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Sentence

The document discusses the four major types of sentences: declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives, and exclamatives, along with their specific uses in communication. It details various forms of interrogative sentences, such as yes-no questions, wh-questions, and rhetorical questions, as well as the structure of imperative and exclamative sentences. Additionally, it introduces the concept of speech acts, emphasizing the communicative purpose behind different sentence types.

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13 views4 pages

Sentence

The document discusses the four major types of sentences: declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives, and exclamatives, along with their specific uses in communication. It details various forms of interrogative sentences, such as yes-no questions, wh-questions, and rhetorical questions, as well as the structure of imperative and exclamative sentences. Additionally, it introduces the concept of speech acts, emphasizing the communicative purpose behind different sentence types.

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Thùy Dương
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Sentences and Clauses 121

6
Sentences and Clauses

6.1 Sentence types


In 2.4 I listed the four major types of sentences that are associated with four major
uses in communication:
1. declaratives for statements
2. interrogatives for questions
3. imperatives for directives
4. exclamatives for exclamations
Most of the sentences that we have looked at so far have been declaratives. In the
sections that follow we will examine the other three types of sentences.

6.2 Questions
There are two main types of interrogative sentences:
1. Yes–no questions begin with a verb. They require subject–operator inver-
sion; that is, a reversal of the order of subject and verb (the order that is normal in
declaratives). The verb that appears before the subject is an operator (cf. 3.3f ):

Should (op) the government (S) cut income taxes?


Does (op) this shop (S) open 24 hours every day?

They are called yes–no questions because they expect the answer yes or no. They
may in fact be answered in other ways; for example, Certainly; Perhaps; I don’t
know; What do you think?
2. Wh-questions begin with an interrogative word or phrase:

Why should the government cut income taxes?


On which days does this shop open 24 hours?

They are called wh-questions because most of the interrogative words begin with wh-
(the exception is how). The interrogative phrases contain an interrogative word
such as which in On which days. The interrogative word in wh-questions represents
a missing piece of information that the speaker wants the hearer to supply.
122 An Introduction to English Grammar

Wh-questions generally require subject–operator inversion too. The exception


occurs when the interrogative word or phrase is the subject, and in that case the
normal subject–verb order applies:

Who has taken my car?


Which bus goes to Chicago?

There are also several other types of questions.


3. Declarative questions have the form of a declarative sentence but the force
of a question. They are signalled by a rising intonation in speech and by a question
mark in writing:

You know my name?


He’s got the key?

4. Alternative questions present two or more choices, and the hearer is


expected to reply with one of them. One type of alternative question resembles the
form of yes–no questions:

Should the government reduce its deficit by raising income taxes or by


cutting expenditure?

The other type resembles wh-questions:

Which do you want, coffee or tea?

5. Tag questions are attached to sentences that are not interrogative. They
invite the hearer to respond in agreement with the speaker:

The government should cut income taxes, shouldn’t it?


You haven’t said anything yet, have you?

Tag questions have the form of yes–no questions. They consist of an operator and
a pronoun subject that echo the subject and operator of the sentence. The tag
question is usually negative if the sentence is positive, and positive if the sentence
is negative. Tag questions can be attached to imperative sentences; generally in
these the subject is you and the operator is will:

Don’t tell him, will you?


Make yourself at home, won’t you?

6. Rhetorical questions do not expect a reply since they are the equivalent of
forceful statements. If the rhetorical question is positive it has negative force, and
Sentences and Clauses 123

if it is negative it has positive force. The questions may resemble either yes–no
questions or wh-questions:

Is there anything more relaxing than a hot bath? (‘Surely there isn’t . . .’)
Haven’t you eyes? (‘Surely you have eyes.’)
Who could defend such a view? (‘Surely no one could . . .’)

6.3 Imperatives
Imperative sentences usually do not have a subject. If there is no auxiliary, the verb
has the base form:

Take a seat.
Pass me the bottle.
Make me an offer.

Modal auxiliaries do not occur with imperatives, and the only auxiliary that occurs
with any frequency is passive be (usually in the negative):

Don’t be carried away with the idea.

The pronoun you may be added as a second person subject:

You make me an offer.

Occasionally, a third person subject is used:

Somebody make me an offer.


Those in the front row sit down.

First and third person imperatives may be formed with let and a subject:

Let us go now.
Let’s not tell him.
Don’t let’s talk about it.
Let me think what I should do.
Let nobody move.

6.4 Exclamatives
Exclamatives begin with what or how. What introduces noun phrases; how is used
for all other purposes. The exclamative word or (more commonly) phrase is
fronted:
124 An Introduction to English Grammar

What a good show it was! (‘It was an extremely good show.’)


What a time we’ve had!
How hard she works!
How strange they look!
How time flies! (‘Time flies extremely fast’)

Exclamative sentences express strong feeling. More specifically, they indicate


the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something. What and how are
intensifiers expressing a high degree.

6.5 Speech acts


When we say or write something, we are performing an action. This action expressed
in words is a speech act. The intended effect in a speech act is the communicative
purpose of the speech act.
In Section 2.4 I referred to four major communicative uses associated with the
four major types of sentences. We have already seen (cf. 6.2) that a sentence type
may have a communicative use other than the one normally associated with it: a
declarative question is a declarative sentence with the force of a question; a rhetori-
cal question, on the other hand, is an interrogative sentence with the force of a
statement.
There are many more than four types of communicative purpose. Directly or
indirectly, we may convey our intention to promise, predict, warn, complain, offer,
advise, and so on. The communicative purpose of a speech act depends on the
particular context in which the act is performed. Here are some sentences, together
with plausible interpretations of their purpose if they are uttered as speech acts:

It’s getting late. (request for someone to leave with the speaker)
Tell me your phone number. (inquiry – request for information)
There is a prospect of heavy thunderstorms later in the day. (prediction)
I’m afraid that I’ve broken your vase. (apology)
Break it, and you’ll pay for it. (warning)
Do you want a seat? (offer)
I nominate Tony Palmer. (nomination)
Enjoy yourself. (wish)
Don’t touch. (prohibition)
I won’t be late. (promise)
It would be a good idea to send a copy to the manager. (advice)

The purpose may be merely to make a friendly gesture, where silence might be
interpreted as hostility or indifference:

It’s a nice day, isn’t it? (ostensibly information)


How are you? (ostensibly an inquiry)

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