different services are met in
the radio interface.

6. Physical Layer (PHY): The PHY layer is responsible for the actual transmission and
reception of radio signals. It modulates the data onto the carrier waves, performs
error correction coding, and manages the transmission of data symbols. It includes
functionalities such as OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing),
beamforming, and MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output).

6 Write a brief note on HSS

7 Explain in detail NAS Procedures with neat diagram

The NAS is used to convey non-radio signalling between the User Equipment (UE)
and the Mobility Management Entity (MME).The NAS procedures are grouped in two
categories:
EPS Mobility Management (EMM)
refers to procedures related to mobility over an E-UTRAN access, authentication and
security
EPS Session Management (ESM)
procedures to support the establishment and handling of user data in the NAS.
EMM Common Procedure
Network-initiated procedures :
GUTI reallocation - (Global Unique Temporary ID),Authentication
,Security Mode Control,UE Identification
EMM Specific Procedure UE-initiated procedures :
Attach
Detach
Tracking Area Update
EMM connection management procedures:
Supports the connection of the UE to the network
Service Request : UE- initiated
Paging : Network initiated
Transport of NAS message
EPS bearer procedures:
Network-initiated procedures
Provide mechanisms for activation, deactivation or modification of EPS bearers

8 What is serving gateway? Explain the functions of serving gateway.

The serving gateway is a network element that manages the user data path
(SAE bearers) within EPC.
A serving gateway is controlled by one or more MMEs via S11 interface.
At a given time, the UE is connected to the EPC via a single Serving-GW.
9 Write a brief note on subscriber identity module.

A SIM card (full form: Subscriber Identity Module or Subscriber Identification Module) is an integrated

circuit (IC) intended to securely store an international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) number and

its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices

(such as mobile phones and laptops).Function of SIM Card

SIM card stores a lot of information and also brings essential pieces of data back and
forth to the network of customers and holds some of their private and personal data
as well. The list of information stored by SIM is

 Address details

 Text messages

 Personal security keys

 Phone number

 Data regarding network authorization.

 Other data.

A few crucial data carried by SIM are listed below.

 IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)

 Unique serial number

 Security information

 Brief details related to the local network.

10. Briefly explain the following interfaces i)S1-C ii)X2-C iii)S5 iv)S10 v)Gx vi)S11.

X2-C is used for control plane signaling, such as handover preparation, load balancing, and
interference coordination.The X2 interface is used for communication between RAN nodes in non-
standalone operation, such as between eNBs in LTE and between en-gNBs and eNBs in 5G. The
Xn interface is a new interface specified for communication between RAN nodes in standalone
operation, such as between ng-eNBs and gNBs.
The S1 interface consists of S1-MME for the control plane, while the S1AP is the application layer
signaling protocol. S1-MME, also known as S1-C, is the reference point for the control plane protocol
between E-UTRAN and the MME. S1-MME uses the SCTP protocol stack for S1AP control plane
transport.

S5 interface provides user plane tunneling and tunnel management function

between the serving gateway and PDN gateway. It enables serving gateway
to connect to multiple PDN gateways for providing different IP services to the
LTE UE. Also used for serving gateway relocation associated with the UE
mobility.

S10 It is the reference point between MMEs. It is used for user information
transfer as well as MME relocation support. It is defined in 29.274
GTPv2-C.

S11 The S11 interface is used between MME and S-GW. It is used to
interface support mobility and bearer management.

The Gx interface is located between the Policy and Charging Enforcement

Function (PCEF) and the Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) The Gx
interface is used for provisioning and removal of PCC rules from the PCRF to
the PCEF and the transmission of traffic plane events from the PCEF to the
PCRF.
11. With the neat diagram explain 2G GSM general architecture
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the 2G GSM network architecture that is fundamentally associated
with communicating with the mobiles on the network.

It consists of two elements:

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter
receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The
BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the
two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols.

 Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a
group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and
controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with
the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.
The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It is
essentially a data network with a various entities that provide the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile
network.

12 Explain the functionalities of policy and charging rule functions.

13 What is PDN Gateway? Discuss PDN Gateway functions.

The PDN gateway (or P-GW or PDN-GW) provides the connection between
EPC and a number of external data networks.
It is comparable to GGSN in 2G/3G networks.
A major functionality provided by a PDN gateway is the QoS coordination
between the external PDN and EPC.

14 Discuss about LTE mobility areas with diagram showing the cell and the tracking area
15 Discuss the significance of eNodeB and list out the various functionalities of the same

An eNodeB, which stands for Evolved Node B, is a critical component in Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
and 4G wireless networks. It plays a central role in the functioning of these networks, and its
significance lies in its multiple functionalities and responsibilities, which are vital for the delivery
of high-speed wireless data services.eNodeB is responsible for radio communication with User
Equipment (UE), also known as mobile devices. It handles the transmission and reception of data
between the UE and the core network, making it the primary interface for wireless
communication.eNodeB manages radio resources efficiently, ensuring that the available
spectrum is used optimally. This involves activities like allocating and releasing radio resources,
handovers, and power control to provide the best possible connection quality for UEs. eNodeB is
responsible for ensuring the security and privacy of data transmissions. It applies encryption and
integrity protection to the data sent between the eNodeB and the UE, safeguarding against
eavesdropping and unauthorized access.eNodeB is responsible for scheduling data transmissions
for UEs. It allocates resources and determines when and how UEs can transmit and receive data.
This dynamic resource allocation contributes to the efficient use of available bandwidth.
16 Briefly explain following terminologies i)CDMA ii)EDGE iii)EDGE+ iv)WCDMA.

Code-division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by

various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several
transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows
several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). To permit this without undue
interference between the users, CDMA employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding
scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code)

Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), also known

as 2.75G, Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), and Enhanced Data rates for
Global Evolution, is a digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates as
a backward-compatible extension of GSM. EDGE is considered a pre-3G radio technology and is part
of ITU's 3G definition.In addition to Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), EDGE uses higher-order
PSK/8 phase-shift keying (8PSK) for the upper five of its nine modulation and coding schemes.
EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase

WCDMA is the 3G network that uses radiofrequency to transfer data in the form of
calls, messages, or the internet which is also called UMTS.Wideband CDMA is a third-
generation (3G) wireless standard which allows use of both voice and data and offers data speeds
of up to 384 Kbps.One major advantage of WCDMA is its ability to handle large
amounts of data, making it well-suited for applications such as mobile internet
browsing and streaming video. It also has good coverage and reliability, as it is
able to transmit signals over long distances and through physical barriers such
as walls and buildings.
17 What is serving gateway? Explain the functions of serving gateway.

The serving gateway is a network element that manages the user data path
(SAE bearers) within EPC.

18 Briefly explain duplexing techniques FDD & TDD with suitable plots

Duplexing techniques define ways for simultaneous transmission and

reception of user information.

Cellular networks use FDD to separate the channels. One block of the electromagnetic
spectrum is allocated for uplink, which carries data from mobile phones to a base station.
A different block of the spectrum is allocated to downlink, carrying data from a base
station to mobile phones. Each of the blocks are divided into a number of channels.
 Examples of FDD systems include the following:

 Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and very-high-bitrate digital

subscriber line (VDSL)

 Cellular systems, including the UMTS/WCDMA Frequency Division Duplexing

mode and the CDMA2000 system

 IEEE 802.16 WiMax Frequency Division Duplexing mode