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INDEX Unit-1
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY
S. No. Unit Page No.
Agricultural meteorology is the branch of applied meteorology which deals with the response
of crops and animals to the physical environment. It is the study of physical process of the
atmosphere that produces weather in relation to agricultural production.
1. Meaning and scope of agricultural meteorology; Earth 3-8
It is the science investigating the meteorological, climatological and hydrological
atmosphere- its composition, extent and structure; Atmospheric
conditions which are significant for agriculture owing to their interaction with the objects and
weather variables
process of agricultural production.

2. Atmospheric pressure, its variation with height; Wind, types of 9-17 Scope of Agricultural Meteorology
wind, daily and seasonal variation of wind speed, cyclone,
▶ To study climatic resources of given area for effective production.
anticyclone, land breeze and sea breeze
▶ To quantify favourable weather normal for effective farm operations.
3. Nature and properties of solar radiation, solar constant, depletion 18-29
▶ To develop crop/animal weather relationships for estimation of animal/crops productivity.
of solar radiation, short wave, long wave and thermal radiation,
net radiation, albedo ▶ To study weather- crop pest and disease relationships.

▶ To modify micro climatic for increasing agricultural productivity.

4. Atmospheric temperature, temperature inversion, lapse rate, daily 30-41
and seasonal variations of temperature, vertical profile of ▶ To delineate agro-ecological zones for efficient use of resources and fast transfer of
temperature, Energy balance of earth technology.

▶ To prepare crop weather diagrams and crop weather calendars for timely operations by
5. Atmospheric humidity, concept of saturation, vapor pressure, 42-52
farmers.
process of condensation, formation of dew, fog, mist, frost,
▶ To develop crop/animal growth simulation models for prediction of productivity in
advance and also obtaining potential yield in different agro- ecological zones.
6. Weather forecasting- types of weather forecast and their uses. 53-59 ▶ To determine and monitor drought for effective drought management.
Climate change, climatic variability, global warming, causes of
climate change and its impact on regional and national ▶ To prepare value added weather based agro-advisory and its real time dissemination to
Agriculture. farmers for reducing input cost and increasing productivity.

Weather and Climate:

Weather:
The state of the atmosphere at a given time and place, with respect to variables such
as temperature, moisture, wind velocity, and barometric pressure. It describes the
atmospheric conditions at a specific place at a specific point in time. Weather generally refers
to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity refers to day-to-day temperature and
precipitation activity

Climate:

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Climate originated from ancient Greek word klima, meaning inclination. It is There are several variables/elements that make up the weather and climate of a place.
commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period and for a large area. It The major of these elements are five: temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and rain.
describes the average conditions expected at a specific place at a given time. A region's Analysis of these elements can provide the basis for forecasting weather and defining its
climate is generated by the climate system, which has five components: atmosphere, climate. These same elements make also the basis of climatology study, of course, within a
hydrosphere, cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere. longer time scale rather than it does in meteorology.

Differences between Climate and Weather:  Temperature is how hot or cold the atmosphere is, how many degrees it is above or below
freezing. Temperature is a very important factor in determining the weather because it
Climate Weather influences or controls other elements of the weather, such as precipitation, humidity,
clouds and atmospheric pressure.
Definition Describes the average conditions Describes the atmospheric
 Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.
expected at a specific place at a conditions at a specific place at a
 Precipitation is the product of a rapid condensation process (if this process is slow, it only
given time. A region's climate is specific point in time. Weather
generated by the climate system, generally refers to day-to-day causes cloudy skies). It may include snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain.
which has five components: temperature and precipitation  Atmospheric pressure (or air pressure) is the weight of air resting on the earth's surface.

atmosphere, hydrosphere, activity refers to day-to-day Pressure is shown on a weather map, often with lines called isobars.
cryosphere, land surface, and temperature and precipitation  Wind is the movement of air masses, especially on the Earth's surface.
biosphere. activity Earth’s Atmosphere:
Components Climate may include Weather includes sunshine, rain, Definition: The atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelop which surrounds the earth from all
precipitation, temperature, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, sides and is attached to the earth‘s surface by gravitational force.
humidity, sunshine, wind freezing rain, flooding, blizzards, ice
velocity, phenomena such as fog, storms, thunderstorms, steady rains Composition:
frost, and hail storms over a long from a cold front or warm front, (1)Gases: The gases nitrogen and oxygen together make up about 99% of the volume of the
period of time. excessive heat, heat waves and more dry atmosphere. The remaining 1% is comprised of a number different gases of which
Forecast By aggregates of weather By collecting meteorological data, ozone, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane are the most important to life on the
statistics over periods of 30 years like air temperature, pressure, Earth. Ozone is concentrated in a layer that extends from 15 to 55 kilometers above the
humidity, solar radiation, wind Earth's surface. Ozone is important to life because it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation
speeds and direction etc. from the Sun. Recent investigations of the ozone layer have discovered areas of severe
Determining Aggregating weather statistics Real-time measurements of thinning located primarily at the South Pole. Researchers have determined that this
factors over periods of 30 years (climate atmospheric pressure, temperature, thinning is caused by the emission of the artificially produced chemical
normal). wind speed and direction, humidity, chlorofluorocarbon into our atmosphere.
precipitation, cloud cover, and other Table 1: Average composition of the atmosphere up to an altitude of 25 km
variables
About Climate is defined as statistical Weather is the day-to-day state of Gas Name Chemical Formula Percent Volume
weather information that the atmosphere, and its short-term Nitrogen N2 78.08%
describes the variation of weather (minutes to weeks) variation O2
Oxygen 20.95%
at a given place for a specified
interval. *Water H2O 0 to 4%
Time period Measured over a long period Measured for short term Ar
Argon 0.93%
Study Climatology Meteorology
*Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0360%

Neon Ne 0.0018%
Weather variables/elements:

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He severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower
Helium 0.0005%
5.6 km of the troposphere.
*Methane CH4 0.00017% Nearly all atmospheric water vapour or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is
Hydrogen H2 0.00005% the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated
cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus
*Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003% thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the
*Ozone O3 0.000004% stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the
only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.
Stratosphere: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies
(2)Water vapour: The vapour content in the atmosphere ranges between zero to 5 % by above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the
volume. Vapour depends upon temperature therefore decreases from eqator to poleward in top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude
response to decreasing temperature towards the pole. The content of vapour decreases of about 50 to 55 km.
upward. More than 90 % of the total atmospheric vapour is found up to the height of 5 km.
It helps in heating the earth‘s surface and lower portion of the atmosphere because it The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure
absorbs terrestrial radiation. at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains
(3)Particulate matter: The solid particles present in the atmosphere include dust particle, relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which
salt particles, pollen, smoke, volcanic ashes etc. They are kept in suspension in the temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption
atmosphere. Sky appears blue in colour due to selective scattering of solar radiation by of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts
dust particles. Salt particles become hygroscopic nuclei and thus help in the formation of turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be −60 °C at the tropopause, the top of
water drops, clouds and various forms of condensation and precipitation. the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the
Structure of earth’s atmosphere:
stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the
Troposphere: The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, and makes up about troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other
75-80% of Earth‘s atmosphere. In the Troposphere all of weather phenomena occurs. The forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in
higher we go up the Troposphere, the colder it gets. Temperature decreases at the rate of 6.5 the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. This is the highest layer
0
C/ 1000 m as we go upward and is called Normal Lapse Rate. The air also gets thinner as that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
we travel upward in the Troposphere because nearly all of the water vapour and dust particles
The Stratosphere is the layer in Earth‘s atmosphere, which contains the Ozone Layer.
of the atmosphere are in the Troposphere. At the top of the Troposphere, there is a place
The Stratosphere‘s Ozone Layer absorbs ultraviolet light from the sun. In the Stratosphere,
called the Tropopause, which is boundary between Troposphere and Stratosphere. The
as we move up, temperature increases, which is the exact opposite of what happens in the
troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an
Troposphere. The Stratosphere is the second lowest of the out of all top layer of Earth‘s
average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km at the
atmospheric layers.
poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is
bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature Mesosphere: The Mesosphere is the third lowest layer in Earth‘s atmosphere, and this is
inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone where meteorites burn up, before they reach Earth. As we go up in this layer, temperature
which is isothermal with height. decreases. Mesosphere is located on top of the Stratosphere. The mesosphere is the third
highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude
the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km to the
in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the
mesopause at 80–85 km above sea level. Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to
surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest
the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest
section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the
place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C. Just below the mesopause, the
Greek word tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of
air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapour at this altitude can be sublimated into
Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers
polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and
because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most
may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset
or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is
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around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as

either sprites or ELVES, occasionally form far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The
Unit-2
mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too
high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-
powered aircraft. Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is
the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another
Thermosphere: The Thermosphere is one of the upper layer s of the atmosphere. It also
planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the
includes the exosphere, and ionosphere. The exosphere is above it, and the ionosphere is
hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Low-pressure
below. Aurora Borealis occurs in the Thermosphere, charged particles emit photons of light
areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high-pressure areas have
which forms the aurora. Temperatures climb sharply in the lower portion of the
more atmospheric mass above their location. Likewise, as elevation increases, there is less
Thermosphere. Since, it is the outermost layer in the Earth‘s atmosphere. It extends from the
overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km up to
elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured
the thermopause at an altitude range of 500–1000 km. The height of the thermopause varies
from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kg and weight of about
considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower
10.1 N. That force over one square centimetre is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101000 N/m2.
boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the
thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere. The mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. The temperature the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and
of this layer can rise as high as 1500 °C, though the gas molecules are so far apart that newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local
its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric
individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre between pressure. Average sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (1013.25 hPa or mbar) or 29.92 inches
collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of (inHg) or 760 millimetres of mercury (mmHg).
molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its Wind:
density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin. This layer is
completely cloudless and free of water vapour. However non-hydro meteorological Wind can be simply defined as air in motion. Air moves above the Earth's surface
phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the because of spatial differences in the density of the atmosphere. Newton's laws of motion
thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and suggest that wind should blow from areas of high density to areas of low density. We can
420 km. measure the density of the air through atmospheric pressure.
Exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the
Factors affecting Wind:
atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at
an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km, where it merges into
Pressure gradient: The speed of wind is controlled by pressure gradient force. Pressure
the solar wind. This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen,
gradient force can be simply described as the rate of pressure change (pressure gradient) over
helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer
space. Once in motion air is influenced by a number of forces.
to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of
kilometres without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a Rotation of the Earth: The rotation of the Earth causes medium and large scale movements
gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles of air to be deflected from their intended path. The magnitude of this force, known as
follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar Coriolis force, is controlled by the latitude of the location and the speed of the wind.
wind. The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be
possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower Centripetal Force: Another force that acts on wind is centripetal force. This force is active
part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains when wind is flowing around curved paths, and high or low pressure centres.
most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
Friction: The final force that can influence moving air is friction. However, friction only acts
on wind that is flowing near the surface of the Earth.

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Types of Wind: again the next morning.

1. Planetary Winds:
The winds blowing throughout the year from one latitude to another in response to latitudinal
differences in air pressure are called ―planetary or prevailing winds‖. They involve
large areas of the globe. Two most important prevailing winds are trade winds and westerly
winds.

2. Trade Winds:
These are extremely steady winds blowing from sub-tropical high pressure areas (30°N and
S) towards the equatorial low pressure belt. These winds should have blown from the north to
south in Northern Hemisphere and south to north in Southern Hemisphere, but, they get
deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in Southern Hemisphere due to
Coriolis effect and Ferrel‘s law. Thus, they blow as north eastern trades in Northern
Hemisphere and south eastern trades in Southern Hemisphere. They are also known as
tropical easterlies, and they blow steadily in the same direction. They are noted for
consistency in both force and direction.

3. The Westerlies:
These winds blow from sub-tropical high pressure belts towards sub-polar low pressure belts.
The westerlies of Southern Hemisphere are stronger and constant in direction than Northern
Hemisphere. These winds develop between 40° and 65°S latitudes and these latitudes are
known as Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties.

4. Periodic Winds:
Periodic winds change their direction periodically with the change in season, e.g., Monsoons,
Land and Sea Breezes, Mountain and Valley Breezes.

a. Monsoon Winds: These winds are seasonal winds and refer to wind systems that have a
pronounced, seasonal reversal of direction. According to ‗Flohn‘, monsoon is a seasonal
modification of general Planetary Wind System.

b. Land and Sea Breeze:

Land Breeze: At night, the land cools off faster than the ocean due to differences in their
heat capacity, which forces the dying of the daytime sea breeze as the temperature of the land
approaches that of the ocean. If the land becomes cooler than the adjacent sea surface
temperature, the air pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, setting up a
land breeze blowing from the land to the sea, as long as the environmental surface wind
pattern is not strong enough to oppose it. If there is sufficient moisture and instability
available, the land breeze can cause showers, or even thunderstorms, over the water.
Overnight thunderstorm development offshore due to the land breeze can be a good predictor
for the activity on land the following day, as long as there are no expected changes to the
weather pattern over the following 12–24 hours. This is mainly because the strength of the
land breeze is weaker than the sea breeze. The land breeze will die once the land warms up
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Sea Breeze: A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of to the temperature difference between the land and the sea. If a strong offshore wind is
water toward or onto a landmass; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the present (that is, a wind greater than (15 km/h)) and opposing the direction of a possible sea
differing heat capacities of water and dry land. As such, sea breezes are more localised breeze, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.
than prevailing winds. Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water, a sea
breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise. The sea has a greater heat c. Mountain and Valley Breezes:
capacity than land, so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the land's. As the A diurnal wind occurs in mountainous regions which are similar to Land and Sea Breezes.
temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The During the day the slopes of mountains are hot and air from valley flows up the slopes. This
warming air expands and becomes less dense, decreasing the pressure over the land near the is known as ―Valley Breeze‖. After sunset the pattern is reversed and cold air slides
coast. The air above the sea has a relatively higher pressure, causing air near the coast to flow from mountain to valley and is called ―mountain breeze‖.
towards the lower pressure over land. The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional
5. Local Winds:
The local difference in temperature and pressure causes local winds. It is of four types: hot,
cold, convectional and slope.

Fig 2: Important local winds

Cyclones:

Fig 1: (a) Land Breeze and (b) Sea Breeze A cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong centre of low pressure.
They are usually characterized by inward spiralling winds that rotate counter-clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Distinctive weather patterns

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tend to be associated with both cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones (commonly known as higher density air mass sweeping in behind the cyclone strengthens the higher pressure,
lows) generally are indicators of rain, clouds, and other forms of bad weather. denser cold air mass. The cold front over takes the warm front, and reduces the length of the
warm front. At this point an occluded front forms where the warm air mass is pushed
Winds in a cyclone blow counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise
upwards into a trough of warm air aloft, which is also known as a trowal
in the Southern Hemisphere. In cyclones, air close to the ground is forced inward toward the
center of the cyclone, where pressure is lowest. It then begins to rise upward, expanding and Tropical cyclogenesis, the development of a warm-core cyclone, begins with
cooling in the process. This cooling increases the humidity of the rising air, which results in significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment. There are six main
cloudiness and high humidity in the cyclone. requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:

Structure of the cyclone: 1. sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,

A cyclone's centre (often known in a mature tropical cyclone as the eye), is the area of 2. atmospheric instability,
lowest atmospheric pressure in the region. Near the centre, the pressure gradient force (from 3. high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
the pressure in the centre of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone) and 4. enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure centre
the force from the Coriolis effect must be in an approximate balance, or the cyclone would 5. a pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance
collapse on itself as a result of the difference in pressure. 6. Low vertical wind shear.
Because of the Coriolis effect, the wind flow around a large cyclone is counter- Extra tropical/Temperate cyclone:
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the fastest winds relative to the surface of the Earth therefore occur on Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones,
the eastern side of a northward-moving cyclone and on the northern side of a westward- are low pressure zones, which along with the anticyclones of high pressure zones, drive the
moving one; the opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere. In contrast to low pressure weather over much of the Earth. Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything
systems, the wind flow around high pressure systems are clockwise (anticyclonic) in the from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales and thunderstorms. These types of cyclones
northern hemisphere, and counter-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. are defined as large scale (synoptic) low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle
latitudes of the Earth. In contrast with tropical cyclones, they produce rapid changes in
Tropical Cyclone: temperature and dew point along broad lines about the center of the cyclone called fronts.
Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity, Extratropical cyclones begin as waves along weather fronts before occluding later in their life
and are warm core. Cyclones can transition between extratropical, subtropical, and tropical cycle as cold-core systems. However, some intense extratropical cyclones can become warm-
phases. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can lead to tornado core systems when a warm seclusion occurs.
formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often develop from Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the extratropical regions of the Earth
environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. In the Atlantic and the (usually between 30° and 60° latitude from the equator), either through cyclogenesis or
northeastern Pacific oceans, a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane (from extratropical transition. A study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234
the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind, Huracan), in the Indian and south significant extratropical cyclones form each winter.
Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone, and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon.
Formation of extratropical cyclone: Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of
Formation of tropical cyclone: Tropical cyclones form as a result of significant convective temperature/dew point gradient with significant vertical wind shear, and are thus classified as
activity, and are warm core. Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land, and can baroclinic cyclones. Initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs along frontal
lead to tornado formation. Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones, but more often zones near a favourable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jet stream known as a jet
develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear. A surface low can streak. The favourable quadrants are usually at the right rear and left front quadrants,
form in a variety of ways. Topography can create a surface low. Mesoscale convective where divergence ensues. The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air
systems can spawn surface lows that are initially warm core. The disturbance can grow into a column. This in turn forces convergence in the low-level wind field and increased upward
wave-like formation along the front and the low will be positioned at the crest. Around the motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric pressure at
low, the flow will become cyclonic. This rotational flow will move polar air will equatorward ground level to lower. This is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening
on the west side of the low, while warm air will move poleward on the east side. A cold front the weight of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone
will appear on the west side, while a warm front will form on the east side. Usually the cold (a low pressure system). As the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards
front will move at a quicker pace than the warm front and will "catch up" with it due to the the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone. Meanwhile, its associated warm
slow erosion of higher density air mass located out ahead of the cyclone. In addition, the front progresses more slowly, as the cooler air ahead of the system is denser, and therefore

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more difficult to dislodge. Later, the cyclones occlude as the poleward portion of the cold In the northern hemisphere, once a cyclone occludes, a trough of warm air aloft—or
front overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue, or trowal, of warm air aloft. "trowal" for short—will be caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating
Eventually, the cyclone will become barotropically cold and begin to weaken. aloft around its northeast, and ultimately into its north-western periphery (also known as the
warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the cold sector on a similar
Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are strong upper level forces on
curve to the occluded front. The trowal creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known as
the system. When pressures fall more than 1 millibar (0.030 in Hg) per hour, the process is
its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the mid-tropospheric cloudiness that
called explosive cyclogenesis, and the cyclone can be described as a (weather) bomb. These
accompanies the feature. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with
bombs rapidly drop in pressure to below 980 millibars (28.94 inHg) under favorable
conditions such as near a natural temperature gradient like the Gulf Stream, or at a preferred thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along the trowal is unstable enough for convection.
quadrant of an upper level jet streak, where upper level divergence is best. The stronger the Vertical Structure: Extratropical cyclones slant back into colder air masses and strengthen
upper level divergence over the cyclone, the deeper the cyclone can become. with height, sometimes exceeding 30,000 feet (approximately 9 km) in depth. Above the
The windfield of an extratropical cyclone constricts with distance in relation to surface level surface of the earth, the air temperature near the centre of the cyclone is increasingly colder
pressure, with the lowest pressure being found near the center, and the highest winds than the surrounding environment. These characteristics are the direct opposite of those found
typically just on the cold/poleward side of warm fronts, occlusions, and cold fronts, where in their counterparts, tropical cyclones; thus, they are sometimes called "cold-core lows".
the pressure gradient force is highest. The area poleward and west of the cold and warm Anticyclone:
fronts connected to extratropical cyclones is known as the cold sector, while the area
An anticyclone is a system of winds that rotates around a center of high
equatorward and east of its associated cold and warm fronts is known as the warm sector.
atmospheric pressure. Anticyclones (commonly known as highs) are predictors of fair
weather. Winds in an anticyclone blow just the opposite of the cyclone. In anticyclones, the
situation is reversed of cyclone. Air at the centre of an anticyclone is forced away from the
high pressure that occurs there. That air is replaced in the center by a downward draft of air
from higher altitudes. As this air moves downward, it is compressed and warmed. This
warming reduces the humidity of the descending air, which results in few clouds and low
humidity in the anticyclone.

Fig 3: A counter-clockwise spinning extratropical cyclone south of the Kamchatka Peninsula,

in the Northern Hemisphere.

The wind flow around an extratropical cyclone is counter-clockwise in the northern

hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, due to the Coriolis effect (this manner
of rotation is generally referred to as cyclonic). Near this center, the pressure gradient force
(from the pressure at the center of the cyclone compared to the pressure outside the cyclone)
and the Coriolis force must be in an approximate balance for the cyclone to avoid collapsing
in on itself as a result of the difference in pressure. The central pressure of the cyclone will
lower with increasing maturity, while outside of the cyclone, the sea-level pressure is about
average. In most extratropical cyclones, the part of the cold front ahead of the cyclone will
develop into a warm front, giving the frontal zone (as drawn on surface weather maps) a Fig 4: Image of Hurricane Diana at its strongest on September 11,1984. The hurricane was
wave-like shape. Due to their appearance on satellite images, extratropical cyclones can also just off the coast of South and North Carolina at the time, and winds within it were 130 miles
be referred to as frontal waves early in their life cycle. In the United States, an old name for per hour (210 kilometers per hour).
such a system is "warm wave".

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Formation of Anticyclone: The development of anticyclones aloft occurs in warm core

cyclones such as tropical cyclones when latent heat caused by the formation of clouds is
Unit-3
released aloft increasing the air temperature; the resultant thickness of the atmospheric layer
increases high pressure aloft which evacuates their outflow. SOLAR RADIATION
Weather Condition during anticyclone: High-pressure systems are frequently associated Solar radiation is the prime source of energy on earth and life depends on it. Solar radiation is
with light winds at the surface and subsidence through the higher portion of the troposphere. defined as ―the flux of radiant energy from the sun‖. All matter at a temperature above the
Subsidence will generally dry out an air mass by adiabatic (compressional) heating. Thus, absolute zero emits energy from the surrounding space. This energy is transformed by green
high pressure typically brings clear skies. Because no clouds are present to reflect sunlight plants in the process of photosynthesis into the potential energy of organic material. In the
during the day, there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise. At organic bodies the rays absorbed are used in heating. The variations of the total radiation flux
night, the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation (i.e. heat energy from from one site to another on the surface of the earth are enormous and the distribution of
the surface) is not absorbed, giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. When plants and animals responds to this variation.
surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under a high-pressure system Sun
can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to Sun is the nearest star to the planet earth. Diameter of the sun is 1.39 X 106 km. It rotates on
widespread haze. If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent its axis about once every four weeks (27 days near equator & 30 days –polar). Sun is on an
overnight, fog can form. average 1.5 X 108 km away from the earth (149.64 M km deviation is 2.41 M km). Surface
temperature of the sun is 5462° K. Every minute, the sun radiates approximately 56 X 1026
Strong but vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to
calories of energy. The interior mass of the sun has a density of 80 to 100 times that of water.
lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses. [12]
Energy is due to the fusion, Hydrogen is transformed to helium. 99% of the energy to
The low, sharp inversion can lead to areas of persistent stratocumulus or stratus cloud,
biosphere is only from the sun and the rest one percent is from stars,lightning discharge,
colloquially known as anticyclonic gloom. The type of weather brought about by an
sun‘s radiation reflected from the moon, reradiation from the earth etc.
anticyclone depends on its origin. For example, extensions of the Azores high pressure may
bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter because they are warmed at the base and
trap moisture as they move over the warmer oceans. High pressures that build to the north
and extend southwards often bring clear weather because they are cooled at the base (as
opposed to warmed) which helps prevent clouds from forming.

Fig. Movement of earth around sun

Insolation
Electromagnetic energy radiated into the space by the sun
Factors affecting insolation
1. The solar constant which depends on
a. Energy output of the sun
b. Distance from earth to sun
2. Transparency of the atmosphere
3. Duration of daily sunlight period
4. Angle at which sun‘s noon rays strike the earth.
Transfer of heat
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All mater, at a temperature above the absolute zero, imparts energy to the surrounding space. Ultra Cosmic rays <0.005 Shorter wavelengths of spectrum and
Three processes viz. conduction, convection and radiation are involved in heat flow or heat Gamma and X-rays 0.005-0.20 chemically active, unless filtered there
transfer. Ultraviolet rays 0.20-0.39 is danger of life on earth
Conduction Visible Violet 0.39-0.42 Visible spectrum known as light
Heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of the substances or matter. Heat (Light) Indigo 0.42-0.45 essential for all plant processes
flows from the warmer to cooler part of the body so that the temperatures between them are Blue 0.45-0.49
equalized. Eg. The energy transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at one Green 0.49-0.54
end. Yellow 0.54-0.59
Convection Orange 0.59-0.65
Processes of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules of the medium. This Red 0.65-0.76
is predominant form of energy transmission on the earth as all the weather related processes
Infrared Infrared rays >0.76 Essential for thermal energy of plant
involve this process. Eg. Boiling of water in a beaker
(source of heat)
Radiation.
Transfer of energy from one body to another without the aid of the material medium (solid,
The energy contains between the 200 and 390 nm (0.20-0.39 µ) wavelengths and it is divided
liquid or gas). Radiation is not heat, only when radiation is absorbed by surface of a body
into ultraviolet radiation, visible light and infrared radiation.
heat is produced. Eg. The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.
Ultraviolet radiation: Consists of the shorter wavelengths band (360 nm), it has a lot of
Solar radiation
energy and interacts with the molecular bonds. These waves are absorbed by the upper
Solar radiation is the set of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun. The solar radiation
atmosphere, especially by the ozone layer.
ranges goes from infrared to ultraviolet.
Visible Light: This radiation band corresponds to the visible area with wavelengths between
The flux of radiant energy from the sun is solar radiation.
360 nm (violet) and 760 nm (red), it has a great influence on living beings.
Heavenly bodies emit – short wave radiation
Infrared radiation: Consists of wavelengths between 760 and 4000 nm, it corresponds to the
Near surfaces including earth emit - long wave radiation
longer wavelengths and it has little energy associated with it. Its absorption increases
Radiation flux
molecular agitation, causing the increase of temperature.
The amount of radiant energy emitted, received, transmitted across a particular area is known
Solar spectrum
as radiant flux.
Radiant flux density
The radiant flux divided by the area across which the radiation is transmitted is called radiant
flux density.
Emissive power Spectral irradiance
The radiant flux density emitted by a source is called its emissive power. (W/m2/nm)
Energy measurement

Units Cal cm2min-1 J cm2min-1 W cm2

Cal cm2min-1 1 4.1868 0.0669
J cm2min-1 0.238 1 0.00165
W cm2 14.3 60.6 1

Solar spectrum-
Radiant energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves by the sun. The energy Wavelength (nm)
from the sun is spread over a very broad band of wavelengths known as solar spectrum. It is Fig. Spectrum of solar radiation above the atmosphere and sea level.
also known as electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum does not constitute only one band but
a combination of different waves which are characterized individually. Units of measurements of wavelength
Micron 1μ = 10-6 m = 10-4 cm
Band Spectrum Wavelength (µ) Importance

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Milli micron 1 mμ = 10-9 m = 10-7 cm low photosynthetic effectiveness and weak formative activity.
5 510-400 Strongest chlorophyll and yellow pigment absorption region.
Angstrom Å = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm
In the blue-violet range, photosynthetic activity becomes very
Solar radiation and crop plants strong. This region has very strong effect on formation of
Crop production is exploitation of solar radiation tissues.
Three broad spectra 6 400-315 Radiation in this band produces formative effects. It has
1. Shorter than visible range: Chemically very active dwarfing effect on plants and thickening effect on plant leaf.
 When plants are exposed to this radiation the effects are detrimental. 7 315-280 Radiation in this band has detrimental effect on most of
 Atmosphere acts as regulator for this radiation and none of cosmic, Gamma and X- plants.
rays reaches to the earth. 8 Less than 280 Lethal effect on most of the plants get killed due to reduction
 The UV rays of this segment reaching to the earth are very low and it is normally in the band UV ranges have germicidal action.
tolerated by the plants.
2. Higher than visible wavelength Radiation balance – Solar constant – albedo – Sensible heat – Heat energy –
 Referred to IR radiation Latent heat
 It has thermal effect on plants A part of the incident radiation on the surface is absorbed, while a part is reflected and the
 In the presence of water vapour, this radiation does not harm plants, rather it supplies remaining is transmitted.
the necessary thermal energy to the plant environment. Absorptivity
3. Visible spectrum Absorptivity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the amount of radiant energy absorbed to
 Between UV & IR radiation and also referred as light the total amount incident upon that substance. The absorptivity of a blackbody is unity.
 All plant parts are directly or indirectly influenced by the light Natural bodies like sun and earth are near perfect black bodies
 Intensity, quality and duration are important for normal plant growth Reflectivity
 Poor light leads to plant abnormalities Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy reflected to the total incident
 Light is indispensable to photosynthesis radiation upon that surface. If it is expressed in percentage it becomes albedo.
 Light affect the production of tillers, the stability, strength and length of culms. Transmittivity
It affects the yield, total weight of plant structures, size of the leaves and root development. Transmittivity is defined as ratio of the transmitted radiation to the total incident Radiation
Critical stages of plant growth for light upon the surface.
- Radiation intensity during the third month of Maize plant Emissivity
- Rice – 25 days prior to flowering Emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy emitted by a given surface to the total
- Barley – flowering period heat energy emitted by a black body. The emissivity of a black body is unity.
Blackbody radiation
Band Wavelengths Specific effect on plants
A Blackbody is defined as a body, which completely absorbs all the heat radiations falling on
(nm)
it without reflecting and transmitting any of it. It means reflectivity and transmittivity become
1 Radiation within No specific effect on plant activity. Radiation absorbed by
zero. When such a black body is heated it emits radiation of all wavelengths depending upon
1000 and more plants are transformed into heat. The radiation does not
its temp.
interfere with biochemical processes.
Earth’s energy budget-
2 1000-720 Radiation in the band helps in plant elongation, can be
Not all the radiation reaches Earth's surface, because the ultraviolet wavelengths, that are the
accepted as an adequate measure of plant elongation activity.
shorter wavelengths, are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, primarily by ozone. The
The far red region (700-900nm) has important role on
atmosphere acts as a filter to the bands of solar spectrum, and at its different layers as solar
photoperiodism, germination of seedsflowering and
radiation passes through it to the Earth's surface, so that only a fraction of it reaches the
colouration of fruits.
surface. The atmosphere absorbs part of the radiation reflects and scatters the rest some
3 720-510 In this spectral region light is strongly absorbed by
directly back to space, and some to the Earth, and then it is irradiated. All of this produce a
chlorophylls. It generates strong photosynthetic and
thermal balance, resulting in radiant equilibrium cycle.
photoperiodic activity.
4 610-510 Green-yellow region. Absorption in the spectral region has

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Solar constant
Solar constant is the energy received on a unit area at the outer most boundary of the earth
(atmosphere) surface held perpendicular to the sun‘s direction, at the mean distance between
the sun and the earth. Solar constant is not a true constant. It fluctuates by as much as ± 3.5 %
about its mean value depending upon the distance of the earth from the sun. Value is 2 cal /
cm2 / min. (1.92 and 2.02) Recent measurements indicate value of 1.94 cal / cm2 / min (133
wm-2) [1 Langley = 1cal] 35% of the energy is contributed by U.V. and visible parts and
Fig. Effects of clouds on the Earth's Energy Budget. 65% by Infrared.
Depending on the type of radiation, it is known that the 324 Wm-2 reaching the Earth in the Albedo
upper atmosphere (1400 Wm-2 is the solar constant), 236 Wm-2 are reissued into space It is the percentage of reflected radiation to the incident radiation. (Varies with colour and
infrared radiation, 86 Wm-2 are reflected by the clouds and 20 Wm-2 are reflected by the composition of the earth‘s surface, season, angle of the sun rays). Value is Highest in winter
ground as short-wave radiation. But part of the re-emitted energy is absorbed by the and at sunrise and sunset.
atmosphere and returned to the earth surface, causing the "greenhouse effect". The average Pure water: 5-20%,
energy that reaches the outside edge of the atmosphere from the sun is a fixed amount, called Vegetation: 10-40%,
solar constant. Soils: 15-50%,
Radiation balance Earth: 34-43%
The difference between all incoming and outgoing radiation at the earth‘s surface and top Clouds: 55%.
of the atmosphere is known as radiation balance at the earth‘s surface. High albedo indicates that much of the incident solar radiation is reflected rather than
absorbed.
Depends on
1. Angle of incidence of radiation- Albedo increase with decreasing elevation of sun
with minimum during noon.
2. Physical characteristics of surface
3. Season
4. Time of the day
For plant community albedo depends upon

1. Age of the crop

2. Percentage of ground cover

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3. Colour and reflectivity of the foliage E = σ T4

Where,
Outgoing long wave radiation T= (273+°C) because temperature is in Kelvins
 After being heated by solar radiation, the earth becomes source of radiation. = Stefan-Boltzmann‘s constant which is equal to 5.673 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
 Average temperature of the earth‘s surface 285º k (12º C) Wein’s Displacement laws-
 99% of radiation is emitted in the farm of IR range (4 to 120 μ)
 About 90% of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. The wavelength of the maximum intensity of emission (λmax) from a radiating black body is
 Water vapour absorb in wavelengths of 5.3 to 7.7 μ and beyond 20μ. inversely proportional to its absolute temperature
 Ozone- 9.4 to 9.8 μ. λmax = 2897 T-1 μ = 2897/T μ
 CO2 – 13.1 to 16.9 μ Where T is in ºK
 Clouds – in all wavelengths If the temperature of a body is high, radiation maximum is displaced towards shorter
Long wave radiation escapes to the space between 8.5 and 11 μ and this is known as the wavelengths. For the sun‘s surface temperature of 5793°K, the λmax is 0.5μ (2897/5793).
atmospheric window. Atmosphere f−−or this spectrum acts as transparent medium instead The most intense solar radiation occurs in the blue-green range of visible light. The
of absorbing. This spectral region is used in microwave remote sensing to monitor the wavelength of maximum intensity of radiation for the earth‘s actual surface temperature of
features of the sky in case of overcast sky. A large part of the radiation absorbed by the 14°C or 287°K is about 10.0 (2897/287) microns, which is in the infrared band.
atmosphere is sent back to the earth‘s surface as counter – radiation. This counter radiation
prevents the earth‘s surface from excessive cooling at night. Energy balance or heat balance
Radiation laws The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and outgoing radiations and is a
The direct transfer of heat from the sun to the earth through the space and atmosphere measure of the energy available at the ground surface. It is the energy available at the earth‘s
indicates that radiation of heat from one place to other occurs in the form of electromagnetic surface to drive the processes of evaporation, air and soil heat fluxes as well as other smaller
waves in the same manner and with same speed of as light. The wavelength of energy consuming processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. The net radiation over
electromagnetic radiation is given by the equation crop is as follows.
λ = c/v Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M
Where λ = Wavelength (The shortest distance between consecutive crests in the wave Rn is net radiation, G is surface soil heat flux, H is sensible heat flux, LE is laten heat flux,
trance) C = Velocity of light (3x1010 cm sec-1) PS and M are energy fixed in plants by photosynthesis and energy involved in respiration,
V = Frequency means number of vibrations of cycles per second respectively. The PS and M are assumed negligible due to their minor contribution (about 1-
2% of Rn). The net radiation is the basic source of energy for evapotranspiration (LE),
Plank’s law heating the air (H) and soil (S) and other miscellaneous M including photosynthesis.
Plank introduced the ‗particle concept‘. The electromagnetic radiation consists of a stream or Temperature
flow of particles or quanta, each quantum having energy content E determined by of each It is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms and molecules
quantum is proportional to the frequency given by the equation. Kinetic energy
E= h v Energy of motion.
Where h= Plank‘s constant (6.62x10-34 J sec-1
V= Frequency Heat
The law states that greater the frequency (shorter wave length) greater is the energy of It is the aggregate internal energy of motion and molecules of a body. It is often defined as
quantum. energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another because of the
Kirchoff’s law temperature between them.
A good absorber of radiation is a good emitter, in similar circumstances. This law states that Sensible heat
the absorptivity ‗a‘ of an object for radiation of a specific wavelength is equal to the It is the heat that can be measured by a thermometer and thus sensed by humans. Normally
emissivity ‗e‘ for the same wavelength. The equation of the law is: measured in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
a (λ) = e (λ) Latent heat
Stefan-Boltzmann’s law It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter. This same energy is
The intensity of radiation emitted (E) by a radiating body is directly proportional to the fourth released on the reverse process. Change of state through Evaporation and condensation is
power of the absolute temperature of that body. (Emissivity of black body = 1) known as latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of condensation. From water to water
vapour takes 600 calories and water to ice takes 80 calories.
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Blue colour of the sky  It also causes rapid loss of water (ie) increases the transpiration rate of water from the
If the circumference of the scattering particle is less than about 1/10 of the wavelength of the plants.
incident radiation, the scattering co-efficient is inversely proportional to the fourth power of  The most harmful effect of high intensity light is that it oxidises the cell contents
the wavelength of the incident radiation. This is known as Rayleigh scattering. This is the which is termed as ‗Solarisation‘. This oxidation is different from respiration and is
primary cause of the blue colour of the sky. For larger particles with circumference >30 times called as photo-oxidation.
of wavelength of the incident radiation, scattering is independent of the wavelength (i.e)  Under field conditions the light is not spread evenly over the crop canopy but
white light is scattered. This is known as Mei scaring commonly passed by reflection and transmission through several layers of leaves.
Red colour of the sky at sunset & sunrise.  The intensity of light falls at exponential rate with path length through absorbing
It is because of increased path length in the atmosphere. % of solar energy in the visible part layers according to Beer‘s law. ie the relative radiation intensity decreases
decreases. Within the visible part, the ratio of the blue to the red part decreases with increased exponentially with increasing leaf area.
path length.  At ground level the light intensity is below the light compensation point (The light
Disposition of Solar radiation intensity at which the gas exchange resulting from photosynthesis is equal to that
resulting from respiration)
a. 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and high
Based on the response to light intensities the plants are classified as follows.
latitudes and less in the sub tropics)
b. 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour. (i) Sciophytes (shade loving plants): The plants grow better under partially shaded
c. 30% scatted downwards (more in the form of shorter wavelengths able) them that in longer conditions. (eg) Betel vine, buck wheat etc.
wave length (red). (ii) Hetrophytes (Sun loving): Many species of plants produce maximum dry matter under
d. 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. (Mostly by Oxygen, O 3, CO2 & H2O high light intensities when the moisture is available at the optimum level. (eg) Maize,
vapour). sorghum, rice etc.
O2 – absorb the extreme UV wavelengths (0.12 to 0.6 μ)
O3 – UV (0.2 to 0.32 μ) and Visible part of radiation (0.44 to 0.7 μ) Quality of Light
H2O vapour – Near infrared (0.93, 1.13, 1.42 μ) When a beam of white light is passed through a prism, it is dispersed into wavelengths of
CO2 - IR band 2.7 μ. different colours. This is called the visible part of the solar spectrum. The different colours
e. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth‘s surface, after reflection, scattering and and their wave length are as follows:
absorption. Violet 400 – 435 m μ Blue 435 – 490 m μ
Light- Effect of light intensity, quality, direction and duration on crop production Green 490 – 574 m μ Yellow 574 – 595 m μ
Light Orange 595 – 626 m μ Red 626 – 750 m μ
Light is the visible portion of the solar spectrum with wavelength range is from 0.39 to 0.76μ. The principal wavelength absorbed and used in photosynthesis are in the violet – blue and the
Light is one of the important climatic factors for many vital functions of the plant. It is orange - red regions. Among this, short rays beyond violet such as X rays, gamma rays and
essential for the synthesis of the most important pigment ie. Chlorophyll, Chlorophyll absorbs larger rays beyond red such as infrared, are detrimental to plant growth. Red light is the most
the radiant energy and converts it into potential energy of carbohydrate. The carbohydrate favourable light for growth followed by violet – blue. Ultra – violet and shorter wave lengths
thus formed is the connecting link between solar energy and living world. In addition, it kill bacteria and many fungi.
regulates the important physiological functions. The characteristics of light viz. intensity, c) Duration of light
quality, duration and direction are important for crops. The duration of light has greater influence than the intensity for canopy development and
Light intensity final yield. It has a considerable importance in the selection of crop varieties. The response of
 The intensity of light is measured by comparing with a standard candle. The amount plants to the relative length of the day and night is known as phtoperiodism. The plants are
of light received at a distance of one metre from a standard candle is known as ―Metre classified based on the extent of response to day length which is as follows.
candle or Lux‖. The light intensity at one foot from a standard candle is called ‗foot (i) Long day plants
candle‘ or 10.764 luxes and the instrument used is called as lux metre. The plants which develop and produce normally when the photoperiod is greater than the
 About one percent of the light energy is converted into biochemical energy. critical minimum (greater than 12 hours). eg. Potato, Sugarbeet, Wheat, Barley etc.
 Very low light intensity reduces the rate of photosynthesis resulting in reduced (ii) Short day plants
growth. The plants which develop normally when the photoperiod is less than the critical maximum
 Similarly, very high intensity is detrimental to plant in many ways as below. (less than 12 hours). Rice, Sorghum, cotton, Sunflower
 It increases the rate of respiration. (iii) Day neutral plants / Indeterminate
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Those plants which are not affected by photoperiod are Tomato, Maize. The photoperiodism
influences the plant character such as floral initiation or development, bulb and rhizome
Unit-4
production etc. In long day plant, during periods of short days, the growth of internodes are
shortened and flowering is delayed till the long days come in the season. Similarly when AIR TEMPERATURE
short day plants are subjected to long day periods, there will be abnormal vegetative growth Temperature is defined as, ―The measure of speed per molecule of all the molecules of
and there may not be any floral initiation. a body‖. Whereas heat is, ―the energy arising from random motion of all the molecules of a
Direction of light body‘. (Degree of molecular activity). It is the intensity aspect of heat energy.
 The direction of sunlight has a greater effect on the orientation of roots and leaves. Conduction
 In temperate regions, the southern slopes plants produce better growth than the Heat transfer when two bodies of unequal temperatures come into contact. Heat
northern slopes due to higher contribution of sunlight in the southern side. passes from point to point by means of adjacent molecules.
 The change of position or orientation of organs of plants caused by light is usually Convection
called as phototropism ie the leaves are oriented at right angles to incidence of light to Transfer through movement of particles (part of mass) in fluids and gasses. These are
receive maximum light radiation. able to circulate internally and distribute heated part of the mass.
Photomorphogenesis Radiation
Change in the morphology of plants due to light. This is mainly due to UV and violet ray of It is the process of transmission of energy by electromagnetic waves between two
the sun. bodies without the necessary aid of an intervening material medium.
Factors affecting air temperature
i. Latitude
ii. Altitude
iii. Distribution of land and water
iv. Ocean currents
v. Prevailing winds
vi. Cloudiness
vii. Mountain barriers
viii. Nature of surface
ix. Relief
x. Convection and turbulence etc.
1. Latitude
The time of occurrence of maximum monthly mean temperature and minimum
monthly mean temperature also depends on latitude of a place. (eg.) The coldest month is
January in northern regions of India while December in the south. Similarly, the warmest
month is May in the south while June in the north across the country.
2. Altitude
The surface air temperature decreases with increasing altitude from the mean sea level
as the density of air decreases. Since the density of air is less at higher altitudes, the
absorbing capacity of air is relatively less with reference to earth‘s longwave radiation.
3. Distribution of land and water
Land and water surfaces react differently to the insolation. Because of the great
contrasts between land and water surfaces their capacity for heating the atmosphere varies.
Variations in air temperature are much greater over the land than over the water. The
differential heating process between land and sea surfaces are due to their properties. It is one
of the reasons for Indian monsoon.
4. Ocean currents
The energy received over the ocean surface carried away by the ocean currents from
the warm areas to cool areas. This results in temperature contrast between the equator and
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poles. The occurrence of El-Nino is due to change in sea surface temperature between two Vertical Temperature Distribution
oceanic regions over the globe. Vertical Layers of atmosphere based on temperature
5. Prevailing winds On the basis of vertical temperature variation the atmosphere is divided into different
Winds can moderate the surface temperature of the continents and oceans. In the spheres or layers.
absence of winds, we feel warm in hot climates. At the same time, the weather is pleasant if A. Troposphere
wind blows. 1. The word ―Trop‖ means mixing or turbulence and ―sphere‖ means region.
6. Cloudiness 2. The average height o this lower most layer of the atmosphere is about 14 km above the
The amount of cloudiness affects the temperature of the earth‘s surface and the men sea level; at the equator it is 16 km and 7-8 km at the poles.
atmosphere. A thick cloud reduces the amount of insolation received at a particular place and 3. Under normal conditions the height of the troposphere changes from place to place and
thus the day time temperature is low. At the same time, the lower layers in the atmosphere season to season.
absorb earth‘s radiation. This results in increasing atmospheric temperature during night. 4. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms, cyclone and anticyclones occur in this sphere
That is why, cloudy nights are warmer. This is common in the humid tropical climates. because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols in it. So, this
7. Mountain barriers layer is called as ―seat of weather phenomena‖.
Air at the top of the mountain makes little contact with the ground and is therefore 5. The wind velocities increase with height and attain the maximum at the top of this
cold while in the valley at the foothills makes a great deal of contact and is therefore warm. layer.
That is, the lower region of the earth‘s atmosphere is relatively warmer when compared to 6. Another striking feature of the troposphere is that there is a decrease of temperature
hillocks. with increasing elevation at a mean lapse rate of about 6.5°C per km.
Diurnal and seasonal variation of air temperature 7. Most of the radiation received from the sun is absorbed by the earth‘s surface. So, the
The minimum air temperature occurs at about sunrise, after which there is a constant troposphere is heated from below.
rise till it reaches to maximum. 8. In this layer, about 75 per cent of total gases and most of the moisture and dust
The maximum air temperature is recorded between 1300 hrs and 1400 hrs although the particles present.
maximum solar radiation is reaches at the moon. 9. A the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from the stratosphere
A steady fall in temperature till sunrise is noticed after is attains maximum. Thus the which is known as the ―Tropopasue ―.
daily March displays one maximum and one minimum. The difference between the 10. The tropospause layer is thin and its height changes according to the latitudes and it is
two is called the diurnal range of air temperature. a transitional zone and distinctly characterized by no major movement of air.
The diurnal range of air temperature is more on clear days while cloudy weather B). Stratosphere
sharply reduces daily amplitudes. 1). This layer exists above the tropopause (around 20 km onwards) and extends to
The diurnal range of temperature is also influenced by soils and their coverage in altitudes of about 50-55 km.
addition to seasons. 2). This layer is called as ―Seat of photochemical reactions‖
Addition of daily maximum and minimum temperature divided by two is nothing but 3). The temperature remains practically constant at around 20 km and is characterized as
daily mean / average temperature. isothermal because air is thin, clear, cold and dry near tropopause.
In northern hemisphere winter minimum occurs in January and summer maximum in 4). The temperature of this layer increases with height and also depends upon the
July. troposphere because the troposphere is higher at the equator than at the poles.
Horizontal air temperature distribution 5). In the upper parts of the stratosphere the temperatures are almost as high as those near
The lines connecting points of equal temperature is called as isotherm the earth‘s surface, which is due to the fact that the ultra-violet radiation from the sun
It is largely depends latitude. A general decrease in temperature from equator towards is absorbed by ozone in this region. The air density is so much less that even limited
poles is one of the most fundamental factors of climatology. absorption of solar radiation by the atmospheric constituents notably ozone produces
Irregular distribution of land and water on earth‘s surface breaks the latitudinal a temperature increase.
variation in temperature. 6). Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold
Land areas warm and cool rapidly than water bodies at the bottom.
Mountain barriers influence horizontal distribution of temperature by restricting 7). There is also persistence of circulation patterns and high wind
movement of air masses. speeds. 8). The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called the
On local scale topographic relief exerts an influence on temperature distribution. stratopause.

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4) The ionosphere reflects the radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of
shortwave radio beams from the inoised shells. So, long distance radio
communication is possible due to this layer.
E). Exosphere.
1) The outer most layer of the earth‘s atmosphere is named as the exosphere and this layer
lies between 400 and 1000 km.
2) At such a greater height the density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low.
3) Hydrogen and Helium gases predominate in this outer most region.
4) At an altitude of about 500 to 600 km the density of the atmosphere becomes so low
that collisions between the natural particles become extremely rare.
Lapse Rate and Adiabatic Processes
First, we need to understand what a lapse rate is. The atmospheric lapse rate is the
change in temperature with height. For example, on average the temperature cools 6.5 C for
every kilometer. Of course, this varies from location to location. We can use observations to
determine the lapse rate of a particular location. The observations are gathered from a
miniature weather-monitoring station (smaller than a shoe box) that is attached to a balloon
and released into the air twice a day at various sites throughout the world (a radiosonde).
C). Mesosphere/Ozonosphere The value of the lapse rate is strongly dependent on the amount of water vapor in the
1. There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 60 km above the surface air. Dry air cools at about 10 C/km (the 'dry adiabatic lapse rate'), while moist air usually
of the earth and this layer is known at the ozonosphere. cools at less than 6 C/km ('moist adiabatic lapse rate'). The word adiabatic means that no
2. A property of the ozone is that it absorbs UV rays. Had there been no layer of the outside heat is involved in the warming or cooling of the air parcels.
ozone in the atmosphere, the ultraviolet rays might have reached the surface of the Why are the two lapse rates different? Remember that water vapor in a rising parcel
earth and no life can exist. of air will condense when the air becomes cold enough. The phase change from gas to liquid
3. Temperature of the ozonosphere is high (warm) due to selective absorption of U.V takes a little work from the water molecules. As they are working, they release heat. The heat
radiation by ozone. decreases the cooling that occurs in the air parcel. Therefore, a rising parcel of dry air cools
4. Because of the preponderance of chemical process this sphere is called as the faster than a moist parcel of air. And conversely, a sinking parcel of dry air warms faster than
―chemosphere‖ a sinking parcel of moist air.
5. In this layer the temperature increases with height at the rate of 5°C per km. Now apply these concepts to mountains. Moist air that reaches a mountain range is
6. According to some leading scientists the ionosphere is supposed to start at a height of forced to rise. The rising air cools at the moist adiabatic lapse rate and eventually some or all
80 km above the earth‘s surface. The layer between 50 and 80 km is called as of the water vapor will condense. If the conditions are right, a cloud will form and it will
―Mesosphere‖. In this layer the temperature decreases with height. The upper either rain or snow. The air continues to flow over the mountain range and eventually
boundary of this layer is called the ―Mesospause‖. descends on the other side. The sinking air warms. Since the air has lost much of its moisture
7. Mesosphere is the coldest region in the atmosphere with temperature reaching the through precipitation, it warms at the dry adiabatic lapse rate, which is greater than the moist
lowest value of nearly -95°C at the mesopause (80km) adiabatic lapse rate. This means the air is now drier and warmer than it was before it
encountered the mountain range.
Temperature inversion
D). Thermosphere (Ionosphere)  Occasionally at some altitude the temperature abruptly increases instead of
1) The thermosphere layer lies beyond the ozonosphere (mesosphere) at a height of about decreasing. This condition in which this abrupt rise instead of fall in temperature
80 km above the earth‘s surface and extends upto 400 km. occurs in the air is known as the temperature inversion. This may occurs under the
2) The atmosphere in the ionosphere is partly ionised enriched ion zones exist in the form following conditions.
of distinct ionised layers. So, this layer is called as the ionosphere.  When the air near the ground cools off faster than the overlying layer, because of
3) Above the mesosphere the temperature increases again and is in the order of 1000°C. heat loss during cooling nights.
 When an actual warm layer passing over a lower cold layer
 Cold air from hill tops and slopes tend to flow downward and replaced by warm air.

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Significance of Temperature inversion Injury caused on the barks of stem by high temperature during day time and low
 Cloud formation, precipitation and atmospheric visibility are greatly influenced by temperature during the night time.
inversion phenomenon Stem griddle
 Fog formation may take place near the ground which may affect the visibility to both The stem at ground level scorches around due to high soil temperature. It causes death
human beings and animals. Affects air navigation. of plant by destroying conductive tissues. Eg. This type of injury is very common in young
 Diurnal temperature is affected by temperature inversions. seedlings of cotton in sandy soil when soil temperature exceeds 60°C.
 The incoming solar radiation and its conversion in to heat is affected.
Heat Units COLD INJURY
 It is a measure of relative warmth of growing season of a given length. Normally it is (i) Chilling injury
indicated as Growing Degree Days (GDD). A heat unit is the departure from the mean Plants which are adapted to hot climate, if exposed to low temperature for sometime, are
daily temperature above the minimum threshold temperature. found to be killed or severely injured or development of chloratic condition (yellowing)
 The minimum threshold temperature is the temperature below which no growth takes (eg.) cholratic bands on the leaves of sugarcane, sorghum and maize in winter months
place. when the night temperature is below 20°C.
 Usually ranges from 4.5 to 12.5 ºC for different crops (Most commonly used value is (ii) Freezing injury
6.0ºC) This type of injury is commonly observed in plants of temperate regions. When the plants
are exposed to very low temperature, water freezes into ice crystals in the intercellular
Degree Day spaces of plants. The protoplasm of cell is dehydrated resulting in the death of cells. (eg.)
A degree day is obtained by subtracting the threshold temperature from daily mean Frost damage in potato, tea etc.
temperature. Summation of the daily values over the growth period gives degree days of the (iii) Suffocation
crops. In temperature regions, usually during the winter season, the ice or snow forms a thick
Tmax + Tmin cover on the soil surface. As a result, the entry of oxygen is prevented and crop suffers for
GDD = Σ - Tb want of oxygen. Ice coming in contact with the root prevents the diffusion of CO2 outside
2 the root zone. This prevents the respiratory activities of roots leading to accumulation of
Where harmful substances.
Tmax – Maximum air temperature of the day (iv) Heaving
Tmin – Minimum air temperature of the day This is a kind of injury caused by lifting up of the plants along with soil from its normal
Tb - Base temperature of the crop, The base temperature is the threshold temperature. position. This type of injury is commonly seen in temperate regions. The presence of ice
Advantages / Importance of growing degree Day Concept crystals increases the volume of soil. This causes mechanical lifting of the soil.
1. In guiding the agricultural operations and planting land use.
2. To forecast crop harvest dates, yield and quality Role of temperature in crop production:
3. In forecasting labour required for agricultural operations 1. Temperature influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation.
4. Introduction of new crops and new varieties in new areas 2. The surface air temperature is one of the important variables, which influences all
5. In predicting the likelihood of successful growth of a crop in an area. stages of crop during its growth development and reproductive phase.
3. Air temperature affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.
HEAT INJURIES 4. The diffusion rates of gases and liquid changes with temperature.
‗Thermal death point‖ – the temperature at which the plant cell gets killed when the 5. Solubility of different substances is dependent on temperature.
temperature ranges from 50-60°C. This varies with plant species. The aquatic and shade 6. Biochemical reactions in crops (double or more with each 10°C rise) are influenced by
loving plants are killed at comparatively lower temperature (40°C). air temperature.
High temperature 7. Equilibrium of various systems and compounds is a function of temperature.
- results in desiccation of plants 8. Temperature affects the stability of enzymatic systems in the plants.
- disturbs the physiological activities like photosynthesis and respiration 9. Most of the higher plants grow between 0°C – 60°C and crop plants are further
- increases respiration leading to rapid depletion of reserve food. restricted from 10 – 40°C, however, maximum dry matter is produced between 20 and
Sun clad 30°C

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10. At high temperature and high humidity, most of the crop plants are affected by pests b) Even though a part of total net radiation available is utilised in evapotranspiration and
and diseases. heating the air by radiation (latent and sensible heat fluxes) a relatively substantial
11. High night temperature increases respiration and metabolism. amount of solar radiation is utilized in heating up of soil (ground heat flux) depending
12. A short duration crop becomes medium duration or long duration crop depending up on the nature of surface.
upon its environmental temperature under which it is grown. c) Radiation from the sky contributes a large amount of heat to the soil in areas where the
13. Most of the crops have upper and lower limits of temperature below or above which, sun‘s rays have to penetrate the earth‘s atmosphere very obliquely.
they may not come up and an optimum temperature when the crop growth is maximum. 2. Wind
These are known as cardinal temperatures and different crops have different Air convection or wind is necessary to heat up the soil by conduction from the
Temperatures atmosphere. (eg.) The mountain and valley winds influence the soil temperature.
3. Evaporation and condensation
Sl No Crop Minimum Optimum Maximum a) The greater the rate of evaporation the more the soil is cooled. This is the reason for
1. Wheat and Barley 0-5 25-31 31-37 coolness of moist soil in windy conditions.
2. Sorghum 15-18 31-36 40-42 b) On the other hand whenever water vapour from the atmosphere or from other soil
depths condenses in the soil it heats up noticeably. Freezing of water generates heat.
Thermo periodic response 4. Rainfall (Precipitation)
Response of living organism to regular changes in temperature either day or night or Depending on its temperature, precipitation can either cool or warm the soil.
seasonal is called thermoperiodism. II. Soil factors
Soil temperature 1. Aspect and slope
The soil temperature is one of the most important factors that influence the crop a) In the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere, the southern slopes receive
growth. The sown seeds, plant roots and microorganisms live in the soil. The physiochemical more insolation per unit area than the northern exposure.
as well as life processes are directly affected by the temperature of the soil. Under the low b) The south west slopes, are usually warmer than the south east slopes. The reason is that
soil temperature conditions signification is inhibited and the intake of water by roof is the direct beam of sunshine on the southeast slope occur shortly after prolonged
reduced. In a similar way extreme soil temperatures injures plant and its growth is affected. cooling at night, but the evaporation of dew in the morning also requires energy.
Eg. On the sunny side, plants are likely to develop faster near a wall that stores and radiates 2. Soil texture
heat. If shaded by the wall, however, the same variety may mature later. In such cases soil a) Because of lower heat capacity and poor thermal conductivity, sandy soils warm up
temperature is an important factor. more rapidly than clay soils. The energy received by it is concentrated mainly in a
Importance of soil temperature on crop plants: thin layer resulting in extraordinary rise in temperature.
The soil temperature influences many process. b) Radiational cooling at night is greater in light soils than in heavy soils. In the top layer,
1. Governs uptake of water, nutrients etc needed for photosynthesis. sand has the greatest temperature range, followed by loam and clay.
2. Controls soil microbial activities and the optimum range is 18-30°C. c) The decrease of range with depth is more rapid in light soils than heavy soils when
3. Influences the germination of seeds and development of roots. they are dry but slower when they are wet.
4. Plays a vital role in mineralization of organic forms of nitrogen.(inc with inc in temp) d) A soil with rough surface absorbs more solar radiation than one with a smooth surface.
5. Influences the presence of organic matter in the soil.(more under low soil temperature) 3. Tillage and Tilth
6. Affects the speed of reactions and consequently weathering of minerals. a) By loosening the top soil and creating mulch, tillage reduces the heat flow between the
7. Influences the soil structure (types of clay formed, the exchangeable ions present, etc.) surface and the sub soil.
Factors affecting soil temperature: b) Since, the soil mulch has a greater exposure surface than the undisturbed soil and no
Heat at ground surface is propagated downward in the form of waves. The amplitude capillary connection with moist layers below, the cultivated soil dries up quickly by
deceases with depth. Both meteorological and soil factors contribute in bringing about evaporation, but the moisture in the sub-soil underneath the dry mulch is conserved.
changes of soil temperature. c) In general soil warms up faster than air. The diurnal temperature wave of the cultivated
I) Meteorological factors soil has much larger amplitude than that of the uncultivated soil.
1. Solar radiation d) The air 2-3 cm above the tilled soil is often hotter (10°C or above) than that over an
a) The amount of solar radiation available at any given location and point of time is untilled soil.
directly proportional to soil temperature. e) At night loosened ground is colder and more liable to frost than the uncultivated soil.
4. Organic matter:

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a) The addition of organic matter to a soil reduces the heat capacity and thermal Rn = G + H + LE + PS + M
conductivity. But, the water holding capacity increases. Rn is net radiation, G is surface soil heat flux, H is sensible heat flux, LE is laten heat
b) The absorbtivity of the soil increases because of the dark colour of the organic matter. flux, PS and M are energy fixed in plants by photosynthesis and energy involved in
c) At night, the rapid flow of heat from sub-soil by radiation is reduced with the addition respiration, respectively. The PS and M are assumed negligible due to their minor
of organic matter because of its low thermal conductivity. contribution (about 1-2% of Rn). The net radiation is the basic source of energy for
d) The darker the colour, the smaller the fraction of reflected radiation. evapotranspiration (LE), heating the air (H) and soil (S) and other miscellaneous M including
e) The dark soils and moist soils reflect less than the light coloured and dry soils. photosynthesis.
5. Soil moisture Temperature
a) Moisture has an effect on heat capacity and heat conductivity. It is defined as the measure of the average speed of atoms and molecules
b) Moisture at the soil surface cools the soil through evaporation. Kinetic energy
c) Therefore, a moist soil will not heat up as much as a dry one. Kinetic energy is form of energy that an object or a particle has by reason of its
d) Moist soil is more uniform in temperature throughout its depth as it is a better motion. If work, which transfers energy, is done on an object by applying a net force, the
conductor of heat than the dry soil. object speeds up and thereby gains kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a property of a moving
Variations in soil temperature: object or particle and depends not only on its motion but also on its mass. Translational
There are two types of soil temperature variations; daily and seasonal variation of soil kinetic energy of a body is equal to one-half the product of its mass, m, and the square of its
temperature velocity, v, or 1/2mv2.
1. Daily variations of soil temperature: Heat
a) These variations occur at the surface of the soil. It is the aggregate internal energy of motion and molecules of a body. It is often
b) At 5 cm depth the change exceeds 10°C. At 20 cm the change is less and at 80 cm defined as energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another because of
diurnal changes are practically nil. the temperature between them.
c) On cooler days the changes are smaller due to increased heat capacity as the soils Sensible heat
become wetter on these days. It is the heat that can be measured by a thermometer and thus sensed by humans.
d) On a clear sunny day a bare soil surface is hotter than the air temperature. Normally it is measured in Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
e) The time of the peak temperature of the soil reaches earlier than the air temperature due Latent heat
to the lag of the air temperature. It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of matter. This same
f) At around 20 cm in the soil the temperature in the ground reaches peak after the surface energy is released on the reverse process. Change of state through Evaporation and
reaches its maximum due to more time the heat takes to penetrate the soil. The rate of condensation is known as latent heat of evaporation and latent heat of condensation. From
penetration of heat wave within the soil takes around 3 hours to reach 10 cm depth. water to water vapour takes 600 calories and water to ice takes 80 calories.
g) The cooling period of the daily cycle of the soil surface temperature is almost double Blue colour of the sky
than the warming period. If the circumference of the scattering particle is less than about 1/10 of the wavelength
h) Undesirable daily temperature variations can be minimised by scheduling irrigation. of the incident radiation, the scattering co-efficient is inversely proportional to the fourth
2. Seasonal variations of soil temperature: power of the wavelength of the incident radiation. This is known as Rayleigh scattering.
a) Seasonal variations occur much deeper into the soil. This is the primary cause of the blue colour of the sky. For larger particles with
b) When the plant canopy is fully developed the seasonal variations are smaller. circumference >30 times of wavelength of the incident radiation, scattering is independent of
c) In winter, the depth to which the soil freezes depends on the duration and severeness of the wavelength (i.e) white light is scattered. This is known as Mei scaring
the winter.
d) In summer the soil temperature variations are much more than winter in tropics and Red Colour of the sky at sunset & sunrise.
sub tropics. It is because of increased path length in the atmosphere. % of solar energy in the
Energy balance or heat balance visible part decreases. Within the visible part, the ratio of the blue to the red part decreases
The net radiation is the difference between total incoming and outgoing radiations and with increased path length.
is a measure of the energy available at the ground surface. It is the energy available at the Disposition of Solar radiation
earth‘s surface to drive the processes of evaporation, air and soil heat fluxes as well as other a. 25% of solar radiation is reflected back to the space by clouds (more by middle and
smaller energy consuming processes such as photosynthesis and respiration. The net radiation high latitudes and less in the sub tropics)
over crop is as follows. b. 6% reflected back by air, dust and water vapour.

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c. 30% scatted downwards (more in the form of shorter wavelengths able) them that in
longer wave length (red).
Unit-5
d. 17% of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere. (Mostly by Oxygen, O3, CO2 &
HUMIDITY
H2O vapour).
O2 – absorb the extreme UV wavelengths (0.12 to 0.6 μ)
Humidity is the general term which describes the invisible amount of water vapour present in
O3 – UV (0.2 to 0.32 μ) and Visible part of radiation (0.44 to 0.7 μ)
the air. It is a highly variable climatic factor which forms only a small proportion (varying
H2O vapour – Near infrared (0.93, 1.13, 1.42 μ)
from zero to four per cent and averaging around 2% in the atmosphere.) Humidity is
CO2 - IR band 2.7 μ.
measured by an instrument called hygrometer.
e. About 50% of solar radiation reaches earth‘s surface, after reflection, scattering and
absorption. Water vapour in the atmosphere comes through evaporation from the oceans, lakes, rivers,
ice-fields and glaciers, through transpiration from plants and respiration from animals.

Significance of Atmospheric Moisture:

1. The water vapour present in rain-bearing clouds is responsible for all kinds of
precipitation, and the amount of water vapour present in a given volume of air indicates the
atmosphere‘s potential capacity for precipitation.

2. Water vapour absorbs radiation—both incoming and terrestrial. It thus plays a crucial role
in the earth‘s heat budget.

3. The amount of water vapour present decides the quantity of latent energy stored up in the
atmosphere for development of storms and cyclones.

4. The atmospheric moisture affects the human body‘s rate of cooling by influencing the
sensible temperature.

Humidity is a general term and can be expressed quantitatively in different ways.

Absolute Humidity:

It is the weight of actual amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air. It is usually
expressed as grams per cubic metre of air. Absolute humidity of the atmosphere changes
from place to place and from time to time. The ability of air to hold water vapour depends
entirely on its temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. For instance, at a
temperature of 10°C, one cubic metre of air can hold 11.4 grams of water vapour.

The same volume of air can hold 22.2 grams of water vapour, once the temperature rises to
21°C. Thus, a rise in the temperature of air increases its capacity to retain water vapour,
whereas a fall in temperature decreases it. However, it is not a very reliable index because
changes in temperature and pressure cause changes in the volume of air and consequently the
absolute humidity.

Relative Humidity

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It is a more practical measure of atmospheric moisture. It is the ratio of the air‘s actual water heat it begins to change phase and enter the air as water vapor. Above the surface, water
vapour content to its water vapour capacity at a given temperature. This relationship between vapor molecules dart about suspended in the air. However, near the surface water molecules
absolute humidity and the maximum moisture holding capacity of air at a particular are attaching themselves back the surface, thus changing back into liquid water
temperature is always expressed in percentage. (condensation) (A). As evaporation occurs the water level in the beaker decreases (B). This
occurs because evaporation exceeds condensation of water back onto the surface. After some
Since, the relative humidity is based on the air’s water vapour content as well as on its time, the amount of water entering the air from evaporation is equal to that condensing (C).
capacity, it can be changed in either of the two ways: When this occurs the air is said to be saturated.

(i) If moisture is added by evaporation, the relative humidity will increase.

(ii) A decrease in temperature (hence, decrease in moisture-holding capacity) will cause an

increase in relative humidity.

The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation and hence it is an
important climatic factor. Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is
said to be ‗saturated‘. At this temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of
moisture. Thus, relative humidity of the saturated air is 100%. If it has half the amount of
moisture that it can carry, the air is unsaturated and its relative humidity is only 50%.
Figure: Evaporation and condensation
A given sample of air becomes saturated without any actual change in its moisture content, in an enclosed beaker of water.
provided its temperature falls or it cools to the required extent. The temperature at which
The saturation level of the air is directly related to the air's temperature. As air temperature
saturation occurs in a given sample of air or water vapour begins to change into water is
increases, more water can remain in a gas phase. As temperature decreases, water molecules
known as the dew point.
slow down and there is a greater chance for them to condense on to surfaces. The graph
Specific Humidity below shows the relationship between air temperature and vapor pressure, a measure of the
humidity, at saturation.
It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air, or the proportion of the
mass of water vapour to the total mass of air. Since it is measured in units of weight (usually
grams per kilogram), the specific humidity is not affected by changes in pressure or
temperature.

Mixing ratio
The ratio of the mass of water vapour contained in a sample of moist air to the mass of dry
air. It is expressed as gram of water vapour per kilogram dry air.

Concept of saturation

When we think of air as being saturated with moisture we often say that the air is "holding all
the moisture it can". This implies that once the air has reached saturation it won't "accept"
anymore water by evaporation. This is wrong. So long as there is water available evaporation
will continue even when the air is fully saturated. Let's examine the concept of saturation in Fig.: Relationship between Air
more detail. Temperature and Vapour Pressure

Imagine a beaker filled halfway with water. Let's put a top on it to constrain the movement of
water molecules and eliminate the influence of wind on evaporation. As the water absorbs

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Note that below zero degrees Celsius the curve splits, one for the saturation point above a Condensation in air itself can only take place if the air temperature is reduced to below the
liquid surface (liquid-vapor) and one for a surface of ice (ice - vapor). The first thing you dew point. As the dew point of any mass of air is its saturation point, when its relative
might be wondering is how water can exist as a liquid below the freezing point. Water that is humidity is 100%, a little more cooling will bring the point to the level where condensation
not frozen below 0o C is called "super-cooled water". For water to freeze, the molecules must takes place, i.e. when water vapour changes into clouds or rain. In contrast, when the relative
become properly aligned to attach to one another. This is less likely to occur especially with humidity is low, a large amount of cooling is required to first reach the dew point and then
small amounts of water, like cloud droplets. Thus in clouds where temperatures are below the condensation. Condensation, therefore, depends upon—(i) the amount of cooling and (ii)
freezing it is common to find both super-cooled liquid water and ice crystals. relative humidity of the air.

Notice that the saturation vapour pressure at -20 o C is lower for ice than for a liquid surface. Condensation occurs under varying conditions which, in some way or the other, are
Why would this be so? You may recall that to convert water from a liquid to a gas requires associated with change in any of these variables—air volume, temperature, pressure and
about 600 calories per gram. To convert water from a solid to a gas requires about 680 humidity.
calories, hence it is more difficult to "liberate" a molecule of water from ice than water.
Therefore, when the air is saturated, there are more molecules above a water surface (i.e. Thus condensation takes place:
more vapor pressure) than an ice surface (i.e. less vapour pressure).
(i) When the temperature of the air is reduced but its volume remains constant and the air is
Vapour Pressure deficit cooled below the dew point; (ii) if the volume of the air is increased without addition of heat;
The difference between the saturated vapour pressure (SVP) and actual vapour pressure
(AVP) at a given temperature. This is an another measure of moisture in the atmosphere (iii) When the joint change of temperature and volume reduces the moisture holding capacity
which is useful in crop growth studies. When air contains all the moisture that it can hold to of the air below its existing moisture content; –
its maximum limit, it is called as saturated air, otherwise it is unsaturated air, at that
(iv) By evaporation adding moisture to the air. The most common circumstances favourable
temperature. The vapour pressure created at this temperature under saturated conditions is
for condensation are those producing a drop in air temperature. .
vapour pressure or saturated vapour pressure (SVP).
Process of condensation
Distribution of Water Vapour
 The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
Latitudinally, the atmospheric moisture decreases from the equator towards the poles in an
 Condensation is caused by the loss of heat (latent heat of condensation, opposite of
irregular manner with the latitudinal temperature gradient. The marine air may be saturated to
latent heat of vaporization).
the extent of 80%, while the continental air may be only saturated up to 20%. With altitude,
 When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour
the capacity of air to hold moisture decreases because the temperature also decreases.
ceases (Saturation Point = 100% Relative Humidity = Dew Point reached). Then, the
Looking at the diurnal variation, the absolute humidity is high during the afternoon and
excess water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it directly condenses into solid
comes down as the temperature comes down. The relative humidity is the lowest during early
form, it is known as sublimation.
morning, especially after long, calm, clear nights due to low capacity of the air to hold
moisture at a low temperature.

Condensation:

Condensation is the process of change of state from gaseous to liquid or solid state. When
moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour is exceeded by
the actual amount present in it. Then, the excess water vapour condenses into a liquid or solid
form depending upon the temperature. In free air, condensation results from cooling around
very small particles termed ‗condensation nuclei‘. Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the
oceans are particularly good nuclei because they absorb water. These particles are termed
―hygroscopic (water-seeking) nuclei‘.

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 The vertical displacement of the air is the major cause of adiabatic and katabatic
(cold, dense air flowing down a slope) temperature changes.
 Near the earth‘s surface, most processes of change are non-adiabatic because
horizontal movements often produce mixing of air and modify its characteristics.

Non-Adiabatic Temperature Changes

 Non-adiabatic processes include cooling by radiation, conduction or mixing with

colder air. The air may be cooled due to loss of heat by radiation.
 In case there is direct radiation from moist air, the cooling produces fog or clouds,
subject to presence of hygroscopic nuclei in the air.
 Cooling by contact with a cold surface produces dew, frost or fog depending on other
atmospheric conditions.
 But the effect of cooling produced by radiation, conduction and mixing is confined to
a thin layer of the atmosphere.
 In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as  The non-adiabatic processes of cooling produce only dew, fog or frost. They are
hygroscopic condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt from the incapable of producing a substantial amount of precipitation.
ocean are particularly good nuclei because they absorb water.
 Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder Forms of Condensation
object and it may also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
 Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative  The forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of temperature at which
humidity of the air. the dew point is reached.
 Condensation takes place:  Condensation can take place when the dew point is
 Lower than the freezing point,
1. when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining  Higher than the freezing point.
constant (adiabatically),  White frost, snow and some clouds (cirrus clouds) are produced when the
2. when both the volume and the temperature are reduced, temperature is lower than the freezing point.
3. when moisture is added to the air through evaporation,  Dew, fog and clouds result even when the temperature is higher than the freezing
point.
 After condensation the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of  Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their location, i.e. at
the following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. or near the earth‘s surface and in free air.
 Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as  Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas clouds are in
well as higher than the freezing point. the second category.

Processes of Cooling for Producing Condensation Dew

 These processes can be studied under the‖ headings, adiabatic and non-adiabatic.  When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of
solid objects (rather than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades
Adiabatic Temperature Changes and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
 The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative
 When the air rises, it expands. Thus, heat available per unit volume is reduced and, humidity, and cold and long nights.
therefore, the temperature is also reduced. Such a temperature change which does not  For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing
involve any subtraction of heat, and cooling of air takes place only by ascent and point.
expansion, is termed ‗adiabatic change‘.

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 So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground. Because of the
fog and mist, the visibility becomes poor to zero.
 In urban and industrial centers smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the
formation of fog and mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
described as smog (will be discussed in detail in next post). [Related Question
Asked in Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three mega cities of the
country but the air pollution is much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to
the other two. Why is this so?]
 Radiation fog results from radiation, cooling of the ground and adjacent air. These
fogs are not very thick. Usual in winters.
 Fogs formed by condensation of warm air when it moves horizontally over a cold
surface, are known as advectional fog. These fogs are thick and persistent. Occurs
over warm and cold water mixing zones in oceans.
 The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled in order to become  Frontal or precipitation fog is produced due to convergence of warm and cold air
saturation at constant pressure and water vapour content is called as Dew Point masses where warm air mass is pushed under by the heavier cold air mass.
temperature  Precipitation in the warm air mass condenses to produce fog at the boundary of the
 . In this case, the invisible water vapour begins to condense into visible form like two air masses. These are called frontal or precipitation fog.
water droplets.  In fog visibility is less than one kilometer.

White Frost

 Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0°
C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the freezing point.
 The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals instead of water
droplets.
 The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same as those for the
formation of dew, except that the air temperature must be at or below the freezing
point.

Mist

 The difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than fog.
 In mist each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.

Fog

 When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls
all of a sudden, condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles.

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 Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).

Importance of Humidity on crop plants

The humidity is not an independent factor. It is closely related to rainfall, wind and
temperature. It plays a significant role in crop production.
1. The humidity determines the crops grown in a given region.
2. It affects the internal water potential of plants.
3. It influences certain physiological phenomena in crop plants including transpiration
4. The humidity is a major determinant of potential evapotranspiration. So, it determines the
water requirement of crops.
5. High humidity reduces irrigation water requirement of crops as the evapotranspiration
losses from crops depends on atmospheric humidity.
 Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold 6. High humidity can prolong the survival of crops under moisture stress. However, very high
surface. or very low relative humidity is not conducive to higher yields of crops.
 Mist is also formed by water droplets, but with less merging or coalescing. This 7. There are harmful effects of high humidity. It enhances the growth of some saprophytic
means mist is less dense and quicker to dissipate. and parasitic fungi, bacteria and pests, the growth of which causes extensive damage to crop
 Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in plants. Eg: a. Blight disease on potato. b. The damage caused by thrips and jassids on several
contact with cold currents. crops.
 In mist visibility is more than one kilometer but less than two kilometres. 8. High humidity at grain filling reduces the crop yields.
9. A very high relative humidity is beneficial to maize, sorghum, sugarcane etc, while it is
Haze harmful to crops like sunflower and tobacco.
10. For almost all the crops, it is always safe to have a moderate relative humidity of above
 Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry 40%.
particles obscure the clarity of the sky (No condensation. Smog is similar to haze but Variation in Humidity:
there is condensation in smog). 1. Absolute humidity is highest at the equator and minimum at the poles.
2. Absolute humidity is minimum at sunrise and maximum in afternoon from 2 to 3 p.m. The
diurnal variations are small in desert regions.
3. The relative humidity is maximum at about the sunrise and minimum between 2 to 3 p.m.
4. The behaviour of relative humidity differs a lot from absolute humidity. At the equator it
is at a maximum of 80 per cent and around 85 per cent at the poles. But, near horse latitudes
it is around 70 per cent.

 Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in dry weather), traffic,
industry, and wildfires.

Smog

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• Nowcast : A short-time weather forecast issued generally for the next few hours
Unit-6 • Short range forecast: A short term weather forecast issued for 24 hours with an outlook for
another 24 hours
WEATHER FORECASTING •Medium range forecast: A weather forecast issued for a period extending from about three
Climatic Normal days to seven / ten days in advance.
The climatic normal is the average value of 30 years of a particular weather element. • Long range forecast: A weather forecast issued for a period greater than seven days in
The period may be week, month and year. The crop distribution, production and productivity advance and up to a season of more than three months.
depend on the climatic normal of a place. If the crops are selected for cultivation based on the • Seasonal climate Forecast: A weather forecast issued for a season especially for rain for
optimum climatic requirements it is likely that the crop production can be maximized. taking farm decisions (Response farming)

Types of forecast Validity Main users Predictions

period
1. Short range Upto 72 hours Farmers, Rainfall distribution, heavy rainfall,
a) Now casting 0 -2 hours marine heat and cold wave, thunder storms
b) Very short 0-12 hours agencies,
range general public
2. Medium Beyond 3 Farmers Occurrence of rainfall, temperature
range days and up to
10 days
3. Long range Beyond 10 Planners This forecasting is provided for
days upto a Indian monsoon rainfall. The
Weather forecast month and a outlooks are usually expressed in
The prediction of weather for the next few days to the season is called weather season the form of expected deviation from
forecast. The Table below depicts different weather forecasting services normally practiced in normal condition.
a country.
NEED / IMPORTANCE OF FORECAST
• Basically weather has many social and economic impacts in a place. Name of Issued Forecasted Methods Lead Accuracy
• Among different factors that influence crop production, weather plays a decisive role as the by Weather elements used in time (%)
• Aberrations in it alone explains up to 50 per cent variations in crop production Weather India
• The rainfall is the most important among the required forecast, which decides the crop forecast
• Production in a region and ultimately the country‘s economy. Now IMD Thunder storm, dust Synoptic and One to two 90-98
• The planning for moisture conservation under weak monsoon condition and for flood relief casting storm Cold and heat weather map hours earlier
under strong monsoon condition is important in a region. waves
• A reliable weather forecasting when disseminated appropriately will pave way for the Short IMD Cloud spread, rainfall, Synoptic and One day 80-90
effective sustainability. range temperature, cyclone weather map,
• One can minimize the damage, which may be caused directly or indirectly by unfavourable warning NWP
weather. Medium IMD Rainfall, temperature, GNWPM, 3- 10 days 70- 75
• The recurring crop losses can be minimized if reliable forecast on incidence of pest and range RH, wind speed, wind RCM
• Diseases is given timely based on weather variables. direction and cloud cover
• Help in holding the food grain prices in check through buffer stock operations. This means Long IMD Seasonal rainfall Statistical 30 to 40 days 60
that in good monsoon years when prices fall, the government may step in and buy and in range regression
bad years when price tend to rise, it may unload a part of what it had purchased. like ARIMA
• Judicious use of water can be planned in a region depending up on the forecast. model
Type of weather forecast

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Methods of weather forecasting the year 1750 and 2012. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of these gases i.e, CO 2, CH4
Methods of forecasting Characters and N2O are 1, 25 and 310 respectively.
Synoptic method Using weather elements observations at surface level and upper
level,(synoptic) made from different locations, chart is prepared Weather Climate
to indicate present status of atmosphere. Present weather and Weather is the state of the Climate is the average conditions that
past weather chart + satellite information of the present + Definition atmosphere on a current day at a are expected at a certain place over a
analogue analysis current time. It changes day to day. number of years.
Statistical method Multiple regression, ARIMA Weather includes sunshine, rain,
Numerical weather Equations drawn from Coriolis force, frictional force pressure cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, Climate may include precipitation,
prediction gradient force and gravitational force are integrated in to sleet, freezing rain, flooding, temperature, humidity, sunshine, and
multiple equations and it becomes model. Model is run from Components blizzards, ice storms, thunderstorms, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog,
present to future. Initial condition is very important. steady rains from a cold front or frost, and hail storms over a long period
warm front, excessive heat, heat of time.
In order to provide the farmers with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the waves and more.
weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a particular Climate forecast can only be done over
Day to day forecast can be done
agroclimatic zone. The types of forewarnings to be given depend on the stages of the crop. In longer periods of time, such as 30 years.
depending on the air pressure,
case of farmers, they should become familiar with weather bulletins and learn how to Forecast The average of weather over 30 years
temperature and other similar
interpret. helps determine the climate of a certain
factors.
area.
Climate change and Global Warming Real-time measurements of
Climate change is any significant long-term change in the expected patterns of atmospheric pressure, temperature, Aggregating weather statistics over
Determined by
average weather of region (or the whole Earth) over a significant period of time. It is about wind speed and direction, humidity, periods of 30 years
non-normal variations to the climate, and the effects of these variations on other parts of the precipitation, could cover, etc.
Earth. These changes may take tens, hundreds or perhaps millions of year. But increased in Study Meteorology Climatology
anthropogenic activities such as industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, agriculture,
change in land use pattern etc. leads to emission of greenhouse gases due to which the rate of Climate variability
climate change is much faster. Climate change scenarios include higher temperatures, The temporal changes in weather phenomena, which is part of general circulation of
changes in precipitation, and higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations. There are three ways in atmosphere and occur on a yearly basis on a global scale. Climate change and climate
which the Greenhouse Effect may be important for agriculture. First, increased atmospheric variability are the concern of human kind in recent decades all over the world. The recurrent
CO2 concentrations can have a direct effect on the growth rate of crop plants and weeds. drought and desertification seriously threaten the livelihood of over 1-2 billion people who
Secondly, CO2-induced changes of climate may alter levels of temperature, rainfall and depend on the land for most of their needs. The weather related disasters viz. drought and
sunshine that can influence plant and animal productivity. Finally, rises in sea level may lead floods, ice storms, dust storms, landslides, thunder clouds associated with lightening and
to loss of farmland by inundation and increasing salinity of groundwater in coastal areas. The forest fires are uncommon over one or other region of the world.
greenhouse effect is a natural process that plays a major part in shaping the earth‘s climate. It Causes of climatic variability
produces the relatively warm and hospitable environment near the earth‘s surface where A. External causes
humans and other life-forms have been able to develop and prosper. However, the increased i) Solar output: An increase in solar output by 0.3%when compared to 1650 -1700AD
level of greenhouse gases (GHGs) (carbon dioxide (CO 2), water vapor (H2O), methane data.
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur ii) Orbital variation:
hexafluoride (SF6) etc) due to anthropogenic activities has contributed to an overall increase 1. Earth orbit varies from almost a complete circle to marked ellipse (Eccentricity).
of the earth‘s temperature, leading to a global warming. The average global surface 2. Wobble of earth‘s axis (Precession of equinox)
temperature have increased by 0.74 oC since the late 19th Century and is expected to increase 3. Tilt of the earth‘s axis of rotation relative to the plane of the orbit varies between
by 1.4 oC - 5.8 oC by 2100 AD with significant regional variations (IPCC, 2007). The 21.8o and 24.4o.
atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased from 280 ppm to 395 ppm, CH 4 concentration B. Internal causes
increased from 715 ppb to 1882 ppb and N2O concentration from 227 ppb to 323 ppb from

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i) Changes in the atmospheric composition. Change in the greenhouse gases especially simulate what would have happened if humans had not modified Earth‘s climate during the
CO2 20th century—that is, how global temperatures would have evolved if only natural factors
ii) Land surface changes particularly the afforestation and deforestation (volcanoes, the Sun, and internal climate variability) were influencing the climate system.
iii) The internal dynamics of southern oscillation – changes in the sea surface temperature These ―undisturbed Earth‖ simulations predict that, in the absence of human activities, there
in western tropical Pacific (El-Nino/La-Nina) coupled with Southern Oscillation Index, would have been negligible warming, or even a slight cooling, over the 20th century. When
the Tahiti minus Darwin normalized pressure index leading to the ENSO phenomena greenhouse gas emissions and other activities are included in the models, however, the
iv) Anthropogenic causes of climate variation in greenhouse gases and aerosols. resulting surface temperature changes more closely resemble the observed changes.
Effects of climate change
1. The increase concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are expected to increase the Climate change – mitigation and adaptation in agriculture
temperature of the earth. 1. Assist farmers in coping with current climatic risks by providing value-added weather
2. Crop production is weather dependant and any change will have major effects on crop services to farmers. Farmers can adapt to climate changes to some degree by shifting
production and productivity. planting dates, choosing varieties with different growth duration, or changing crop
3. Elevated CO2 and temperature affects the biological process like respiration, rotations.
photosynthesis, plant growth, reproduction, water use etc. Depending on the latitude the 2. An Early warning system should be put in place to monitor changes in pest and disease
CO2 may either offer beneficial effect or may behave otherwise also. outbreaks. The overall pest control strategy should be based on integrated pest
management because it takes care of multiple pests in a given climatic scenario.
Detecting climate trends is complicated by the fact that there are many natural 3. Participatory and formal plant breeding to develop climate-resilient crop varieties that can
variations in temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables. These natural variations tolerate higher temperatures, drought and salinity.
are caused by many different processes that can occur across a wide range of timescales— 4. Developing short-duration crop varieties that can mature before the peak heat phase set in.
from a particularly warm summer or snowy winter to changes over many millions of years. 5. Selecting genotype in crops that have a higher per day yield potential to counter yield loss
Among the most well-known short-term climatic fluctuations are El Niño and La Niña, which from heat-induced reduction in growing periods.
are periods of natural warming and cooling in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Strong El Niño and 6. Preventive measures for drought that include on-farm reservoirs in medium lands, growing
La Niña events are associated with significant year-to-year changes in temperature and of pulses and oilseeds instead of rice in uplands, ridges and furrow system in cotton
rainfall patterns across many parts of the planet, including the United States. These events crops, growing of intercrops in place of pure crops in uplands, land grading and leveling,
have been linked to a number of extreme weather events, such as the 1992 flooding in stabilization of field bunds by stone and grasses, graded line bunds, contour trenching for
midwestern states and the severe droughts in south-eastern states in 2006 and 2007. Globally, runoff collection, conservation furrows, mulching and more application of Farm yard
temperatures tend to be higher during El Niño periods, such as 1998, and lower during La manure (FYM).
Niña years, such as 2008. However, these up-and-down fluctuations are smaller than the 20th 7. Efficient water use such as frequent but shallow irrigation, drip and sprinkler irrigation for
century warming trend; 2008 was still quite a warm year in the long-term record. Natural high value crops, irrigation at critical stages.
climate variations can also be forced by slow changes in the Earth‘s orbit around the Sun that 8. Efficient fertilizer use such as optimum fertilizer dose, split application of nitrogenous and
affect the solar energy received by Earth, as is the case with the Ice Age cycle or by short- potassium fertilizers, deep placement, use of neem, karanja products and other such
term changes in the amount of volcanic aerosols in the atmosphere. Major eruptions, like that nitrification inhibitors, liming of acid soils, use of micronutrients such as zinc and boron,
of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, spew huge amounts of particles into the stratosphere that cool use of sulphur in oilseed crops, integrated nutrient management.
Earth. However, surface temperatures typically rebound in 2-5 years as the particles settle out 9. Seasonal weather forecasts could be used as a supportive measure to optimize planting and
of the atmosphere. The short-term cooling effects of several large volcanic eruptions can be irrigation patterns.
seen in the 20th century temperature record, as can the global temperature variations 10. Provide greater coverage of weather linked agriculture-insurance.
associated with several strong El Niño and La Niña events, but an overall warming trend is 11. Intensify the food production system by improving the technology and input delivery
still evident. In order to put El Niño and La Niña events and other short-term natural system.
fluctuations into perspective, climate scientists examine trends over several decades or longer 12. Adopt resource conservation technologies such as no-tillage, laser land leveling, direct
when assessing the human influence on the climate system. Based on a rigorous assessment seeding of rice and crop diversification which will help in reducing in the global warming
of available temperature records, climate forcing estimates, and sources of natural climate potential. Crop diversification can be done by growing non-paddy crops in rain fed
variability, scientists have concluded that there is a more than 90% chance that most of the uplands to perform better under prolonged soil moisture stress in kharif.
observed global warming trend over the past 50 to 60 years can be attributed to emissions 13. Develop a long-term land use plan for ensuring food security and climatic resilience.
from the burning of fossil fuels and other human activities. Scientists have used models to

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14. National grid grain storages at the household/ community level to the district level must
be established to ensure local food security and stabilize.
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