1.

Operating System – Overview

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware.
An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management,
memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling
peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating
System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.

Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of the important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management

 Processor Management

 Device Management

 File Management
  Security

 Control over system performance

 Job accounting

 Error detecting aids

 Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.

Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a
program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the
following activities for memory management:

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.

 In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how
much.

 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.

 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when
and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System
does the following activities for processor management:
  Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this
task is known as traffic controller.

 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.

 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does
the following activities for device management:

 Keeps tracks of all devices. The program responsible for this task is known as the

I/O controller.

 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.

 Allocates the device in the most efficient way.

 De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions.

2
 Operating System

An Operating System does the following activities for file management:

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.

 Decides who gets the resources.

 Allocates the resources.

 De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs:

 Security -- By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents

unauthorized access to programs and data.

 Control over system performance -- Recording delays between request for a

service and response from the system.

 Job accounting -- Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and
users.

 Error detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other
debugging and error detecting aids.

 Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and

assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various
users of the computer systems.
 2. Operating System ─ Types Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they keep evolving
with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important types of operating systems
which are most commonly used.

Batch Operating System

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer
operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts
the programs with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows:

 Lack of interaction between the user and the job.

 CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the
CPU.

 Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Time-sharing Operating Systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use
a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical
extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that
in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas
in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.

Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so
frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction
processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of
computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When
the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with
a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems
have been modified to time-sharing systems.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows:

  Provides the advantage of quick response

 Avoids duplication of software

 Reduces CPU idle time

Operating System

Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows:

 Problem of reliability

 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data

 Problem of data communication

Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications
and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.

The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such
as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems
or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function.
These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

The advantages of distributed systems are as follows:

 With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources
available at another.

 Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.

 If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.

 Better service to the customers.

 Reduction of the load on the host computer.

  Reduction of delays in data processing.

Network Operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The
primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private
network or to other networks.

Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft
Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

The advantages of network operating systems are as follows:

 Centralized servers are highly stable.

 Security is server managed.

 Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the
system.

 Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.

The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows:

 High cost of buying and running a server.

 Dependency on a central location for most operations.

 Regular maintenance and updates are required.

Real-Time Operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The
time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very
less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a
processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a
dedicated application. A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time
constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time
systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these
systems, virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other
tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility
than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific
Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.

3. Operating System ─ Services

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.

Following are a few common services provided by an operating system:

 Program execution

 I/O operations

 File System manipulation

 Communication

 Error Detection

 Resource Allocation

 Protection
Program Execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs
like printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as
a process.

A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate,
registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system
with respect to program management:

 Loads a program into memory

 Executes the program

 Handles program's execution

 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization

 Provides a mechanism for process communication

 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling

I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers
hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.

An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.

 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

erating System

File System Manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include
magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has
its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to file management:

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.

 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied, and so on.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.

 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.

 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share
memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications
between all the processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through
communication lines in the network.

The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and
security. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
communication:

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them.

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are
connected through a computer network.

 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or

by Message Passing.

Error Handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
error handling:

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

  The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU
cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major
activities of an operating system with respect to resource management:

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.

Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or

users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of
an operating system with respect to protection:

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.

 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.

. Operating System ─ PropertiesOperating System

Batch Processing
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and
data together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following
activities related to batch processing:
  The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and
data as a single unit.

 The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.

 Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.

 When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the
job gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.

Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.

 Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is
finished, without any manual intervention.

Disadvantages

 Difficult to debug programs.

 A job could enter an infinite loop.

 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect other pending jobs.

Multitasking
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching
between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program
while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking:

 The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and
receives an immediate response.

 The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations /
executes multiple programs at a time.

 Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.

 These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer

system at a reasonable cost.

 A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and

multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.


 Each user has at least one separate program in memory.

 A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a

process.

 When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it
either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
  Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to
complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.

 The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since
each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU
time is needed for each user.

 As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is
given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is
being shared among many users.

Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is
referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor.
Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has
one to execute.

The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.

An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.

 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.

 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
  Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and
system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is
never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.

Advantage

 High and efficient CPU utilization.

 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.

12
 Operating System

Disadvantages

 CPU scheduling is required.

 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Interactivity
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating
system does the following activities related to interactivity:

 Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.

 Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.

 Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.

The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the
result.

Real-Time Systems
Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the
following activities related to real-time system activity.

 In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.

 The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of
time to ensure correct performance.

Distributed Environment
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer
system. An operating system does the following activities related to distributed
environment:

 The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.

 The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own
local memory.
  The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate
with each other through various communication lines.

Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to
putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard
disk which is accessible to I/O devices.

An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment:

 Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.

 Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest
while the slower device catches up.

 Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can

perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data
from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its
computing task.

Advantages
 The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.

 Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations
for another job.
 5. Operating System ─ Processes

Process
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a
sequential fashion.

A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be

implemented in the system.
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we
execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the
program.

When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into
four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a
process inside main memory:

15
Operating
System
 S.N
. Component & Description

Stack
1 The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function
parameters, return address, and local variables.

Heap
2
This is a dynamically allocated memory to a process during its runtime.

Text
3 This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter
and the contents of the processor's registers.

Data
4
This section contains the global and static variables.

Program
A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A computer
program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. For
example, here is a simple program written in C programming language:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \
n"); return 0;
}

A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when

executed by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can conclude
that a process is a dynamic instance of a computer program.

A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm.

A collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as a software.

Process Life Cycle

When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ in
different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not standardized.

In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.
S.N
. State & Description

1 Start
This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.
 Operating System

Ready
The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting
2 to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can
run. Process may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but
interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.

Running
3 Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the
process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.

Waiting
4 Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as
waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.

Terminated or Exit
5 Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating
system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from
main memory.

Process Control Block (PCB)

A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for every
process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information
needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table:

S.N
. Information & Description

Process State
1 The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or
whatever.

Process privileges
2
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.

Process ID
3
Unique identification for each of the processes in the operating system.

4 Pointer
 A pointer to parent process.

17

Program Counter
5 Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be
executed for this process.

CPU registers
6 Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for
running state.

CPU Scheduling Information

7 Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule
the process.

Memory management information

8 This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table
depending on memory used by the operating system.

Accounting information
9 This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits,
execution ID etc.

IO status information
10
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.

The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain
different information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB:
The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the process
terminates.

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 6. Operating system ─ Process SchedulingOpratingSystem

Definition
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of
the running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a
particular strategy.

Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such

operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at
a time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.

Process Scheduling Queues

The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a separate
queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state
are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked
from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.

The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues:

 Job queue - This queue keeps all the processes in the system.

 Ready queue - This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory,
ready and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.

 Device queues - The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O
device constitute this queue.

The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.).
The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run
 19
Operating System

queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the above
diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.

Two-State Process Model

Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are described
below.

S.N
. State & Description

Running
1 When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running
state.

Not Running
Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to
execute. Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is
2 implemented by using linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a
process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting queue. If the
process has completed or aborted, the process is discarded. In either case, the
dispatcher then selects a process from the queue to execute.

Schedulers
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various ways.
Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to decide which
process to run. Schedulers are of three types:

 Long-Term Scheduler

 Short-Term Scheduler

 Medium-Term Scheduler

Long-Term Scheduler
It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which programs are
admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them
into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.

The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O
bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree
of multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to
the average departure rate of processes leaving the system.
On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing
operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the state from
new to ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.

Short-Term Scheduler
It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system performance in
accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state to running
state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are ready to
execute and allocates CPU to one of them.

Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to
execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.

Medium-Term Scheduler
Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the memory.
It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of
handling the swapped out-processes.

A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A suspended processes
cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from
memory and make space for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the secondary
storage. This process is called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out or rolled
out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.

Comparison among Schedulers

S. Long-Term Short-Term Medium-Term
N. Scheduler Scheduler
Scheduler

It is a process swapping
1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler
scheduler.

Speed is in between both

Speed is lesser than Speed is fastest among
2 short and long term
short term scheduler other two
scheduler.

It provides lesser
It controls the degree control
of It reduces the degree of
3 over degree of
multiprogramming multiprogramming.
multiprogramming

It is almost absent or It is also minimal in It is a part of Time

time sharing
4 minimal in time sharing sharing system systems.
system
 It selects processes It can re-introduce the
It selects those
from pool and loads process into memory and
5 processes which are
them into memory for execution can be
ready to execute
execution continued.

Context Switch
A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in
Process Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the same point at a
later time. Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple processes to share a
single CPU. Context switching is an essential part of a multitasking operating system
features.

When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute another, the
state from the current running process is stored into the process control block. After this, the
state for the process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers,
etc. At that point, the second process can start executing.
Context switches are computationally intensive since register and memory state must be
saved and restored. To avoid the amount of context switching time, some hardware systems
employ two or more sets of processor registers. When the process is switched, the following
information is stored for later use.

 Program Counter

 Scheduling information

 Base and limit register value

 Currently used register

 Changed State

 I/O State information

 Accounting information

 What is a Thread?

 A thread is a flow of execution through the process code, with its own program
counter that keeps track of which instruction to execute next, system registers which hold its
current working variables, and a stack which contains the execution history.

 A thread shares with its peer threads few information like code segment, data
segment and open files. When one thread alters a code segment memory item, all other
threads see that.

 A thread is also called a lightweight process. Threads provide a way to improve
application performance through parallelism. Threads represent a software approach to
improving performance of operating system by reducing the overhead thread is equivalent to
a classical process.

 Each thread belongs to exactly one process and no thread can exist outside a
process. Each thread represents a separate flow of control. Threads have been successfully
used in implementing network servers and web server. They also provide a suitable
foundation for parallel execution of applications on shared memory multiprocessors. The
following figure shows the working of a single-threaded and a multithreaded process.

 Operating
System

Difference between Process and Thread

S.
N. Process Thread

Process is heavy weight or

resource Thread is lightweight, taking lesser
1
intensive. resources than a process.

Process switching needs

interaction Thread switching does not need to
2
with operating system. interact with operating system.

In multiple processing
environments, each All threads can share same set of
process open
3 executes the same code but has
its files, child processes.
own memory and file resources.

If one process is blocked, then no While one thread is blocked and

other process can execute until
4 the waiting, a second thread in the same
first process is unblocked. task can run.

Multipl processes usin

e without g Multiple threaded processes use fewer
5 threads use more
resources. resources.

In multiple processes each

process
operat independently One thread can read, write or change
6 es of the
another thread's data.
others.
Advantages of Thread
 Threads minimize the context switching time.

 Use of threads provides concurrency within a process.

 Efficient communication.

 It is more economical to create and context switch threads.

 Threads allow utilization of multiprocessor architectures to a greater scale and

efficiency.

Types of Thread
Threads are implemented in following two ways:

 User Level Threads -- User managed threads

 Kernel Level Threads -- Operating System managed threads acting on kernel, an

operating system core.

Multithreading Models
Some operating system provide a combined user level thread and Kernel level thread facility.
Solaris is a good example of this combined approach. In a combined system, multiple threads
within the same application can run in parallel on multiple processors and a blocking system
call need not block the entire process. Multithreading models are three types

 Many-to-many relationship

 Many-to-one relationship

 One-to-one relationship

Many-to-Many Model
The many-to-many model multiplexes any number of user threads onto an equal or smaller
number of kernel threads.
The following diagram shows the many-to-many threading model where 6 user level threads
are multiplexing with 6 kernel level threads. In this model, developers can create as many
user threads as necessary and the corresponding Kernel threads can run in parallel on a
multiprocessor machine. This model provides the best accuracy on concurrency and when a
thread performs a blocking system call, the kernel can schedule another thread for
execution.

Many-to-One Model
Many-to-one model maps many user level threads to one Kernel-level thread. Thread
management is done in user space by the thread library. When thread makes a blocking
system call, the entire process will be blocked. Only one thread can access the Kernel at a
time, so multiple threads are unable to run in parallel on multiprocessors.
If the user-level thread libraries are implemented in the operating system in such a way that
the system does not support them, then the Kernel threads use the many-to-one relationship
modes.
One-to-One Model
There is one-to-one relationship of user-level thread to the kernel-level thread. This model
provides more concurrency than the many-to-one model. It also allows another thread to run
when a thread makes a blocking system call. It supports multiple threads to execute in
parallel on microprocessors.

Disadvantage of this model is that creating user thread requires the corresponding Kernel
thread. OS/2, windows NT and windows 2000 use one to one relationship model.

Difference between User-Level & Kernel-Level Thread

S.
N. User-Level Threads Kernel-Level Thread

1 User-level threads are faster to Kernel-level threads are slower to create

create and manage. and manage.
 Implementation is by a thread Operating system supports creation of
2
library at the user level. Kernel threads.

User-level thread is generic and

can Kernel-level thread is specific to the
3
run on any operating system. operating system.

Multi-threaded applications cannot Kernel routines themselves can be

4 take advantage of
multiprocessing. multithreaded.

Inter Process Communication

Interprocess communication is the mechanism provided by the operating system that allows processes
to communicate with each other. This communication could involve a process letting another process
know that some event has occurred or the transferring of data from one process to another.

A diagram that illustrates interprocess communication is as follows −

Approaches to Interprocess Communication

The different approaches to implement interprocess communication are given as follows −

1) Pipe
A pipe is a data channel that is unidirectional. Two pipes can be used to create a two-way
data channel between two processes. This uses standard input and output methods. Pipes
are used in all POSIX systems as well as Windows operating systems.
 2) Socket
The socket is the endpoint for sending or receiving data in a network. This is true for data
sent between processes on the same computer or data sent between different computers
on the same network. Most of the operating systems use sockets for interprocess
communication.
3) File
A file is a data record that may be stored on a disk or acquired on demand by a file server.
Multiple processes can access a file as required. All operating systems use files for data
storage.
4) Signal
Signals are useful in interprocess communication in a limited way. They are system messages
that are sent from one process to another. Normally, signals are not used to transfer data
but are used for remote commands between processes.
5) Shared Memory
Shared memory is the memory that can be simultaneously accessed by multiple processes.
This is done so that the processes can communicate with each other. All POSIX systems, as
well as Windows operating systems use shared memory.
6) Message Queue
Multiple processes can read and write data to the message queue without being connected
to each other. Messages are stored in the queue until their recipient retrieves them.
Message queues are quite useful for interprocess communication and are used by most
operating systems.

A Process can be two types

1)Independent process

It is a process which is independent and it is not affected by other processes executing in the system.
Any process that does not share data with any other process is independent.

2)Cooperative process

It is a process which is cooperative and is affected by other processes executing in the system. Any
process that shares data with another process is called a cooperative process.

Process Synchronization in OS (Operating System)

When two or more process cooperates with each other, their order of execution must be preserved
otherwise there can be conflicts in their execution and inappropriate outputs can be produced.

A cooperative process is the one which can affect the execution of other process or can be affected
by the execution of other process. Such processes need to be synchronized so that their order of
execution can be guaranteed.

Race Condition

A Race Condition typically occurs when two or more threads try to read, write and possibly make the
decisions based on the memory that they are accessing concurrently.

Critical Section
The regions of a program that try to access shared resources and may cause race conditions are
called critical section. To avoid race condition among the processes, we need to assure that only one
process at a time can execute within the critical section.

Solutions To The Critical Section Problem

Peterson's solution
Peterson's approach to critical section problems is extensively utilized. It is a classical software-
based solution.

The solution is based on the idea that when a process is executing in a critical section, then the other
process executes the rest of the code and vice-versa is also possible, i.e., this solution makes sure
that only one process executes the critical section at any point in time.

In Peterson's solution, we have two shared variables that are used by the processes.

A boolean Flag[]: A boolean array Flag which is initialized to FALSE. This Flag array represents which
process is which process wants to enter into the critical solution.

int Turn: An integer variable Turn indicates the process number that is ready to enter into the critical
section.

do{
//A process Pi wants to enter into the critical section

//The ith index of flag is set

Flag[i] = True;
Turn = i;
while(Flag[i] && Turn == i);

{ Critical Section };

Flag[i] = False;
// another process can go to Critical Section
Turn = j;

Remainder Section

} while ( True);

Synchronization Hardware
Hardware can occasionally assist in the solving of critical section issues. Some operating systems
provide a lock feature.

When a process enters a critical section, it is given a lock, which the process must release before the
process can exit the critical section. As a result, additional processes are unable to access a critical
section if anyone process is already using the section. The lock can have either of the two values, 0
or 1.

Mutex Locks
Implementation of Synchronization hardware is not an easy method, which is why Mutex Locks were
introduced.

Mutex is a locking mechanism used to synchronize access to a resource in the critical section. In this
method, we use a LOCK over the critical section. The LOCK is set when a process enters from the
entry section, and it gets unset when the process exits from the exit section.

Semaphores
A semaphore is a signaling mechanism, and a process can signal a process that is waiting on a
semaphore. This differs from a mutex in that the mutex can only be notified by the process that sets
the shared lock. Semaphores make use of the wait() and signal() functions for synchronization
among the processes.

There are two kinds of semaphores:

Binary Semaphores
Binary Semaphores can only have one of two values: 0 or 1. Because of their capacity to ensure
mutual exclusion, they are also known as mutex locks.

A single binary semaphore is shared between multiple processes.

When the semaphore is set to 1, it means some process is working on its critical section, and other
processes need to wait, and if the semaphore is set to 0, that means any process can enter the
critical section.

Hence, whenever the binary semaphore is set to 0, any process can then enter its critical section by
setting the binary semaphore to 1. When it has completed its critical section, it can reset the binary
semaphore to 0, enabling another process to enter it.

Counting Semaphores
Counting Semaphores can have any value and are not limited to a certain area. They can be used to
restrict access to a resource that has a concurrent access limit.
Initially, the counting semaphores are set to the maximum amount of processes that can access the
resource at a time. Hence, the counting semaphore indicates that a process can access the resource
if it has a value greater than 0. If it is set to 0, no other process can access the resource. Hence,

When a process wants to use that resource, it first checks to see if the value of the counting
semaphore is more than zero.

If yes, the process can then proceed to access the resource, which involves reducing the value of the
counting semaphore by one.

When the process completes its critical section code, it can increase the value of the counting
semaphore, making way for some other process to access it.

Classical Problems of Process Synchronization

1. Bounded Buffer Problem

A producer attempts to insert data into a buffer slot that is empty. Data is attempted to be removed
from a filled slot in the buffer by a consumer. If those two processes are run simultaneously, the
output won't be what was anticipated. There must be a way to enable the independent operation of
the producer and consumer.

Solution:

The use of semaphores is one solution for this issue.

● m, a binary semaphore that is used to acquire and release the lock, is the semaphore that
will be used in this situation.
● Given that all slots are initially empty, empty is a counting semaphore whose initial value is
the number of slots in the buffer.
● A counting semaphore with a starting value of 0 is called "full."
● The number of empty slots in the buffer is represented by the current value of empty, and
the number of occupied slots in the buffer is represented by the current value of full.

The structure of the producer process

 while (true) {
... /* produce an item in next_produced */
...
wait(empty);
wait(mutex);
...
/* add next produced to the buffer */
...
signal(mutex);
signal(full);

2. Readers-Writers problem

The first reader-writer conflict gives readers precedence. If a reader requests access to the data in
this issue and a writer is not already using it, access is given to the reader. A solution to this issue
might starve the writers because there will always be more readers who want to access the
information. As long as there is another reader accessing the data, a steady stream of readers will
jump ahead of waiting writers (because the writer is forced to wait until the data is idle, which may
never happen if there are enough readers).

The second reader-writers conflict gives writers priority. When a writer wants access to the data in
this problem, they jump to the front of the line, blocking all other readers from accessing the data
until the writer has it. The readers in this solution might go hungry due to the constant flow of
writers.

The structure of a writer process

while (true) {
wait(rw_mutex);
...
/* writing is performed */
...
signal(rw_mutex);

}
THE DINING PHILOSOPHERS PROBLEM
The dining philosopher's problem is the classical problem of synchronization which says that Five
philosophers are sitting around a circular table and their job is to think and eat alternatively. A bowl
of noodles is placed at the center of the table along with five chopsticks for each of the
philosophers. To eat a philosopher needs both their right and a left chopstick. A philosopher can
only eat if both immediate left and right chopsticks of the philosopher is available. In case if both
immediate left and right chopsticks of the philosopher are not available then the philosopher puts
down their (either left or right) chopstick and starts thinking again.

The dining philosopher demonstrates a large class of concurrency control problems hence it's a
classic synchronization problem.

Five Philosophers sitting around the table

Dining Philosophers Problem- Let's understand the Dining Philosophers Problem with the below
code, we have used fig 1 as a reference to make you understand the problem exactly. The five
Philosophers are represented as P0, P1, P2, P3, and P4 and five chopsticks by C0, C1, C2, C3, and C4.

The solution of the Dining Philosophers Problem

We use a semaphore to represent a chopstick and this truly acts as a solution of the Dining
Philosophers Problem. Wait and Signal operations will be used for the solution of the Dining
Philosophers Problem, for picking a chopstick wait operation can be executed while for releasing a
chopstick signal semaphore can be executed.

Semaphore: A semaphore is an integer variable in S, that apart from initialization is accessed by only
two standard atomic operations - wait and signal, whose definitions are as follows:

1. wait( S )
{
while( S <= 0) ;
S--;
}

2. signal( S )
{
S++;
}