CLIMATOLOGY

of climate,
Climatology (from Greek 'klima'-place, zone; and logia'= study) is the study
over a period of time.
scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged
over a long period
Climatoiogy is the scientific study ofclimate. It deals with the trend of weather
of time. Essentially, climatology is an atmospheric science; though
closely related but different
its phenomena. The
from meteorology. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and
from weather data.
climatologist employs statistical techniques to derive information about climate
as earlier mentioned, therefore the aim of
The atmosphere is not only dynamic but also complex,
a a
climatology is to describe and explain the atmospheric phenomena with view to promoting
better understanding of the processes and interactions within the atmosphere and between the
atmosphere and the carth's surface.

Scope
Chmatology hasa(hanaQs acland it can be subdivided either on the basis of the topics
wide scope
emphasised or on the scale of the atmospheric phenomena that are emphasised. Ayoade (2004)
identified the sištopical subdivision of climatology among others as follows:

1. Regional climatology: It is the description of climates over selectedareas of the earth.

2. Synoptic climatology: It is the study of the weatlher and climate over an area in relation to the
S
pattern of the pervading atmospheric circulation. Synoptic climatology is thus essentially a new
approach to regional climatology.

3. Physical climatology: It involves investigating the behaviour of weather elements or processes

Vin the atmosphere in terns of physical principles. Emphasis is on global energy and water balance
A
regimes of the earth and the atmosphere.

4. Dynamic climatology: It places emphasis on the atmospheric motions on various scales.

particularly the general circulation of the atmosphere.

5. Applied climatology: It is the application of climatological knowledge and principles to solving

problems facing mankind.

6. Historical climatology: It is the study of the development of climate through time.

1
 instance,
are, for
Several other subdivisions are recognised in the literature. These
climatology,
statistical
agricultural climatology, bioclimatology, building climatology. urban or more of the six
under one building
climatology, etc. These subdivisions can however, be subsumed and
bioclimatology
subdivisions recognized above. Agricultural climatology,
climatology are, for example, aspects of applied climatologY.
recognized:
The following three subdivisions
of climatology can be and the
areas of the earth
is concerned with features of climates of large
Macro climatology: It
1.

large scale atmospheric motions that cause the climate.

areas of
relativelysmall
2. Meso climatology: It is concerned with
the study of climate over
between 10-10Okm across (e.g. the study or severe local weather systems like
of urban climate
tornadoes and thunderstorms).
or
ground's surface
the climate close to the
3. Microclimatology: It is concerned with the studyy of

verysmall areas less than 100 meters across.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given point in time at a given place. V eatner
is dynamic and has the clements of- airtemperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, precipitation,
visibility and wind. If we measure and observe these weather elements over a specified period of
time, we would obtain the average weather or the climate of a particular place. Climate is therefore
the accumulation of daily and seasonal weather events of a given location over a period of 30-35
years. The concept of climate is more than the average weather condition, it also includes weather
events, considerations of variabilities (departure from averages), extreme conditions, and the
probabilities of frequencies of occurrences of given weather conditions.

In summary therefore, weather deals with the specific while climate deals with a
generalisation of weather events. Weather and climate play a major role in our lives, Weather for
example, often dictates the type of clothing we wear, while climate determines what types of crops
can be planted and when to plant the crops. Weather determines if these same crops will grow to
Inaturity.

Cimatic Elements
 Solar and Net
Radiation
Temperatures are substantially affected by the amount of solar or net radiation
available summer than during
a
particular surface. Temperatures are particularly higher during
summer. Duringa daily cycle, on a
Season because of the higher insolation received during
day, temperatures are highest in the afternoons when
values of solar radiation and

Consequently net radiation are highest.

Cloud cover
significantly influences the penetration of
Cloudcover is another climatic element that
cover. the amount of solar energy received or absorbed at a particular
Solar radiation. With cloud
it lower than what would
surtace is reduced. In turn this reduces temperatures at the surface making
part accounts for the lower temperatures
be if the skies were cloudless. This factor, for example in
areas a clouds compared with the arid areas with little or no cloud cover.
in the humid with lot of
operates in reverse, since it serves to retain much of the
The effect of cloud cover however, also
radiation from a particular surface
heat that would otherwise be lost from the earth's surface by
cloud cover lessen the diurnal
throughout the day or night (Greenhouse effect). The effects of
temperature ranges by preventing high maxima by day and low minima by
night. This is usually
compared with the arid
the situation in the humid areas of the tropical rain forests of West Africa,
areas such as in the Sahara Desertswhere the ranges of temperatures are always high.

Latitude
As a result of the earth's inclination, the midday sun is almost overhead within the tropics
but the sun's rays reach the earth at an angle outside the tropics. Thus
there is a decrease in

temperature from the equatorial regions to the poles. This is illustrated in Figure Band RI falls
1.

over the temperate

vertically over the equatorial latitudes on surface E. Band R2 falls obliquely
latitudes on surface T. R1 travels through a shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation
a
heats up a smaller surface area; temperature is thus high. On the other hand, R2 travels through
longer distance and much of its heat is absorbed by clouds, water vapour and dust particles. Its
oblique rays have to heat up a larger area; temperature is therefore low.
 Longer distarce oblique ray
Arctic Cicle
R2 High lattude
ternpersture
lou
Sun's rays (solar insolation)
equator
E
RI Loulattude
high ternpersture

Shorter, distance direct ra

Continentality(Distance fromthe Sea)

Continentality (or distance fromn the sea) is another factor which affects the
characteristics of temperature in time and space. For example, near the ocean or water surface,
daily temperature extremes are smaller than within the continental areas. Moreover, the variability
of temperature is greater in areas far away from the sea than along the coastal areas. Thus
maximum temperatures are higher and minimum temperatures are lower over continental climates
than in oceanic or marine climates.

Precipitation
Precipitation is usually in liquid or solid form. The common precipitation forms include
or or a
rain, drizzle, snow, sleet and hail. They are always preceded by condensation sublimation
a
combination the two. The maximum capacity of air for holding moisture may be reached if
of
can be reached at a particular
parcel of air is cooled at constant pressure. Thus, the saturation point
temperature, even if the amount of the moisture content in it has not changed. Also the critical
as temperature,
temperature at which saturation vapour pressure is reached is known the dew point
water vapour in the air represents
which may be defined as the temperature at which the quantity of
 he maximum
holding capacity
of the air at
results in condensation that temperature.
either in form water Further cooling beyond dew point
Thus if of
the air is cooled below ifttemperature is above Ooc or, ice if it is below 0c.
can the dew point, then
hold at that temperature the excess of water vapour over what the air
has taken
is given offin the form of water or ice. this regard, condensation
place. The main In
forms of condensation include dew, frost, fogs and cloud.
Pressure and Winds
Atmospheric pressure can by the
be defined as the weight exerted, upon the earth
atmosphere. The average varies slightly
air pressure at around 1013 millibars but it
sea-level is
according to latitude. The air pressure decreases with altitude; at 4500 metres it 15 ony
pressu
mmoars. This is because at hich altitude air is less dense. Teperature also affects
reverse is the
because a rise in temperature causes the air to expand, reducing the air pressure. The
causing increase in ar Press
Case when temperature falls. the air contracts and becomes denser,
areas of hgn
1S a general variation in
pressure over the earth's surface. Air flow is from
le rotation, ar flow 1s
areas pressure However. because of the earth's
PreSsure towards of low 1s
hemisphere it is deflected to the right: in the southern hemisphere it
detlected. In the northern
deflected to the left.

Solar Radiation
processes
on solar radiation because all physical and biological
Life depends substantially
on surface or in the atmosphere involve some form of energy transfer.
taking place the earth's
a requirement for other processes related to water, land, soil,
Solar radiation is also major
over 99 per cent of the heat energy required for the
vegetation and animals. The sun provides
physical processes taking place in the earth -the atmospheric system. As the
sun radiates its

energy, the amount received at the outer boundary of the earth's

atmosphere, at normal incidence
sun is known as the solar constant. The value of
and at mean distance between the earth and the
this constant is 2 Langley(ly).

Solar Altitude
The altitude the sun (angle between the rays of the sun and at tangent to the earth's
of

surface at a point of observation) is an important factor which affects the amount of

 depends on the time of the day, the latitude of
earth's surface. It the
insolation received at the is great, the solar radiation
When the sun's altitude
time of the ycar (session).
location and the
surface (Fig. 2). For cxample at noon
concentrated at the carth's
intensity per unit area is highly when the sun is at a
greatest, but in the moming and evening hours
the intensity of insolation is
is small. The same principle has a broader application with
low angle, the amount of insolation
In
at high latitudes the noon sun's angle is low.
respeet to latitude and the seasons. In winter and
sun
more nearly vertical and the obliquc rays of the low anglc
summer and at low latitudes, it is
than are vertical rays, thus less heating
per unit areas is produccd
are spread over agreater surface
by the low-angle sun.

Fig. 2: Sun's Angle

Seasonal Variations in Radiation

The sun is the main source energy for thecarth. Itemits radiant energy
of
which is received
bythe earth as solar radiation or insolation. Atthe time summer
of solstice (June 21 st), the noon
ravs of the sun are vertical on
the tropic of cancer (23 1/2°N)and the length of day increases from
66 1/2° (antarctic circle) in the winter hemisphere to
the pole in the sunmmer hemisphere. The
northern hemisphere experiences maximum solar radiation. The northern
hemisphere actually
receives two to three times the amount of solar radiation received by the
winter hemisphere.

6
 The zonal solar energy
curve,
n rise steadily up to about beginning at zero at
the Antarctic circle continues
latitude 40°N in spite
more oblique of the fact that the sun's rays are
north of 231/2°N. North increasingly
of this latitude. however there is a
radiation which continues to slight decline in solar
about latitude 62°N because
the more oblique rays
the increased length of day. But of the sun otset
the solar energy curve apain rises
north of 62°N and reaches an
absolute maximum at the North Pole.
At the time ofthe eauinoxes (about
March 21 and September
23) when the sun's noon rays are vertical at
the eauator and the tangent may reach the poles,
latitudinal distribution of solar radiation resembles that for vear as a
the whole, since the maximum
1S at the equator
with minima at the poles. During these times both the northem and southern
hemispheres receive approximately equal amounts of the solar radiation. For the year as a whole,
SOlar radiation rcaches a maximum at the equator and diminishes gradually and regularly toward
either pole. At the poles the total amount of solar radiation received for the entire year
is about 40% of that received at the equator.

Global circulation of air masses

Wind is the horizontal movement of air. This refersto the circulation of air over theearth's
surtace as a result of differences in pressure. Along the equator and within 5° north and south, is
sun is never far from vertical. It is a belt of
the Equatorial low pressure belt, where the midday
a zone of wind
intense overheating which causes the air to expand, become lighter and rise. It is
convergence and often called the Doldruns. At about 30° north and south occr the sub-tropical
are calm and light. It is a
high pressure belts where the air is comparatively dry and the winds
region of descending air currents or wind divergence and anticyclones. It is frequently called the
pressure belts
horse latitude. Around the latitudes 60° north and south are the two temperate low
90° north
which are also zones of convergence with cyclonic activity. At the north and south polar
pressure belts.
and south where temperatures are permanently low, are the polar high
 Poiai:Hign; Polar Easterlies
Descending air
60N
south westerlies (varlable
ascending air 30°N
Winds
North-East Trade
0N
Descending zir
south-East Trade Winds
30°S
ascending air
Latitudes):
Sub-fropiatHigh (Hpise North-Westerlies (variable)
Descending ai
60°S

ascending air Polar Easteries

Polar Hioh:

South Pole
pressare belts and planetary winds
Fig. 4: Vorld

Pressure Belts and Planetary Winds

pressure belts
permanent pressure belts, winds tend to blow from this high
From theglobal
pressure belts as planetary winds. The winds blowing out from the sub-tropical high
to low
are called north trade winds
pressure belt in the northern hemisphere towards the equatorial low
are called south east winds. Winds are always named after
and those in the southerm hemisphere
are the most regular of all the planetary winds. They
the direction they come from. The trade winds
great capacity for holding moisture
blow with great force and in a constant direction. They have
to the winter tropics. Winds blow from
because they blow from the cooler sub-tropical latitudes
pressure belts as the variable
the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the temperate low
southern
westerlies. Under the effect of the coriolis force, they become the south-westerlies the
in
an important role in
hemisphere. They are more variable in the northern hemisphere, but they play
temperate lands. They
carrying warm equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of the
bring much precipitation to the western coasts of continents. Finally, the polar easterlies
blow out
pressure belts. They are extremely
from the polar high pressure belts towards the temperate low
 cold winds as they come
fromthe tundra and
than in the north. ice- cap regions.
They are more regular inthe south
Influence of wind
and earth's rotation on ocean
currents
Earth's rotation
affectsthe oceans a
the ocean in similar manner,
basins. Ocean currents setting up currents that flow within
are driven
by surface winds,
Earth's rotation, and differences in
Samy. Wma iS the flow of air between areas
ofbigh and Jow pressure. If earth
the atmosphere would basically did't rotate, air n
circulate a in simple hack-and-forth pattern
between he P
(gn preSsure areas) and the equator (a low pressure
area), The direction of surface currents wou
uen agn with this general wind pattem. But because
earth rotates, circulating air is detlected
toward the right in the Northerm Hemisnhere and toward the
lef in the Southern Hemisphere,
resulting in curved paths. This deflection is called
the Coriolis effect.

Global winds drag on the water's surface. Just as Coriolis deflects winds to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, it also results in the deflection
of mjor surface ocean currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (in a clockwise spiral) and
to the left in the Southerm Hemisphere (in a counter-clockwise spiral). These major spirals of

Ocean-circling currents are called gyres and occur north and south of the equator.

One particularly powerful westernm boundary current is the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream,
paired with the eastern boundary Canary Current, flanks the North Atlantic gyre. The Gulf Stream
originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern
coastline of the United States and Newfoundland. It influences the climate of the east coast of
Florida, keeping temperatures warmer in the winter. Since it also extends toward Europe, it wams
western European countries as well.

Windsdrive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean's surface. However, ocean
currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by
differences in the water's density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity
(haline). This process is known as thermohaline circulation.

In Earth's polar regions, ocean water gets very cold, forming sea ice. Asa consequence the
surrounding seawater gets saltier, This happens because salt is left behind when sea ice foms. As
 water is pulled i
seawater gets saltier, its density increases, and it starts to sink. Surlace
the
water, which in turn cventually bccomes cold and salty cnough to sink. Thie
replace the sinking
conveyer belt.
initiates the deep-occan currents driving the global
occans and seas from cast to west. Warm
Trade winds blow warm surface waters in tropical
up a temperaturc gradient acroSs the
water pools along the west coast of continents, which sets
warmer than the castern
Occan surface. Under normal conditions, the western Pacific is about 8°C
Pacific, and this gradient contributes to the formation of clouds and precipitation in Australia,
Indonesia, and parts of Afica. Disruption of this temperature gradient creates the event known as
EINiño.

Influenccof temperature on moisture content of air

The humidity of air determines the capacity of the air to hold moisture. It also affects the
cvaporation ratc. The lower the humidity, the greater the capacity of air to hold moisture while the
higher the humidity the lower the capacity of air to hold water. Humidity is a measure
of the
amountof water in the atmosphere. It docs not cover the other forms
of moisture in thc atmosphere,
Ie. liquid form (water droplets)
and solid fom (ice). Because of its origin (carth's surface)
atmospheric water vapour is concentrated in the lower layers the
of atmosphere. In fact, about half
of the total water vapour in the atmosphere is found below 2000 meters.
The amount of moisture
inthe atmosphere decreases steadily with increase in height. Water vapour is virtually absent after
the tropopause.

There are different ways of measuring the moisture content

of the atmosphere. The indices
of humidity usually applied include the following:
*Absolute humidity: It is expressed in grains per cubic metres of air. It is the total mass
of water
in a given volume of air.

Specific humidity: Thisis the mass of water vapour per kilogram of air including its moisture.

* Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the actual moisture content of a sample of air to that which
the same volume of air can hold at the same temperature and pressure when saturated. It is usually
cxpressed in percentage.
 pew-point temperature:
This is the
at constant temperature at which saturation will occur
pressure without if the air is cooled
addition or removal
of vapour. Vapour pressure
by the apour content is the pressure exerted
of the atmosphere in millibars. The relative
used index for neasuring air humidity,. humidity is the most pop
It is easily measured and indicates
of the air. However, it is highly the degree of Satu
influenced by the air temperature. A change in air temperature can
Change the value of relative humidityeven
thouch the moisture content remains coust
Mstance, the relative humidity ofthe air yariesinversely with temperature,
being lower n te
ou and hugher at night. It is important to note that relative humidity does not tell us about
he quantity of nmoisture in the air but tells us how close to saturation the air 1s.

Global pattern of precipitation

OL COndensation and precipitation to occur naturally, the appreciable ascent of

an ar
ways: hence there are three main yPes
Lilass 1S essential. This ascent is brought about in three main
of precipitation:
1.Convectional rainfall due to surface heating,
ascent over land, particularly over a high range of hills.
to
2. Orographic or relief rainfall due

either a mass
of warm air over runs cold air or the latter
3. Frontal or cyclonic rainfall.
when
undercuts the former.

Types of Precipitation
on the basis of the processes which led to their formation.
Precipitation types are classified
There are three types of precipitation.

type of precipitation is common in the tropics. When the

earth's
1. Convectional precipitation: This
vapour rises because heated air always expands and becomes
surface is heated up, moisture laden
lighter.

Air rises in a convection current after prolonged heating. In

ascending, water vapour
Hot, rising air
condenses into cumulonimbus cloud which reaches its maximum in the afternoon.
has great capacity for holding moisture. As air rises it cools and when
saturation point is reached
may
torrential down pours occur, often accompanied by thunder and lightening. These downpours

11
 do not sink into the soil but drain
aresointensethatthey rash and gullying
wash
becausc they of slope
not be useful for
agriculture
cause serious erosion in forms
offalmost immediately. In fact
they may

Convectional Rainfall
3

4 2

-igure 2.2: Convectional rainfall

cause of air rising is associated with land form
2.Relief or Orographic precipitation :The second
as orographic
barriers such as mountains, hills, and other highlands. This type is known
precipitation. In this case, the barriers lie across the paths of moisture bearing winds. Examples
in
Jos
West Africa include precipitation caused by the rising air along the Futa Jallon Highlands, the
average for its
Plateau and the Cameroon Mountains (rainfall in Jos Plateau is higher than the
latitude).

at adiabatic rate. If cooling is

As the air is forced to rise by the highlands, the air cools the
over the highest point of the highlands, it begins to
sufficient, rain may fall. As the air passes
warming and becomes drier. This belt
descend on the leeward side. As it descends, it undergoes

12
 ofrelatively drier climatic
conditions, is usually called
be leeward sides of the highland areas. the rain shadow", and is characteristie O

Air cocds
Raln shado!
cn high lard -

Condensstion

Warm ane
Westxhds

Norh
Alantic

Rainal: 100onn 3750mn 1205n Less then 750rvn

Figure 2.3: Relief Rainfall

3. Frontal, convergence and disturbance precipitation: This type

of precipitationis caused through
the convergence of air masses with contrasting characteristics. This type of precipitation is not
common in West Africa and only occasionally occurs when influences of the mid latitude
depressions extend as far south as they did for instance in 1960. The air ascending at the inter
tropical convergence zone (1TCZ) is dry and stable and consequently, not rain producing. On the
other hand, true fronts may be formed in many convergent areas, such as the mid latitudes where
the air masses are of contrasting character in terms of temperature and humnidity.
 frontalrainalla

WwaIm

Gold
Figure 24: Frontal rainfall
 KOPPEN CLIMATE
CLASSIFICATION
Koppen was a Geman botanist
and climatologist, He developed
his classification Sysic
in the early 1900's. The Köppen Climate
Classifcation Svstem is the most widely used system o
classityng the world's climates, Its categories are based on
the annual and monthly averiss
temperature and precipitation. The Köppen system recognizes five
major climatic types; eacn typ
is designated by a capital letter.

A Iropical Moist Climates: all months have average temperatures above 18 degrees
Celsius

year
B Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the

C Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters

D Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters

summers
E Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and

A. Tropical Moist Climates

to about 15
moist climates extend northward and southward from the equator
Tropical
18°
months have average temperatures greater than
to 25 degrees of latitude. In these climates all
1500 mm.
Celsius. Annual precipitation is greater than
in the A group and their designation is
based
Three minor Köppen climate types exist
on seasonal distribution of rainfall.
occurs all year long. Monthly
1. Tropical wet tropical climate where precipitation
or Af is a
Celsius. Because of intense surface
temperature variations in this climate are less than degrees
3

heating and high humidity cumulus and cumulonimbus

clouds form early in the afternoons almost
temperatures average 22
every day. Daily highs are about 32 degrees Celsius while night time
degrees Celsius.

2. Tropical monsoon
or Am climate. Annual rainfall is equal to or greater than Af, but falls in the
occurs.
7 to 9 hottest months. During the dry season very little rainfall

15
 an extended dry season during wi
has
3. The tropical wet and
dry or savanna (Aw) during
season is usually less than 1000 millmeters and only
Precipitation during the wet
summer season.

B. Dry Climates
these climate is potential evaporation and
The most obvious climatic
feature of
and South of
exceed precipitation. These climates extend from 20- 35 degrees North
transpiration
continental regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains.
ue equator and in large
Minor types of this climate include:
I. BW- Dry arid (desert) is a true desert climate. It
covers 12 % of the earth's land surtace and 1s

dominated by xerophytic vegetation.

2. BS - LDry semiarid(steppe). Is a grassland climate that covers 14% of the earth's land surtace. 1t

receives more precipitation than the Bw either from the inter tropical convergence zone or irom
mid-latitude cyclones.
C. Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
Thisclimate generally has warm and humidsummers with mild winters. Its extent is from 30to
SO degrees of latitude mainly on the castern and westerm borders of most continents. During the

winter the main weather feature is the mid-latitude cyclone. Convective thunderstorms dominate
summer months.
Three minor types exist:
1. Cfa - humid subtropical :This climate has hot muggy summers and mainly thunderstorms.

Winters are mild and precipitation during this season comes from mid-latitude cyclones. A good
example of a Cfa climate is the southeastern USA.
2.Cs-Mediterranean: This type of climate receives rain primarily duringwinter season from the
mid-latitude cyclone. Extreme summer aridity is caused by the sinking air of the subtropical highs
and may exist for up to 5 months. Locations in North America are from Portland, Oregon to all of
California.
3.Cib- marine: Cfb -marine climates are found on the western coasts of continents. They have a
humid climate with short dry summer. Heavy precipitation occurs during the mild winters because
of continuous presence of mid-latitude cyclones.

D. Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates

16
 Moist continental mid-latitude climates have warm to cool summers
and cold winters
location of these climates is pole ward of the C climates The warmest month is greater than 1

Celsius, while the coldest month is Jess than -30Celsius. Winters are severe with snowstoms,
strong winds, bitter cold from Continental Polar or Arctic air masses. Like the C climates there are

three minor types: Dw -dry winters, Ds - dry summers and Df - wet all seasons.
E. Polar Climates
warmest montn less
Polar Clumates have year-round cold temperatures with
on northerm co2stal areas of North America and Europe, ASa
Celsius. Polar climates are found the
Antarctica. Two minor climate types exist.
and on the landmasses of Greenland and depths of hundreds
of
frozento
1. ET or polar tundra is a
climate where the soil is permanently
dominated by mosses, lichens, dwart trees
Vegetation is
meters, a condition known as permafrost.
and scattered woody shrubs.
caps a surface that is pemanentlycovered with snow and ice.
2. EF or polar ice has

Advantages of Koppen's Classification:

as basis of
regionalisation uses temnperature and precipitation the
1. Koppen's scheme of
climatic
quantities, but are also the, most visible,
measurable physical
classification. These are not only,
atmospheric dynamics.
sensible and influential elements in
to
interaction of temperature and precipitation and also
to
given the
2. Due recognition has been vegetational
vegetation. Thus, his climatic divisions coincide with
their combined interaction with
to geographers,
divisions. This aspect is quite appealing

to assign climatic characteristics to any of the subdivisions

3. It is possible, in Koppen's
scheme,
only.
on the basis of temperature and precipitation
and
uses letter symbols to denote various characteristics, which is practical
4. Koppen's scheme
convenient.

at any level.
5. Koppen's scheme can be adapted and taught
 be
Koppen's
Classification: preciptation can only
Disadvantages of
most potent factor of
values, Thus. the
uses mcan monthly cannot be made.
PP currents
comparisons between localities intensity,
estimated and rainfall
as cloudiness, wind,
other factors,
such
2. Koppen's scheme ignores
of modern climatology.
the basis
and, above all, the air masses which form vegetation
of different
existence
one explainthe different
3. Going by Koppen's classification, how does vegetation types in
existence of similar
types within the same climatic division and
climatic divisions?

System
Thornthwaite Climatic Classification
the American
describing climates devised in 1931 and revised in 1948 by
System for
divides climates into gro4ps
Cmatologist Charles Warren Thomthwaite (1889-1963) which
being determined by precipitati0n
cOrang to the vegetation characteristic them, the vegetation
of

etfectiveness (PE, wherep is the total monthly precipitation and E is the total monthly
evaporation).
Ihe sum of the monthly PE values gives the P/E index, which is used to define ive
humidity provinces, with associated vegetation. A PE index of morethan 127(wet) indicates rain
forest; 64-127(humid) indicates forest; 32-63 (subhumid) indicates grassland; 16-31 (semi-arid)
indicates steppe; less than 16 (arid) indicates desert. In 1948 the system was modifed to
incorporate a moisture index, which relates the water demand by plants to the available
precipitation, by means of an index of potential evapotranspiration (PE), calculated from
measurements of air temperature and day length. In arid regions the moisture index is negative
because precipitation is less than the PE.
The system also uses an index of thermal efficiency, with accumulated monthly
temperatures ranging from 0, giving a frost climate, to more than 127, giving a tropical climate.

on the physical interactions

The Thornthwaite Climatic Classification System is built
temperature data. It
between local moisture and temperature rather than only the precipitation and

18
 represents a more sophisticated
and precise scheme of classification based on local surface water
balances
Thornthwaite deVised a number of specific indices to guantifvy necessary climatic componens
including the moisture index (M) and the potential evapotranspiration (PE) rate for a location
a
Thomthwaite also derived Thermal Efficiency Index (T/ET) the ratio of temperature ()
of

calculated evapotranspiration (ET) value. and a Druness Index DI) and Humidity Index (1) o
identify the times of the year with water deficit or surplus.

1931 Classification:

Thornthwaite used

i) Physical quantities to delimit boundaries

(iü) Recognised association of vegetation

(ii) Letter symbols

And based his classification on

(i) Efective precipitation

(ii) Thermal efficiency

rainfall.
(iii) Seasonal distribution of
five Humidity
evaporation to be an important element and proposed
He considered
index), six Temperature Provinces based on
Effectiveness (P/E
Provinces based on Precipitation mean monthly
which is expressed as the positive departure of
Thermal Efficiency (T/E) index,
temperature from the freezing point.

Thornthwaite's Humidity Provinces:

The annual precipitation index isgiven as

= total evaporation
P/E total rainfall index (annual) total rainfall
measuring evaporation, the sum of twelve individual monthly
In theabsence of instrument for

P/Eindex ratios are used as P/E index. Monthly index ratio is given as

19
 (monthly)
P/E index ratio

= 11.5 (rx(- 10)09

inches
monthly rainfall in
Where, r=mean
Fahrenheit.
temperaturein degree
t=mean monthly
Provinces are given in the Table.
The five Humidity

Humidity Vegetation associatedP/E index

Provinces
A–Wet Tropical Rainforest 128+
B- Humid Forest 64-127
C- Semi-humid Tropical Grassland 32-63
D- Semi-arid Steppe 16-31
E- Arid Desert below 16

Thornthwaite's Temperature Provinces:

The annual T/E index is taken as the sum of twelve individual monthly T/E index ratios. And,
T/E the monthly index ratio is given as

T/E index ratio (monthly) = (t-32)/ 4

where, t = mean monthly temperature in degree Fahrenheit.

Thus, the six Temperature Provinces are as follows:

Temperature Provinces T/E Index

128 and above
A'- Tropical
B'- Mesothermal 64- 127
32 –63
C'- Microthermal
D'- Taiga 16-31
E'-Tundra 0- 15
F- Frost
Further sub-divisions are also possible based on seasonal distribution of rainfall

1.r-rainfall in all seasons

20
 summer deficient in rainfall
2.
S-
3. W -winter deficient in rainfall
4.d-dry in all seasons. Theoretically,
there can be l20 divisions but
Thornthwaite used only 32
of them.
A Critical Appraisal of 1931 Classification:

I. Ine concepts of Precipitation Efectiveness and Thermmal Efficiency were used for the first nme
by Thormthwaite, but they make the delimitation of boundaries difficult.

are used, which are easy

Z. 1he climatic types are more in number but a Jesser number of symbols
to remember.

on evaporation, is a serious handicap. This makes the

D
1ne lack of climatic data, especially
effective precipitation cannot be precisely
Comparison between localities not possible. since
ascertained.

scheme is appealing to the geographers, botanists and

4. Like Koeppen's scheme,Thornthwaite's
meteorologists, because the interplay of climatic
zoologists, but not to the climatologists and
factors and weather elements is not considered.

1948 Classification:

Thornthwaite's second classification is based on two variables:

1. Potential Evapotranspiration (PE) and

2. Precipitation
as
The Potential Evapotranspiration is expressed the
amount of moisture that will be transferred to

atmosphere by evaporation of solid and liquid water and by transpiration from

living tissues,

principally plants.

Potential Evapotranspiration, expressed in centimetres, is given as:'

PE= 1.6 (10t/[

21
 monthly temperature (°C)
Where, t=mean

sum of twelye months of (/5) 1.514.

I=
of I.
a =a further complex function

Also,

s- Monthly water surplus

d- Monthly water deficit

budget assessment including stored soil moisture. And,
two are calculated from moisture

Moisture Index Im =(100s- 60d) PE

Based on this, we have:

Moisture Index Humidity Thermal Province

Province
100 and above Per humid Megathermal
20-1 00 Humid Mesothermal
0-20 Moist sub-humid Microthermal
-33 -0 Dry sub-humid Tundra
-67-34 Semi-arid Dry Frost
-100- 68 Arid

Further sub-divisions are possible on the basis of seasonal distribution of Effective Moisture.

Thus, the climate of a place can be found out on the basis of:

(i)Potential evapotranspiration

(ii) Seasonal variation of effective moisture

(ii) Average annual thermal effciency.

A Critical appraisal of 1948 classification:

1. Because of inherent problems, mapping of Thornthwaite's divisions is not possible.

2. His scheme does not have a vegetational basis. Thus, it is different from Koeppen's scheme.

3. Thornthwaite's scheme is more suitable for North America where the vegetational boundaries

coincide with climatic divisions, but it is not suitable for tropics.

22
A This scheme 1s empirical as
well as quantitative but does not
consider causative factorS.
5. Thornthwaite's scheme
involves a lot of calculations. therefore
it is difficult to apply
6. Thornthwaite introduced
the concept of soil- moisture balance
which implies that the amount of
moisture available depends not only on precinitation. but also on
potential evapotranspue
r
1nus, a comparison is made between water available from precipitation and the actual amount
required, it is possible to determine monthly water a season is
surpluses and deficits and whether
wet or dry.

7. The greatest contribution of Thomthwaite's scheme is with regard to practical studies regarats
use of water.

A
Comparative Analysis of Koppen's and Thornthwaite's Schemes:

of Koeppen and Thornthwaite:

1here are certain similarities between the schemes
are genetic schemes.
1.Both are based on empirical investigation and
temperature and rainfall as basic atmospheric elements controlling climate.
2. Both have used

3. Both have recognized climate-vegetation relationship.

4. Both have used letter symbols to represent climatic regions.

5. Both schemes have identical tropical regions.

Differences:
to be a direct indicator of the totality
1. While Koppen had considered vegetation
recognition to the vegetational aspects through the
of climate, Thornthwaite has given indirect
water from plants to atmosphere.
concept of evapotranspiration which includes transfer of

temperature and
2. Koppen considered the absolute values of critical climatic determinants,
on the other hand, considered them through
rainfal}, as recorded at different places. Thornthwaite.
Thermal Efficiency and 'Precipitation Effectiveness', calculated by using
complicated formulae.

23
 differentiated
Thornthwaite gave eight andThormthwaite's
Regions,
major climatic This makes
3. While Koppen gave six sub-polar.
semi-arid and between true polar and
between true arid and

scheme more relevant. category of

separate
a
aspect of climate by giving clarified that it
Koppen took into account, the altitudinal later
aspect, but
4.
altitudinal
Highlands climate. Thornthwaite did not consider the temperature and
rainfall.
of
was
inherently accounted for by considering the effectiveness
climatic divisions. Koppen
was classified by his scheme into
5.Thornthwaite gave a
model which
gave n0 such model.
gave his scheme
in
6. An interesting aspect of comparison of two schemes is that
Thornthwaite
over the
an improvement
1931 and modified it thrice-in 1933, 1948 and 1955-each one being
relevant scheme to be used in applied
previous one. Thornthwaite's was a genuine effort
to give
gi

was more hypothetical and never revised his scheme. Still, both are landmark
matoIO8Y. KoPpen
Schemes onclimatic classification and are considered be classic
to schemes in climatology.

ECOSYSTEM
EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON
 Global |change and
leffects on Terrestrial ecosvstcm
Temperature, precipitation,
latitude and ltitude all
terrestrial ecosystems. Plants determine distribution
found within the different biomes are oi mao
shed conditions and amount sun rays. influenced by soil type, wa
of Sneciffc combinations of temperatures
ensure the and Prep
survival of plants within a
given environment.
Major Terrestrial Biomes

Geographic distribution ofbiomes are dependent on temperature,

latitude. Weather pattermns dictate the tyne plants
precipitaton, au
of that will dominate an ecosystem.

400

(cm) ralntarea Temperate

300
-rainforest
precplaton

Tropical
Annual 200 S6asoral
forest
Ttnperal
forest
ropial
100
Eareal
Waodand SBVanna

DeseIt
Grassland Tunda:

30 20 10
Average tenperäture (C)

Increasing greenhouse gases trap more heat.

25
 greenhouse gases are Water vapor (H20),Carbon
Natural
a natural greenhouse effect:
dioxide (CO), Methane (CH) and Nitrous Oxide (N:0).

*Enhanced greenhouse cffect - Global warming

Global warming issthe increase temperature over time. Since

of theEarth's surface median i
lateinthe 19h century 20oth
the average global surface temperature has gone up .5°F and during the
century, surface
temperatures grew by about 1°F. (Predictions for the next 100 years are for a 2.7
- 8
degree F increase,
depending on how much fossil fuels are burned and forest systems are
removed). An increase
in greenhouse gases is the cause of global warming. Some effects include:
an increase
in sea level, difficulties
which will cause animals
in agriculture,
change in rainfall and changesin the ecosystem
and plants to have to
adapt or perish.
Earth's surface absorbs heat from the sun and
then re-Tadiates it back into
the atmospnere
and tospace. Much of this heat is absorbed
by oreenhouse oases vhich then send the heat back to
the surtace, to otlher greenhouse gas
molecules, or out to space. Though
gases are greenhouse gases, only 1% of atmospheric
they are extremely powerful heat trappers.
By burning fossil uels
faster and faster, humans are effectively
piling on more blankets, heating
so quickly that the planet so much and
it's hard for Mother Nature and human societies
to adapt.
Rising global temp. is changing our climate
and ecosystem. Pollutants from wide range
human activities are increasing the global atmospheric con. of
of heat trapped gases which act like a
blanket trapping heat close to the surface that would
otherwise escape through atmosphere to outer
-
space *Green house effect'. Its consequential
effect is global warming.

Beneficial Effects of Global Warming _are less severe winters, more precipitation
in dry areas,
less precipitation in wet areas, increased food production for SOme areas etc.

Harmful Effects of Global Warming are excessive heat, drought, decreased food production,

arctic ice and snow melt leading to severe flood, threat to biodiversity, change location of
agricultural crops,shifting of rainfall pattern, threats to human health, warm up sea water, rising
sea water level, respiratory disease and incidence of cancer patients are increasing day by day,
species, some new assemblage of species (hence
change in Species composition, disappearance of
a major problem to humanity,
new ecosystem may establish), depletion of ozone layer is also

26
 r
intensified uy radiation can cause skin cancer,
lethal effect on many organism and man, sea bird
lation is decliming due to the warmer water etc.
Shifts in Terrestrial Habitat :
18,000 years ago Spruce trees and oak trees filled small pockets
of habitat. As climates warmed
Spruce trees migrated into the Northern hemispheres and the Oak
trees expanded in to Southeastern
U.S., Westerm Europe and Southern Erope. Shifts in vegetation
OCcur slowly tree species were able to
successfully expand into favorable rego

ncreased warmth has also affected living things. For example, the Japanes
detailed records on the blossoming know they are blossoming
of their Tokyo cherry trees, so they
5 days earlier on average than they were 50 years ago.

are moving north in the Northem Hemispnel

Aiso moSquitoes, birds, and insects

Southeast Asia Tropical Rainforest Monsoons role originating

systems
influenced by ocean wind
SE Asia has a tropical wet climate which is

in the Indian Ocean and China Sea.

Twomonsoon seasons:
to Eastern side ofthe islands.
-Northeast monsoons (Oct. - Feb): Bring heavy rains
two seasons brings heavy rainfall
-
More powerful of
the
- Southwest monsoons (April -Aug):
islands -
Eastern side of islands -
dry but windy (due to rain
shadow).
to the western side the
of

heavy
-
consequences. 1992 1993 logging degraded
primary
Change in monsoon cycle bring
drought brought on by El Nino created devastating fires
to fires. A
foresting making it vulnerable
acreage. 1998 the same type of thing happened again when El Nino
In
destroying 27,000 km² of
created a weak monsoon
-
season destroying many plant and animal species.

Predictions:
as precipitation increases
-Deserts in Southwestern U.S. will shrink

-Savanna/shrub/woodland systems will replace grasslands in the Great Plains

more severe
-Eastern U.S. – forests willexpand northerly- weather conditions will become

27
 change from
more fires - triggering a rapd
-Southeastern – will bring
U.S, increasing droughts
broadleaf forests to Savannas

Predicted Change in Biomes

- Loss concentration.
of existing
habitat that could occur under doubling of CO;
- Distribution an increase in
of Sugar Maple in Eastern North America will change due to
temperature and a decrease in moisture
shifting further north eas.
-
Douglas Fir found
in wet coastal mountains will shrink in low lands and be replaced by
Westerm pine species
which are more drought tolerant.
-Overall Westem U.S. climate
is predicted to shift to favor more drought tolerant species of pine
-Frequency of forest
fires will increase,
reducing total American boreal forest area.
Shifts in Terrestrial
Habitat
1t 1s
predicted that at the end of this century there will
be large scale shifts in the globd1
distrbution of vegetation in response to
anthropogenic climate change.
amount of carbon dioxide entering With man oub
into the atmosphere the climate is changing more
plant migration can keep up. rapidly then

Boreal and Alpine Vegetation

Research indicates the greatest amount
of change will occur at the higher latitudes.
Northern Canada and Alaska are already experiencing
rapid warming and reduction of ice cover.
Vegetation existing in these areas will be replaced with temperate
forest species. Tundra, Taiga
and Temperate forests will migrate pole ward. Some plants will face extinction
because habitat
willbecome too small.

Grasslands and Shrub Lands

Grassland will change to deserts or shrub lands
Exposing greater amounts of soil
-
Increasing soil temperature poor nitrogen content - poor plant growth
atmnosphere as dust and trapping
Barren soil exposed to winds and transported into
IR – leading to more warming

28
 Dredict shifts in distribution of major
North American prairie grasses over
a 40 year period.
Those at Risk

Northern countries ½ of existing terrestrial

habitats at risk

In Mexico, it's predicted that 2.4% of species will lose 90% of their range and threatened
with extinction by the year 2055

or
Population at greatest risk are the rare and isolated species with fragmented habitats
those surrounded by water, agriculture or human development
areas along with decline
prolonged ice melts in feeding
Polar bears facing extinction by
in seal population
altered
terrestrial habitat predicted to be
35% of worlds existing globe affects
rainfall
different areas of the
Studies found that deforestation in

patterns over a considerable region (Amazonian) influences

region of South America
Deforestation in the Amazon
Mexico
Texas and in the Gulf of
rainfall from Mexico to upper and lower U.S.
affects precipitation in the
Africa
Deforesting lands in Central
Midwest
Phenological Changes
affected by global change. Temperatures
have been
Life-cycles of plants and animals insects have all been
season, flowering time and timing of pollination by
affecting plants growing now leaf 16 days earlier and
- Mediterranean deciduous plants
altered. Studies already showing earlier in
years ago; Plants in temperate zones flowering time occurring
fall 13 days later than 50 over past two
12 days inN. America
season; Growing season increased in Eurasia 18 days and
the
decades.
 Cinate
War
agsO2000)

Shenology
Appearance
Migration
Leaf unfoldinaieatfal1FIoWvering activity. Advances
1 to 4 weeks
advanced 1to 2
woeksAbout1 weel< and
1to 2.weeks and delays
delay'edadvanced ,
advanced

Altered'synchronization
between trophiclevels
Growth season AItered sDecies
ability
AboÙt3weeksiextonded COmpetitive

Enhanced carbon seguestration Unpredictable

(and related global
and nutrient cycles)water community
impacts
level

Altered structure and functioning of ecosystems

(also agricultural, socioeconomic and sanitav effects for human soCIeY}
Ecological consequences of climate warming on plant and animal
phenology.

Sea-level rise projections : a few inches to a few feet

2 ft: U.S. would lose 10,000 square miles

3 ft: Would inundate Miami

Affectserosion, loss of wetlands, freshwater supplies

Half of the world's population lives along coasts

Rising Sea Levels Threaten Low-lying Islands
more
Warmer temperatures will alsO mean less snow overall at certain latitudes because will fal1

as rain, and the snow that does fall will melt faster. This affects people living in areas that depend
on snow-fed reservoirs for water.

30
 Incoming solar radiation is the main climate driver. Ts enerov output
increased about 0.1% trom
1750 to 1950, 1nereasing temperatures by 0.2°F in the first part of
the 20 century. But sine
1979, when we began taking measurements from space. the data show no long-term change n
total solar energy, even though Earth has been warming.

over tens of thousands of years can

Kepeitive cycles in Earth's orbit that occur
influence the angle and timing of sunlight.
millions of
over
difference in climate
Inthe distant past, drifting continents make a big
currents, which transport
by altering Ocean
years by changing ice caps at the poles and
heat and cold throughout the ocean depths.
particles into the
can injecting ash and tny
Huge volcanic eruptions cool Earth by
stratosphere. naturally and
as a

which occur both

greenhouse gases,
of
Changes in the concentration
influence climate.
result ofhuman activities, also

Climate Change -Floods and Droughts

Climate change as a result of human

over time for long
a time sea
altered a rise in
Climate change iis when the
climate is
climate change such as
effects of
are many examples of
in precipitation by
or natural influences. There an increase
inches,
during the past century from four to eight
amount of snow in the north, a
level
the ecosystem altering the
approximately one percent,
changes in
increasingly dry while ice in the
summers becoming
rainfall, and
ise from five
to ten percent in
changes, such as its effect on extending
can bring positive
Climate change
comes quickly, living systems
Arctic Ocean decreases.
seasons, but when change
season in areas with short
the growing
don't have time to adapt.
 clnate ond EcoSysto

EcOs
Goods and Sorvices

Disturanneo
Fin

Fra ntr7y

andAmsgkiee cOmstia

Climate changes (i.e., changes in temperature, precipitation,

CO2 concentration, wind, or
solar or terrestrial radiation) can affect terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems by altering primary
production processes, reproduction, health and mortality
of organisms, and rates and pathways of
decomposition, community dynamics and biogeography,
and exchanges of mass and energy
between ecosystems and the atmosphere.

Climate changes also have the potential to affect the frequency and magnitude various
of
ecosystem disturbances (e.g., fire, disease, insect infestations, storm frequency, and land
use change).

In turn, changes in ecosystem-atmosphere exchanges of radiation, heat, or greenhouse

gases caused directly or indirectly by climate change have the potential to dampen or
enhance the initial climatic change through negative or positive feedbacks.
 Ecosystem changes caused by climatic changes can also many ecosystem goods
affectthe
andi services on which socially depends.

nume
Likewise, clmate change effects on ecosvstem goods and services may elicIt
ecosystem
structure and
actions that in turn affect climate, ecosystem disturbance, and/or

functioning.
millennia
from seconds to
Scales range
Temporal and spatial scales are implicit; temporal

and spatial scales range from local to global. warning, sea-

oceanic
terestrial and aquatic) to increased
coastal ecosystems (both and
saltwater intrusion,
Vulnerability of
or intensity,
level rise, increased storm frequency including
ecosystems,
sedimentation and runoff; high-elevation and
high-latitude and water
availability,
Warming-induced changes in timing of
composition, the
production, species more
changes in primary oceans absorb
tree line and other ecotones. ecosystems. As the By 2100
migration of the changes in its creatures at risk.
planet means continuing many sea temperatures get
A warming putting
of the
ocean changes, years. As
range, particularly
chemistry 20 million
carbon dioxide, the at least
ocean will drop to its
lowest point in will expand
their
carriers mosquito-bome
the pH of the other disease a tropical,
mosquitoes, ticks, rodents, and hemorrhagic fever, 5-20% in
milder, U.S., dengue increases of
Here in the IPCC projects
developing countries. times in 2005. The
prone to failure if climate
In modern more
first time in the crops will
be
disease, hit for the of this
century. But ironically, with higher
decades And
crop yields in the first becomes less dependable. start growing
precipitation because plants
and is
variability increases for killing freezes. This
an increased potential
temperatures comes spring-time cold spells.
more vulnerable to sudden
earlier, making them
biodiversity
Climate change and
change.
Biodiversity is threatened by climate reproduction
distribution increased extinction rates, changes in
It include changes in are already threatened
seasons for plants/ Some species that
timings,changes in length of growing
are now experiencing
are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change/ Polar region
severe change effects which cause
sea level rise contributing
Some of the most rapid and climate
33
 on sea ice for restin
to environmental changes/ Polar bears, seals, marine mammals that rely
sea ice extend is also
threatened by climate change/ Reduced
eeding, breeding are particularly
emperor penguin populations/ Populations of krill and
believed to have caused a 50 % decline in
Other small organisms may also decline as ice recedes. Due to high importance of
krill in food

chains the entire marine food web could be adversely affected.

ne hvelyhood ofindigenous people in the arctic is already being affected by climate change.
Loss in biodiversity affect traditional practices- particularly fishing and hunting/ During 20
Century arctic air temperature increased by 5 c. This increase is 10 times faster than observed
30Dal mean surface temp/ Warmer temp, in the pacific regions reduce number of male sea turde
offspring andthreaten
turtle populations. Sex of seaturtle hatchlings - dependent on temp. Warmer
temp. increase no
of females.
Any reduction or change in rain fall reduce frog reproduction.
Rising temp are closely linked
to outbreaks of fungal disease
that contribute the decline of amphibian
populations especially
rogs/ lhe projected rise in sea levels cause
disappearance of tigers habitat. Longer
and shrinking of living space are making elephants dry periods
highly vulnerable to climate change/ Climate
Change may affect plant growth and production
by promoting the spread of pest and disease.
Other impacts: Increased exposure
to heat stress/ Changes in
rainfall patterns/ Greater leaching
nutrients from the soil during intense rains/ of
Greater erosion due to stronger winds/
regions/ Drier soil may reduce yields. Wildfire in drier

Marine ecosystems and Climate change

Warmand Acidic Seas

Impacts on Phytoplankton and zooplankton/Tropical

and cold water corals/ Mangroves/ Marine
turtles/ Benthic and pelagic fishes.

Dead zZones

Climate change may potentially reduce the intensity and frequency of the coastal flushing
mechanisms, particularly at lower to medium latitudes over the next 100 years, which in
tum willimpact both nutrient and larval transport and increase the risk of pollution and
dead zones.

34
 Increascd development, coastal
pollution and climate change impacts on occan currents
will accclerate the sprcading of narine
dead zones.

The number of dead zoncs (hypoxic or oxygen deficient arcas) increascd from 149 in 2003
to over 200 in 2006. Most dead zones (a few are natural), have been observed in coastal

waters, which are also home to the primary fishing grounds.

Occan Acidification
CO2
- concentrations are now at 387 ppm. If current trends conmue
Global atmospheric CO oceans will be
more
2050 and the
concentrations will more than double pre-industrial levels by have
past 200 years, Oceans
of millions of years. Over the
acidic than they have been for tens
human activities.
absorbed 1/4 of the CO: produced from ie,
pre-industrial times
0.1 units since
waters has decreased by more acidic.
- Average pH of oceanic surface
Oceans to become
caused the
hydrogen ion activity. This has
30% increase in

will place
Effect ofclimate change Climate change
oceans. unchecked
provide numerous changes in over-harvesting and
Climate change will pollution,
with an "out
on the marine environment along ocean observations and
substantial strain for
data, poor funding sea than
development.
A
lack of good marine
environmental degradation in the
coastal
may have led to greater
of sight - out
of mind' mentality
on land.
would have been allowed phytoplankton and zooplankton
Changes in
Coral Bleaching/ in
Climate change
causes
production (Planktons play a central role
composition and timing of shells such as
abundance, distribution, with calcareous
oxygen, and nutrient cycles)/ Species
the global carbon, may in abundance/ Alteration of environmental
crustaceans and molluscs decline
echinoderms,
occurrence of harmful algal blooms.
conditions that affect the

Mangroves
and sea, filtering terrestrial discharge,
Mangroves act as an important buffer between land
coastlines. They
decreasing sediment loading of coastal waters and maintaining the integrity of

35
 a nursery and
breeding habitat
play a
vital role in nutrient and carbon cycling. Mangroves act as

for marine species such as fsh, crabs

and prawns.
Climate impacts includes

Shift in species rates and

distributions with rising temperatures/ Alteration to growth
survival with
changes in rainfall pattern mangroves with sea level
rise and enhanced and abundance/ Destruction of
frequency or intensity
of storms.
Sea grass Beds
Sea grass
beds play a vital
the land and role
in nutrient and carbon cycling and act as a buffer between
the sea. These areiimportant habitat
as endangered for many species of fishes and crustaceans as well
species such as green
turtles and dugongs.
Projected climate
impacts
Shits in species distribution andalteration
temperatures of species composition
warm/ Alteration
of frequency and
of sea grass beas s
sea grass timing of flower and seed production/ Increase in
bed destruction i
if storm regimes become more
frequent or severe.
Fisheries
Climate impacts

Changes in temperatures, current patterns,

and primary and secondary production may
fish health and transport /Changes affect larval
in abundance of particular species
in local regions/ Climate
change impacts will potentially combine
with other fishery impacts to exacerbate
further depletion
of fish stocks.

Climate change will provide numerous changes in oceans.

Climate change will place
substantial strain on the marine environment along with pollution, over-harvesting
and unchecked
coastal development. A lack of good marine data, poor funding for ocean observations and an 'out
of sight -out of mind' mentality may have led to greater environmental degradation in the sea than

would have been allowed on land.

EINiño and La Niña

36
 El Niño and
La Niña are
opposite phase
Oscillation (ENSO) of what
is known as
cycle. The the El Niño-Southern
ENSO cycle a
temperature between is scientific term
the ocean and atmosphere that describes the fluctuations in
sometimes referred as in the east-central
to the cold phase of Equatorial Pacific. La Niña is
ENSO and El Niño as warm phase of ENSO. These
deviations from the
nomal surface temperatures can
processes, but have large-scale impacts not only on ocean
also on global weather and
climate.

EINiño and La Niña episodes events may

typically last 9 to 12 months, but some prolonged
last Tor years. While their frequency can be guite iregular. EI Niño and La Niña events
averageevery two to seven years. Typically. El Niño occurs more frequently than La

ElNiño
recognized
was
Niño originally
EI Niño means The Litle Boy,
or
Christ Child in: Spanish. El wam
appearance of unusually
1600s, with the December)
by fishermen of the coast of South America in the year (around
was chosen based
on the time of
water in the Pacific Ocean. The name

during which these

warm waters events tended to occur.
linked to periodic
a
interaction
to the large-scale
ocean-atmosphere climate
The term El Niño refers east-central Equatorial Pacific.
temperatures across the central and
warming in sea surface
during the upcoming winter
over North America
effects are likely to develop Canada, and
Typical El Niño over western and central
warmer-than-average temperatures are likely over
season. Those include Wetter-than-average conditions
northern United States.
over the westem and
drier-than-average conditions can be expected
Coast and Florida, while
portions of the U.S. Gulf presence El Niño can significantly influence
Pacific Northwest. The of
in the Ohio Valley and the across large portions of the globe for an
fisheries
weather patterns, ocean conditions and marine
extended period of time.

EINino - Effects on the global climate

ElNino affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead
to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.

37
 - Economic effect ocean warming and the
extensive
Effects on humanity many months, water, and its
last for nutrient-rich deep
conditions
When EI Niño upwelling of cold
winds limits serious.
reduction in easterly trade market can be
an international
economic effect on local fishing for different
macroeconomy of
commodity prices andthe agricultural
More generally, El Niño can affect commodities; reduce
can of rain-driven agricultural inflation; and may
countries. It constrain the supply generalised
food-price and food.
output, construction, and services activities; create rely on imported
countries that primarily
trigger social unrest in commodity-dependent poor
that while Australia, Chile, Indonesia, India,
Paper shows
sity of Cambridge Working response tO
fal1 economic activity in
apan, NeW Zealand and South Africa facea short-lived in
an EINiño weather shock (e1uner cuc
EINno shock, other countries may actually benefit from
Or narectiy through positive spillovers from maior trading
partners), for instance, Argentna,
Canada, Mexico and the United States. Furthermore, most countries expericnce shortr
1ntiationary pressures following an El Niño shock. while global energy and non-fuel commodlty
prices increase.

Health and social effects

Extreme weather conditions related to the El Nifño cycle corelate wvith changes in the
incidence of epidemic diseases. For example, the El Niño cycle is associated with increased risks
of some of the diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, such as malaria, dengue, and Rift Valley fever.
Cycles of malaria in India, Venezuela, Brazil, and Colombia have now been linked to El Niño.
Outbreaks of another mosquito-transmitted discase, Australian encephalitis (Murray Valley
encephalitis-MVE), occur in temperate south-east Australia after heavy rainfall and flooding,
which are associated with La Nifña events. A severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever occurred after
extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia during the 1997-98 El Niño.

How does El Niño affect conditions?

Typically, it comes around every five years and what usually happens is that warming in the
oceans caused by the winds leads to diffusion of this warming all over the globe. It changes

38
 sea surface temperatures and
atmospheric pressures with consequences for rainfall, wind patterns,
can sometimes have a positive and sometimes a negative effect on those systems. In Europe for

example, El Niño reduces the instances of hurricanes in the Atlantic. The beginning of the El Niño

system willbe seen over North America in the preceding winter; typically they include:

western USA
• Mild winter temperatures over western Canada and north
•Above average precipitation in the Gulf Coast, including Florida

drier than average period in Ohio and pacific

northwest
•A

effects of El Niño can sometime be erratic and are not always be predictable. For
The
were remarkably similar to the 1997/8 ENSO event and
example, conditions at the start of 2014
year. Yet, as late as August, the initial warning signs
so therefore it was expected to be an ElNiño
oceans meaning that the likelihood
were not appearing in the atmosphere to precede warming in the
another effect
El Nño occurring was dropping off but not entirely eliminated. Whether this is
of
predict that El
climate change is yet to be seen. However, some oceanographic institutes still
of
Niño will take place in the autumn months,
pointing to warming throughout August and the

sometimes late nature of the development of EI Niño.

LaNiña
Niña means The Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El Viejo, anti
La
sea surface
El Niño, or simply coldevent." La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average
"a
temperatures across the east-central Equatorial Pacific. Global climate La
Niña impacts tend to be
ocean temperature variations in La Niña also
opposite those of El Niño impacts. In the tropics,
a year, winter temperatures are warmer than
tend to be opposite those of ElNiño. During La Niña
normal inthe Southeast and cooler than normal in the Northwest.

How does La Niña affect conditions?

Like El Niño, it too affects atmospheric pressure and temperature, rainfall and ocean
temperature. In Europe, El Niñoreduces the number of autumnal hurricanes. LaNiña has less of
an effect in Europe but it does tend to lead to milder winters in Northern Europe (the United

Kingdom especially) and colder winters in southern/western Europe leading to snow in the
 by La Niña
experience
areas that are affected the
the world,
Mcditerrancan region. Elsewhere in
continental North America where most
opposite ofthe effects they experience with El Niño. It
is
of these conditions are felt. The wider effects include:

• Stronger winds
along the cquatorial region, especially in the Pacific
•
Dccreased convection in the Pacific leading to a weaker
jet stream
•tempcratures are above average northwest
in the southeast and below average in the
•Conditions are more favorable
for hurricanes in the Caribbean and central Atlantic area
• Greater
instances of tornados
in those states of US already vulnerable to them
the
ln the western Pacific, the formation
of cyclones shifs westwards which increases
1Or landlallin the poieu
those areas most vulnerable to their affects.
and especially into continental Asla
mna. l here greater and
is rainfallin the west too., especially in Australia,
further westwards toward Indonesia and Malaysta and
the southern countries in the
African continent. Consequentiy,
US and Canada there
will be lower than avyerage ove ue
precipitation and this pattern
southwards where the western follows the coast
portion of South America will
rainfall. also experience lower than average

Climatic Regions of India

India has a large variation

in climate from region to region,
due to its vast size. India
experiences
climate from four major climate groups.
These can be further subdivided
into seven climatic types.

Tropical wet (humid) climate group

The regions belonging to this group experience

persistent high temperatures which normally do
not go below 18°Ceven in the coolest month.

Tropical wet (dry, humid)

The west coastal lowlands, the Western Ghats, and southern parts of Assam
have this climate type.
It ischaracterized by high temperatures throughout the year, even in the hills. The rainfall here is

40
 seasonal, but heavy and
is above 78 cm in a year.
Most of
May to November, the rain is received in the period from
andis adequate
for the growth of
vegetation during the entire year. December
to March arethe dry
months with very
litle rainfall. The heavy rain is responsible for the tropical
wet
forests in these regions,
which consists
of a large number of species of animals. Evergreen
forests are the typical
feature of the region.

Tropical wet and dry or

savannah climate
cast of
Most of the plateau tract to the
peninsular India enjoys this climate, Cxcept semi-arid
of a

above 18°C.
the Westem Ghats. Winter and early summer are long dry periods with temperature
during
areas can go above 45°C
Summer is very hot and the temperatures in the interior low level
cm.
rainfall is between 75 and 150
May. The rrainy season annual
is from June to September: and the winter
receives rainfall during the
Only central eastern Tamil Nadu falls under this tract and

months of late November to January.

Dry climate group

evaporation of water is higher than
the rate
regions where the rate
of

Ihis goup consists of

precipitation.
of moisture received through

Tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate

east of
the western ghats and
A long stretch of land situated
to the south of Tropic of Cancer and
western Tamil
experiences this climate. It includes Karnataka, interior and
the Cardamom Hills
Maharashtra. This area receives minimal rainfall due
Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh and central
very unreliable
to being situated in the rain shadow area. This region is a famine prone zone with

rainfall which varies between 40 to 75 cm annually. Towards the north of Krishna River the

summer monsoon is responsible for most of the rainfall, while to the south of the river rainfall also

41
 even in this
December but
The coldest month is
November. are hot and
of October and March to May
Occurs in the months
24°C. The monthsof
20°C and grasses
month the temperature remains between
vegetation mostly comprises
32°C. The
dry with mean monthly temperatures of around permanent
very well suited for
area is not
with a few scattered trees due to the rainfall. Hence this

agriculture.

Sub-tropical arid (desert) climate

Most of westernRajasthan falls under this climate type characterized by scanty ralntall.
bursts are largely responsible for all cm. These
the rainfall seen in this region which is less than 30
happen when the monsoon winds penetrate this region in the months of July, August
a
September. The rainfall is very erratic and a few regions might not see rainfall for a
couple Ol
years. The summer months May and June are yery
of hot with mean monthly temperatures in ne
region of 35°C and highs which can sometimes reach 50°C. During winters
the temperatures can
drop below freezing in some areas due to cold wave. There is a large diurnal range
of about 14°C
during summer which becomes higher by a few more degrees during winter. This extreme
climate
makes this a sparsely populated region of India.

Sub-tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate

The region towards the east of the tropical desert running

from Punjab and Haryana to Kathiawar experiences this climate type. This climate is a transitional

climate falling between tropical desert and humid sub-tropical, with temperatures which are less

extreme than the desert climate. The annual rainfall is between 30 to 65 cm but is very unreliable

and happens mostly during the summer monsoon season. Maximum temperatures during summer

can rise to 40°C. The vegetation mostly comprises short coarse grass. Some crops

like jowar and bajra are also cultivated.

42
 Sub-tropicallhumid climate group

The temperature during the coldest

months regions
in experiencing this climate falls between 18
and 0°C.

Sub-tropical humid (wet)

with dry winters

The foothills of the Himalayas,

Punjab-Haryana plain adjacent to the Himalayas,
Rajasthan cast
Assam
of
the Aravalli range, Utar Pradesh. Bihar and northern part of West Bengal and
about 65 in thecm
experience this climate. The rainfall is received mostly in the summer and is
mainly
winters are
The
west and increases to 250 cm near the Himalayas.
annually to the east and towards
of north India
down the lowlands
dry due to the land derived winter winds which blow lowlands. May
can reach 46°C in
the
tenperatures occurs for
the Bay of Bengal. The summers are hot and
winds. Frost
with feeble
mostly dry
Winter months are a wide
and June are the hottest months.
west gives rise to
east and the
betweenthe
a weeks in winter. The difference in rainfall
few

difference in the natural vegetation.

climate or alpine climate

Mountainclimate or highland
every 100 m rise in altitude and
temperature falls by 0.6°C for
mountains the
Inthe Hmalayan
the foothills to tundra type above the
tropical in
to a variety of climates from nearly
this gives rise temperatures the sunny and shady
of
sharp contrast between
snow line. One can also observe
temperature, and variability of rainfall
temperature, inversion of
slopes, high diurnal range of

based on altitude.

Himalayas also known as the trans-Himalayan belt is arid, cold

western
The northern side of the
as rainfall is scanty and the winters
and generally windswept. The vegetation is sparse and stunted

are severely cold. Most of the snowfall is in the form ofsnow during late winter and spring months.

43
 cold winds coming from interior
The area to the south of range is protected from
the Himalayan
while the well exposed
of Asia during winter. The mountains receive less rain
leeward side of the
the
slopes get heavy rainfall. between 1070 and 2290 m altitudes receive
The places situated
heaviest rainfall range
and the rainfall decreases rapidly above 2290m. The great Himalayan
witnesses heavy
snowfall during winter at altitudes above
months of December to February
1500m. The diurnal range
of temperature is
also hign.
The states
O Jammu and Kashmir. Himachal Pradesh Uttarakhand, Arunachal radest,
and Sikkim experience
this kind of weather.

MONSOON
Monsoon is traditionally
defined as a seasonal reversing
wind accompaned by
Corresponding changes in
precipitation, but is now
used to describe seasonal
changes in
atmospheric circulation and
precipitation associated with
the asymmetric heating
Usually, the term monsoon of land and sea.
is used to refer to the rainy phase a
of seasonally-changing patten,
although technically there is also a
dry phase. The major monsoon systems
of the world consist of
the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons.

The term was first used in English in British India (now India,
Bangladesh and Pakistan)
and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds
blowing from the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.

Impact

The impact of monsoon on the local weather is different from place to place. In some

places there is just a tendency of having a bit more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts

44
 tumed into vivid green grasslands
are where all sorts
of plants and crops
prosper. The
lndian
Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind
of semi-desert
into green lands.

Process

Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur

when the temperature on land S

SIgniihcantly waner or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances

are caused because the oceans and land absorb heat in different ways. For oceans, the temperature

remains relatively stable for two

reasons: water has a relatively high heat capacity (3.9 to 4.2J 8
with
a hot or cold surface
K), and because both conduction and convection will equilibrate
conductivities
themal
and rocks have: lower
a
deeper water (up to 50 meters). In contrast dirt, sand,
conduction and not by
heat into the earth by
gK), and they can only transmit
(0.19 to 0.35 J

convection.
and the oceans, but the
heats the surfaces of both the land
warmer months sunlight
During warm, the gases expand and an area of low
surface is
rises faster. Since the land's presSure
land temperature retains a higher
ocean is at a more moderate temperature, it
pressure develops. Since the the ocean to land, bringing
sea breezes to blow from
pressure difference causes toward
than on land. This over land and then flows back
a higher altitude
conplete the cycle, air rises to ability
moist air. To
over the air cools, which decreases its
while still land)
However, upon rising (and a
the ocean.
reason why summer monsoons cause
the
water, causing precipitation over land. This is
to hold

large amount rain over land.

of
than the
reversed. Since the land cools more quickly
cycle is
In the colder months, the
surface which
pressure, thereby causing sea breezes at the
oceans then the air over land has higher

45
 overtheocean (to complete the cycle),
10 oegins
on land to the ocean. When bumid air rises
to cool, causing precipitation over
the oceans.

Asian monsoons

The Asian monsoons as South Asian

may be classified into a few sub-systems, such the
Monsoon which
affects the Indian subcontinent Asian
and surrounding regions, and the East
Monsoon which affects
southern China, Korea
and parts of Japan.
South Asian monsoon

T
hesouthwestern summer monsoons occur
from June through September. The 1har dese
and adjoining areas of the northern
and central Indian subcontinent heats up
considerably auing
the hot summners, which causes a
low pressure area over the northern
and central natan
subcontinent.

June-August winds

(SW
onsoon)

60N

30N+

EO

305

Trade winds
SW monsoon winds

To fill this void, the moisture-laden winds from the

Indian Ocean rush in to the

creating winds
subcontinent. These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards the Himalayas,
a
blowing storm clouds towards the subcontinent. The Himalayas act like high wall, blocking the

winds from passing into Central Asia, thus forcing them to rise. With the gain in altitude of the
clouds, the temperature drops and precipitation occurs. Some areas of the subcontinent receive up

to 10,000 mm (390 in) of rain annually.

47
 start of June and fade
begin around the
generally expectedto
The southwest monsoon is
moisture-laden winds on reaching the southernmost point of
ovn by the end of September. The
topography. become divided into two parts: the ArabianSea Branch
ureninsula, due to its
and the Bay of BengalBranch.

bian Sea Branch of

the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats of the
coastal state of Kerala, India,
thus making the area the first state in India to receive rain from the
Southwest Monsoon. This
branch of the monsoon moves northwards along the Western Ghats
(Konkan and Goa) with
precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The eastern
arcas oI the western Ghats do not
receive much rain from this monsoon as the wind
does not CrOSs
the Western Ghats.

The Bay of BengalBranch of Southwest Monsoon

flows over the Bay of Bengal heading
towards North-East India and Bengal,
picking up more moisture from the
Bay of Bengal. The
winds arrive at the Eastern Himalayas
with large amounts of rain. Mawsynram,
situated on the
southern slopes of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya,
India,is one of the wettest places on Earth. After
the arrival at the Eastern Himalayas, the winds turns towards
the west, travelling over the Indo
Gangetic Plain at a rate of roughly 1-2 weeks per state, pouring
rain all along its way.

June 1
is regarded as the date of onset of the monsoon in India, as indicated by the arrival

of the monsoon in the southernmost state ofKerala. The monsoon accounts for 80% of the rainfall

in India. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the rains, for growing crops especially like

cotton, rice, oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay ofa few days in the arrival of
the monsoon can

badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts in India in the 1990s. The
monsoon is widely welcomed and appreciated by city-dwellers as well, for it provides relief from

48
 climax of summer heat in June. However, the condition
of the roads take a battering each year.
Often houses and streets are waterlogged and the slums are flooded in spite having a
of drainage

system. This lack of city infrastructure coupled with changing climate patterns causes severe

economical loss including damage to property and loss of lives, as evidenced in the 2005 flooding

in Mumbai that brought Mumbai toa standstill. Bangladesh and certain regions of India like Assam

and West Bengal, also frequently experience heavy floods during this season.

areas in India that used to receive scanty rainfall throughout the

And in the recent past,
up receiving floods due to the prolonged
year, l1ke the Thar Desert, have surprisingly ended
Monsoon is felt as far north as in China's
monsOon season. The influence of the Southwest
precipitation in the central part of the Tian Shan
Xinjiang. It is estimated that about 70% of all
three sumner months, when the region is under the monsoon influence;
Mountains falls during the
monsoon-driven) origin (as opposed to "local
about 70% of that is directly of "cyclonic" (i.e.;
convection").

Northeast monsoon
 GON

3ON

EO

30S

NE monsoon winds Trade winds

Around September, with the sun fast retreating south, the northern land mass of the Indian

subcontinent begins to cool off rapidly. With this air pressure begins to build over northen India,

the Indian Ocean and its surrounding atmosphere stillholds its heat. This causes the cold wind to
sweep down from the Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic Plain towards the vast spans of the Indian

Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This is known as the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating

Monsoon.

50
 up some moisture from
While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the dry cold wind picks

over peninsular India and parts of Sri Lanka. Cities like Chennai,
the Bay of Bengal and pours it
from this Monsoon. About 50%
which get less rain from the Southwest Monsoon. receives rain
Northeast Monsoon. In Southern
to 60% of the rain received by the state of Tamil Nadu is from the
to early March when the srface high
ASla, the northeastern monsoons take place from December
region splits into the southern subtropical jet
Pressure system is strongest. The jet stream in this
northeasterly winds to blow across southern Asia,
and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs

streams which produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile, a low pressure system
Creating dry air

and Australasia and winds are directed toward Australia known as

develops over South-East Asia

a monSOon trough.

India as the southwest monsoon, is perhaps

The Indian Summer monsoon, better known in
a very
most important and well-developed secondary circulation in the atmosphere, exercising
the
monsoonal circulation over India generally
significant influence on the general circulation. The

June to September, July and August being considered as the typical monsoon months,
lasts from
a over the major part of country. During these
when the circulation is more or less steady feature
among Indian Meteorologists as the "monsoon
two months, the equatorial trough better known
from 30" N 75" E to 23"N 88" E.
trough" lies steadily over the Gangetic plain stretching roughly

not a period of steady rains

The monsoon period, including July and August, is however
year to year even in July and
all over India. Nor is the activity of the monsoon uniform from
over a whole month, in some
August. While in some years the monsoon activity is well-maintained
3 to
other years there are well-defined large-scale interruptions in the rains, generally lasting from
10 days at a time. These interruptions in the monsoon rains are known as "breaks" in the monsoon.

One of the most well-known facts connected with the break-conditions is the shift of the monsoon

51
trough from the nomal position indicated above to the foot of the Himalayas, the axis of the trough

very roughly extending from 32N 75"E to 26'N 90"E. The other equally well-known fact

connected with the breaks is the occurence of heavy rainfall along and near the foot of the

Himalayas.

52
 n
NATIONAL PARKSCOMES UNDER IUCN Carsa ya-b
CATEGORYII

Reserve of natural or semi-natural land,

declared or owned by a Government, set aside
for human recreation and enjoyment, animal
and environmental protection and restricted
from most development.

The largest national park in

the IUCN definition is the
the world meeting

Northeast Greenland National Park.

Yellowstone National Park,U.S.A. was
national park in the world. the firsi
India's first national park (an lUCN category
I| Protected area) is Hailey National
Park, now
known as Jim Corbett National
Park.
 HYORLD'SFAMOUS NATIONAL PARKS

NORTHEAST
GREENLAND

YELLOWSTONE JM-CORBETT

t Corbett

CRITERIAFOR A
NATIONAL PARK
A
national park was deemed to be a place
with one or several ec0systems not materially altered by
human exploitation and occupation, where plant and
animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are
of special scientific, educative and recreative interest are
Conserved.
minimum size-1000 hectare.
Statutory legal protection.
Sufficient budget staff are need for effective protection.
&

Prohibition of exploitation of natural resources.

Visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions:
for inspirational, educative, cultural recreative
&

purposes.
 FIVE OF
THE BEST
NATIONAL PARKSTO SEE TIGERS
ENDOTHER WILDLIFE
IN INDIA,
1. Sunderbans
National Park
it is iGgtICent
kind nthe world. tangle of nmangrove iungle tiat'sthe only one o s
It's spread Over 54 islands.-The Sundarbans is only
accessible by boat.
USually remain wel! Don't be hopeful of seeing any tigers though. They
t hidden in the reserve.
BanOhavgarh Nationa! Park e
DeSt known for the highest concentrationbio of tigers in any
ndia.The park features dense green vallevs and rocky parkn
an ancient fort built on 800 meter i2.624 t) high cliffs.. hill terrain, Witn
the best chance of seeing tigers. this park offers
3.
Kanha National Park
It has the honor of providing the setting for Rudyard Kipling's classic
ove, he Jungie Book. It's rich in lush saal and bamboa forosts,iakcs,
Streamns and open grasslands. This large park
research and Conservation programs,and manyisendangered specIes
well regarde Tor ts
have been saved there. As welf as tigers, the park abounds
WIthbarasingha (swamp deer) and an extensive variety of other animas
and birds.

CONT..

4. Nagarhole National Park

The park is a place of unspoilt wilderness, with serene forest,
a
bubbling streams, and tranquil lake. Visitors can go
also trekking.
The park offers the opportunity to see elephants close up in their
natural habitat, and it's not unusual to see herds of.elephants on the
river bank. However, the likelihod of seeing a tiger here is quite rare
compared to parks such as Bandhavgarh in the north.
5. Ranthambore National Park
It is fascinating blend of history and nature. Inside the park is a
a

formidable íort that was built in the 10th century and coveted by
many rulers. The park itself is characterized by rockyplains and steep
cliffs. It supports a diverse range of flora and fauna, including around
30 tigers.
 SUNDERBANS NAGARHOLE

4RANTHAMBORE
jKANHA BANDHAVGARH

MAJOR NATIONAL PARKS IN KERALA

Silernt Valley:Commonly known as

Sairndhrivanam in India.Park is a unique
example of tropical rain forest.The valley has a
wide variety of peninsular mammals like tailed
etc.
macaque lion,NilgiriTahr,tiger,leopard
Eavikulam:Set up for the preservation of Nilgiri
Tahr.Nowthe park has the largest known
world.Also
population of Tahrs existing in the etc..
sheltersAtlas moths,elephants,tigers
 Periyar:Situated
in hills of Western Ghats. Along
the fringes of the Perivar lake are
With marshy areas
tall plants. Here it is possible to see
herds of Indian elephants with relative ease large
well as Nilgiri
as
langur& Lion-Tailed macaque.

PERIYAR

SILENT VALLEY ERAVIKOLAM

 CASE STUDY VALLEY YATONAL PARK
I9RY 9F S-ENT
Gore zone: 236.74 sauare kilometers (91 sq mi)
is located in
the Nilgiri Hills, Palakkad District in Kerala.
Buffer zone;Territorial forests located around the national
park have been subject to a working-planto
Objectives such as extraction of bamboo and
accomplisn
the long-termconservation of the park. reed which afrec
A

n
addition llegal activities such as ganja ultivation,
forest fires, trapping and poaching setting
ildin animals, frequently
Occur in the territorialforests located
of the natíonal park. the immediate vicinity
This has resuited in degradation
COver, which has
of habitat and reduced forest
core adverse effects on the long term survival of
the area of the national park

Climate: The park being completely enciosed within a ring of hilis, has its own
micro-clinate and probabiy receives some convectional rainfal, addition
ron tWo Onsoons.
in to rain
In the remainig months, condensation on vegetalion of mist shrouding the valley is
estnaled to yield 15 per cent of the total water generated in the rainforest.
Birds
16 bird species in Silent Valley as threatened or restricted: Nilgiri Wood-pigeon,
Malabar Parakeet, Grey-headed Bulbul, Broad-tailed Grassbird, Rufous Babbler,.
Laughing Thrush, etc.
Rare bird species-Ceyion Ftogmouth and Great indian Hornbil,
The most abundant bird was the Black bulbul.
Mammals
34 species of mammals-threatened Lion-tailled Macaque, Niligiri Langur,
Malabar Giant Squirrel, Nilgiri Taht, Peshwa's Bat (Myotis peshwa) and
Hairy-winged Bat.
9 species of bats, rats and mice.
nsects Coleoptera.
The maximum number of species belong to orders Lepidoptera and
33species of crickets and grasshoppers.
Over 128 species of butteríies and 400
species of moths
 Flowering plants:701
420 genera. Dicotyledons
distributed among 113 families and
There are 265Monocotyledons
genera. Families here distributed among 21 families and 139-
best represented are
includingthe rare, endemic the Orchids with 108 species
malabarica, Bulbophyllum and highlý endangered
silentvalliensis and Eria orchids ipse
tagi, Grasses (56), Legumes
(55). Rubiaceae(49) and Asters
nere are many rare, endemic (45).
cardamom Ellettaria cardamomum, and economically yaluable species, sUCh as
nigrum, yams Dioscorea spp black pepper Piper
Tre
etc.
es
Six distinct tree associations have
been described in the valley.
Occurrence of lion-tailed macaque is
of Cullenia exarillata in the forest
dependent onthe ffowering

THREATS TO NATIONAL PARKS

Major threats include:
Habitat loss or degradation
Over exploitation
Fragmented habitats too smallto support a variety
of species
Invasive species.
Lack of funds for scientific
research and resource protection.
Pressure to drill for oil or build along park boundaries.
Over tourism.

Threats from forest fire.

Natural calamites.
Giobal warming
Hunting l poaching.
 REMEDIATION

NPCA ofiers seven recomniendalions Lo protccl,

Cnlkance and restore biodiversity in the nationi
parks

Improve & expand national park service science &

management program.
RUTahigher priority on combating threats from invasive speClS
Implement the 'endangered species act
EXpand existing parks,& protect land & water connections
critical to wild life.
Provide the operatingfunds necessary to support badly needed
research resources management & protection eftorts.
Inspire support for bio diversity protection in national parks by
educating & informing the public about threats to park
biodiversity.

Natural Resources
o
The natural resources of the earth are air, water,
soil, minerals, vegetation/forest and animal
wealth.
• All natural resources are responsible for the
sustainable economy of a country.
buildup of the
to over explosion of human population,
Due depleted or
natural resources are getting
ge
either
quantitatively.
degraded qualitatively and
o It is the form of energy
or matter which is
functioning organism population
essential for
and ecosystem
 NaturalResources
1ne ecological
space, variables like energy, matter,
time and diversity combiningly are
1elerred as natural resources. Some fesources
are essential for the survivalóf
all
, livin8
organisms like air, water, soil, plants animals
etc.
Natural resources can be classified as
According toorigin
• Renewability
•
Distribution

Natural Resources
According to origin
Biotic resources:When resource resources.
is living organisms or originated from
a

living organisms is known as biotic

Ex. Forest,animal,plants
resource is not originated fromn living
Abiotic resources: When a resources.
organisms is known as abiotic
. Ex.
Land, water,air
According to renewability
Renewable resources: The resources energy which can be renewed along with
their uses. Ex. Forest, air, water, solar
resources which are present in finite
Non renewable resources: The along with their uses. They are also
quantities and can not be renewed
as exhaustible resource. Ex. Minerals, fossil fuels, coal ctc.
called
distribution
* According to resource: Those natural resource which occur almost
Ubiquitous oxygen
everywhere. Ex. Sunlight, resource are concentrated at specific
Localized resource: Those natural
etc.
places. Ex. Minerals, fossils
 Obtems- exploitauonof natturaresoürces
natural resources
**Over asexploitation of
Such forests, wildlife leads to ecological
imbalance
Over exploitation of forests leads to
*
desertification/deforestation
Leads to soil erosion, pollution
* Leads to hazards such as land slides,
floods
Over exploitation of non-renewable
resources leads toshortage or scarcity

Forest Resource
Forest is a community of trees and associated organisms
covering a considerable area, utilizing air, water and
minerals to attain maturity and to reproduce itself.
Types of forests in the World
Tropical forests or ever green forest.
Temperate forests
Conferous forests
Types of Forests in India
• Evergreen forests.
• Mansoon deciduous forest
Mountain or Hill forests
Dryor Arid forests
Tidal, coastal or Mangroove.forests.
Uypes.offorests

Tropical Rain forest

Tropical Forest

conferrous Forest
Temparate Forest

ypes.of forests

Deciduous Forest
Tropical Forest

Mountain Forest
Importance offorest
Water shed protection
• Reduce the rate of runoff of water
• Prevent flash floods and soil erosion
* Atmospheric regulation
Absorption of solar heat during evapo transpiration.
Maintaining CO2 levels for plant growth.
Maintaining the local climatic conditions.
*Erosion Control
Holding soil
*Land banks
Maintenance of soil Nutrients and structure
*Loca use:Food, Fodder, Fuel wood and charcoal,
medicinal plants, Fiber, Timber

Causesior Over exploitationand depletion of

ferests
Most of the forest lands have been converted to
agricultural land, urbanization , industrialization
and human settlement

Mining activities in forests are also responsible for

depletion of forests

Forest fires and over grazing leads todepletion of

forests
 Effectsof
Over exploitation
forests and depletion of

Increased
soil erosion,
Contribute floods
to high temperature
3 Loss of biodiversity
and in soil productivity
Imbalance
in ecosystem
Extinction of
plant:speciesand wild
life.
* Essential forest
products will not be available

Conservation of forests
Regulated and planned cutting of trees.
Control over forest fires
Reforestation: it is the process of growing new trees
in areas inwhich trees have been removed
Afforestation:It means growing of trees on new areas
under forests.
Protection of existing forests
Social forestry: It means the development of forests
on public and common lands especially in rural areas
• Agroforestry : It is a practice in which agricultural
land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal
husbandary
 Deforestation trees by
man for
means cutting of
Deforestation
other purposes
commercial and

Causes of deforestation
• Expansion of agriculture into forest lands.
• Population growth resulting in falling of trees for
human settlement.
• Largescale falling of trees for industrialization.
o Construction of roads and railway lines across the

forests.
• Mining in forest areas
Shifting cultivation
• Fire wood collection by tribal purpose
•
Forest fires
 of land having ll tropics betweelf
in
eated in the humid
Kerala,
Ctate of
the

Censequences or effects of deforestation

Results in desertification
• Soil degradation
• Loss of vegetation
cover
Destruction of plant species and
• Environmental animal life.
pollution
Damage forest eco system
Reduction of moisture in soil
• Changes in climatic conditions.
 C-I
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
Defining economics and
the environment:
A dictionary definition of economics
resources of an would be: the science of the management or
individual, community or country. Thus, economics tne jt
carce resources amongst is about the alloC
competing uses.
A broad definition of the environment might
be the surroundings: the conditions influencns
development orgrowth. Thus, any number of things that are
around us is a part of environmen,
For example, the environment can be defined to include
all flora and fauna, aquatic ecosyStems,
energy and material resources, and
the atmosphere (Hanley et al., 2007). There are many
examples of the way in which the economy and
the environment interact _and are
interdependent, for example, agriculture and the environment.
Society has become aware or
the environmental impact of agriculture over
the last few decades.
Links between the economy and the environment: Economy and
the environment are
interlinked.

Economy can be divided into two sectors: production and consumption.,

These sectors use the environment in three main ways:
• as a supplier of natural resource

as a supplier of environmental or amenity goods

•
in its capacity as waste sink.
Using the environment in one of these ways may affect the other uses.

Supplier of resource inputs:

Land,water, and stocks of raw materials are important inputs to production. These resources
economy. Some countries
frequently vary between countries and so will affect the country's
resources are
will have large stocks of minerals, while others have good arable land. Natural
as it
either renewable (eg trees) or non-renewable (eg crude oil). This distinction is important
resources are used
influences the way the resources have to be managed in production. These
use by consumers, or as inputs for
by the production sector to create goods and services for
process waste products are also produced.
another part of the production sector, but in the
:
Supplier of environmentalor amenity goods
may be directly derived from the consumption of the
Economic benefits (ie increased utility) goods. There are many
are forthcoming from a stock of environmental
flow of services that some
environment provides amenity benefits for society. For example,
examples of where the
landscapes and the public benefit from these via their associated
countries enjoy beautiful services such
tourism. Environmental stocks of trees can offer global
recreational services and dioxide, which might otherwise
trees absorb_carbon
as climatic regulation because the
 contribute to
climatc changc. Many
people get cnjoymcnt from the biodiversity that cxists in ,185
worid, and this can also beconsidered as a form
gOod, of public consumption ofcnvironmental

Waste sink
capacity :
This is
the ccapacity of the cnvironmcnt
consumption and convert to assimilate the waste products of production and
them into harmless or ecologically uscful products. The cnvironment
is not only affected by waste
products, but also by intentional releascs of chemicals,
pcsticides, wood
prescrvativcs, such as
composition Or paints and lubricants. The impact of human activity on the
chemicals in thc atmosphere is clear,
vaoon aioxide concentrations Since 1750, ie the pre-industrial period,
pér million have changedfromn 280 narts ner million
in 2000. There have also in 1750 to 330 pars
and nitrous been significant increases
oxide. There are serious in other gases such as methane
concentrationsin concerns
being expressed about these increasing
OT
the atmosphere and climate
change (Stern 2007). This is the physical capacity
the land, water and the atmosphere to
such as absorb wastesand is determined by physical
the climate, rainfall, wind factors
patterns and geographical
location.
Origin of environmental
economics :
Environmental economics
developed in its present form
intensification of pollution in the 1960s as a result Or
and the heightened awareness tne
Western countries about the environment amongst the general publ1c m
and its importance to our existence.
became aware that, for economic growth to Economists
be indefinitely sustainable, the economic system
needs to take into account the uses the
of environment, so that natural resources are not depleted
and so that the environment is not overusedas a waste
sink. Environmental economists view
the environment as a form of natural capital which
performs life support, amenity and
functions that cannot be supplied by man-made capital. other
This stock of natural capital includes
natural resources plus ecological systems, land, biodiversity and
other attributes. The growth
of environmental economics in the 1970s was initially within the neoclassical paradigm.
In
general this approach to the environment is concerned with issues of market failure,
inappropriate resource allocation and how to manage public goods. There was little concern
for the underlying relationships between the economy and the environment. Concerns about
the limits of this approach to environmental economics led some environmental economists to
develop what is now referred to as ecologicaleconomics. An important aspect of this field of
research is co-evolutionary economics which has become a foundational concept of ecological
economics. Ecological economics views the relationship of the economy and the environment
as central. Thus, any analysis places economic activity within the environment. This distinction
is neatly illustrated with reference to debates concerning sustainable development and the
supports the notion
difference between weak and strong sustainability. Ecological economics
assumes that not all forms of capital (ie
of strong sustainability. This view of sustainability
human and natural) are perfectly substitutable.
Scope of Environmental
Economics:
Environmental economics Therefore, it
is considered both a science.
has wide scope. positive and a normative

1. Economy-
environment analysis:
Environmental economic
economics is primarily concerned with the impact of
activities on environment and
individual firm, industry andtheeconoImy
its implications for the
various
as a whole.
Economists have formulated economy - environment models to explain the
economic activities andtheir external effects.

2. Eco-development:
economics
of environmental is to maintain a balance between
*all objective
to achieve it, environental
eonomic development and environmental auality. order
In
possibilities to reduce pollution and
ceonomists have to explore the yarious soci0-economic
uplift the standard of living of the people.

3. Welfare approach:
as a discipline to tackle environmental
Environmental economics has emerged
an economic welfare framework. The welfare framework covers scarce
problems from
problems
resources and mnarket failures due to property rights and ethical aspects of different
pollution. Thus it suggests the best possible means to tackle the environmental problems.
of

4. Dynamic and stock-flow analysis:

to the static problems of market
The mainstreamn economics is largely confined
are about resources and are dynamic in
behaviour. But environmental management issues
a depletion and replenishment
nature. Moreover, resources haveastock and they have rate of
inevitable stock-flow dimension to
such as oil, minerals, and forests. Thus there is the
environmental issues.

5. Environmental values:
analysed
Environmental issues are about resources. The neo-classical economists have
water in a rational manner
the use of various resources like fisheries, forests, fossil fuels and
are economic values. It is
and with environmental values. In fact, environmental values
resources in the interest of economic efficiency
important for the society to conserve its limited
and welfare.

6. Clean Technology:
 and
Presently environmental pollution is caused by misuse of existing technology
failure to develop better one. Environmental economists are in favour of appropriate and eIeal
resources and energy and to protet
technologies which provide the most rational use ofnatural
the environment.

7. International Cooperation:
There are many international issues like hazards of trans-boundary shiprments,
unwanted substances and common property resources which need international cooperation
among nations. There are many negative effects of inadequate toxic wastes generated within
countries and hazardous goods exported to other countries.

Most cOuntries of the world are insisting on uniform standards and environmental
regulations for all nations. Other issues are related to international common property resourees,
especially the share of river water and forest lands, etc.

8. Conservation Policy:
The longstanding foundation of environmental economics lies in conservation
on demand for
economics which tends to emphasise the impact of economic activities
strategy in the utilization of
productive resources and energy resources. It suggests the optimal
natural resources in a rational manner.

9. Multi-disciplinary base:
an
Environmental economics is inherently a multi-disciplinary subject. It consists of
sciences, ethics and
integration of many varied disciplines such biology, ecology, physical
as
scope.
main stream economics. Therefore, it has wide
 The State of Kerala, is a tiny strip of land having an area of 38.86 lakh ha (1.18S%% of
the national land area), situated west of Western Ghats. It is
located in the humid tropics between
the latitudes of °18' and 12° 48'N and longitudes
of 74°28 and 7737°E. The State of Kerala,
named as "Gods own country" and the “Gateway
of monsoon in India" is one of the unique
regions in the humid tropical monsoon climates that enjoys high
solar radiation and warm
temperature round the year. The State has rich bio-diversity
and tropical rain forests and is spread
in 13 agro-ecological zones under the humid tropics. IPCC defines climate change as a
change in
the state of the climate that can be identifed (e.g.. using statistical tests)
by changes in the mean
and/or variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period,
typically decades or
longer. ltrefers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result
of human activity. The climate change may be decline in rainfall, wetlands, land and ocean
biodiversity, increase in temperature and sea level, floods and droughts, landslides, groundwater

depletion and saline water intrusion, decline in forest area, frequent forest fires, unusual rains and

hailstorms. It is believed that almost all the crops are likely to be under threat due to climate

change/variability in the ensuing decades under the Humid Tropics. The threat from global

waming and climate change could be seen in the fom of decline in cropped area, production and
productivity and quality of grains.

Monsoon in Kerala

Kerala has mainly two rainy seasons. The Southwest Monsoon that arrives in the month of

June is called Edavappathy, as it comes in the middle of the month of Edavam on the

Malayalam Calendar. Mid October witnesses the arrival of the Northeast Monsoon. In the

Malayalam calendar this month is called Thulam and hence the name Thulavarsham
 Bay of Bengal and
clouds gather from the
meaning Thulam'. The rain
the "The Rains in
Gnats
nurry to Kerala through the Palakkad Gap in the Western
monsoon climate.
of Tropical
As per Köppen climate classification, it belongs to the category
mountainous
mm annually while the cool
Parts of Kerala's lowlands may average only 1250
wettest region receive in excess of
-
eastern highlands of Idukki district- comprising Kerala's
are mostly the result of seasonal moisoo
J,000 mm of orographic precipitation. Kerala's rains
summer, most of Kerala is
As a result, Kerala averages some 120-140 rainy days per year. In

prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, and torrential downpors accompanying

angerous cyclones coming in off the Indian Ocean. Kerala's average maximum daily
temperature is around 37 °C; the minimum is 19.8 °C.

The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest Monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of

the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea

Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon

first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the

Southwest monsoon.

Indian mons00n

Indian monsoon, the most prominent of the world's monsoon systems, which

primarily affects India and its surrounding water bodies. It blows from the northeast during

cooler months and reverses direction to blow from the southwest during the warmest months of

the year. This process brings large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.

At the Equator the area near India is unique in that dominant or frequent westerly winds occur at

the surface almost constantly throughout the year; the surface easterlies reach only to latitudes
 soon
component. They
near 20° very strong
northerly
in February, and even then they have a
N

a timne of
circulation. This is
upper-air
retreat northward, and drastic changes take place in the March the
next. Late in
of one monsoon and the beginning of the
transition between the end
atmospheric
instability,
moves farther north.
With ittgo
high-sun season reaches the Equator and stream
subtropical jet
westerly
turbulent) clouds, and rain. The
convectional (that is, rising and easterlies.
are north
winds
of air across northern India, and the surface
still controls the flow

Monsoon onset and early developments

during
summer) moves northward
Northern Hemisphere
As
the high-sun season (that is, the
to the north
prone to rapid heating because the highlands
particularly
April, India becomes
air. There are three distinct areas of relative
cold
protect it from any incursions of
above
(1) above the southern Bay of Bengal, (2)
upper tropospheric warmth-namely,
peninsulas that are relatively
dry
across the trunks of the various
the Plateau of Tibet, and (3)
to forn a vast heat-source region. The
relatively
three areas combine
during this time. These
Bengal occurs mostly at the 500-100-millibar level.
warm area above the southern Bay of
pressure region typically occurs at elevations between 5.500 and 16.100
(This atmospheric
may vary according to changes in heating and cooling.) It
metres [18,000 and 53,000 feet] but

lower level and is probably caused by the release

does not appear at
water vapor to liquid water) at the top of
of condensation heat (associated with the change from
convergence. In contrast, a
towering cumulonimbus clouds along the advancing inter tropical
as the relatively cloud-free air cools
heat sink appears over the southern Indian Ocean

by emitting long-wavelength radiation. Monsoon winds at the surface blow

from heat sink to
 source. As a result. by May the southwest monsoon is well-established over Si Lanka, an
eat
island off the southeastern tip of the Indian peninsula.

Aiso in May, the dry surface of Tibet (above 4.000 meters [13.100 feet]) absorbs and radiates

cat tnat 1S readily transmitted to the air immediately above. At about 6,000 meters (19,700 feet)
an anti cyclonic cell arises, causing a strong easterly
flow in the upper troposphere above
northermn India. The subtropical iet stream suddenly changes its course to the
north of tne ant
Cyclonic ridge and the highlands, though it may occasionally reappear
southward of them 1or
very brief periods. This change
of the upper tropospheric circulation above northern India irom
westerly jet to easterly flow coincides with a reversal
of the vertical temperature and pressue
gradients between 600 and 300 mill bars, On many
occasions the easterly wind alott assumes
jet
force. It anticipates by a few days the
burst." or onset, of the surface southwesterly monsoon
some 1,500 km (900 miles)
farther south, with a definite sequential relationship,
although the
exact cause is not known. Because
of India's inverted triangular shape, the land is heated
progressively as the sun moves northward. This accelerated
spread of heating, combined with the
general direction of heat being transported by winds,
results in a greater initial monsoonal
activity over the Arabian Sea (at late springtime), where a real
frontal situation often occurs, than
over the Bay of Bengal. The relative
humidity of coastal districts in the Indian region rises above

70 percent, and some rain occurs. Above the heated land, the air
below 1,500 metres (5,000 feet)
becomes unstable, but it is held down by the overriding easterly
flow. This does not prevent
frequent thunderstorms from occurring in late May.

Peak period: During June the easterly jet becomes firmly established at 150 to 100 millibars, an

atmospheric pressure region typically occurring at elevations between 13,700 and 16, 100 metres

(45,000 and 53,000 feet). It reaches its greatest speed at its normal position to the south
of the
 anticyclonic 5
ridge, at about
15° N
from China through
descends to India. In Arabia it decelerates and
the middle
troposphere (3,000 metres
[9,800 feet]). A
stratospheric belt coldof very
alr, analogous to the one
normally found above
the intertropical convergence near
oCeurs above the anticyclonic ne Dqua
ridge. across southern Asia at
30_40° N and above the Do0
mibar level (6,000 metres 19.700 feet), These upper-air features that arise so Tar away
Lne Equator are associated
with the surface monsoon and are absent
when there is no monsoonal
Ilow. The position of the easterly jet controls
the location of monsoonal rains, which occur ahead
and to the left of the strongest winds and also behind
them and to the right. The surface ilow,
however, is a strong, southwesterly, humid, and unstable wind that brings humidities of more
than 80 percent and heavy squally showers that are the "burst" of the monsoon.
The overall
pattern of the advance follows a frontal alignment, but local episodes may
differ considerably.
The amount of rain is variable from year to year and place to place.

Most spectacular clouds and rain occur against the Western Ghats in India, where the early

monsoonal airstream piles up against the steep slopes, then recedes, and piles up again to a

greater height. Each time it pushes thicker clouds upward until wind and clouds roll over the
a
barrier and, after few brief spells of absorption by the dry inland air, cascade toward the

interior. The windward slopes receive 2,000 to 5,000 mm (80 to 200 inches) of rain in the

ImonsOOn season.

Various factors, especially topography, combine to make up a complex regional patterm.

Oceanic air flowing toward India below 6,000 metres (19,700 feet) is deflected in accordance
over the hot
with the Coriolis effect. The converging moist oncoming stream becomes unstable
cumulonimbus clouds rise thousands of
land and is subject to rapid convection. Towering
 6

eres, producing violent thunderstoms and releasing latent heat in the surounding air. As a

Tesult, the upper tropospheric warm belt migrates northwestward

from the ocean to the land. e

main body of air above 9,000 metres (29,500

feet) maintains a strong casteriy
iow.

Later, 1in
June and July, the monsoon is strong and well-established to a
height of 6,000 meuTes
(less in the far north), with occasional thickening to 9.000 metres.
Weather conditions are
cloudy, warm, and moist all over India. Rainfall varies
between 400 and 500 mm (16 and Z0
inches), but topography introduces some extraordinary differences. On
the southern slopes of
the Khasi Hills at only 1,300 metres (4.300 feet), where the moist airstreams are
lifted and
overtumed, the village of Cherrapunji in Meghalaya state receives an average
rainfall of 2,750
mm (107 inches) in July, with record totals
of 897 mm (35 inches) in 24 hours in July 1915,
more than 9,000 mm (354 inches) in July 1861, and 16.305 mm
(642 inches) in the monsoon
season of 1899. Over the Ganges valley the monsoon, deflected
by the Himalayan barrier,

becomes a southeasterly airflow. By then the upper tropospheric belt of warmth

from condensation has moved above northern India, with an oblique bias. The lowest pressures

prevail at the surface.

It is mainly in July and August that waves of low pressure appear in the body of monsoonal air.
Fully developed depressions appear once or twice per month. They travel from east to west more
or less concurrently with high-level casterly waves and bursts of speed from the easterly jet,

causing a local strengthening of the low-level monsoonal flow. The rainfall consequently
was in June. Some of the deeper
increases and is much more evenly distributed than it
and these bring torrential rains
depressions become tropical cyclones before they reach the land,

and disastrous floods.

 7

A Otaly difterent development arises when the easterly iet moves

farther north than usual.
v
wind rising over the southern slopes of the Himalayas brings heavy rains and local

Iloods. The weather over the central and souuthemdistricts. however, becomes suddenly ariel a

llans SO for as long as the abnormal shift lasts. The opposite shift is also possible, with mid

latitude upper air flowing along the south face of the Himalayas and bringing drought to the

northern districts. Such dry spells are knowm as <breaks" of the monsoon. Those aftecting ne
SOuth of India are similar to those experienced on the Guinea Coast during extreime noruwa
are due to
Shifts of the wind belts (see West African monsoon). whereas those affecting the north

an interaction of the middle and low latitudes. The southwest monsoon Over the

not hold enough moisture

lower Indus plain is only 500 meters (about 1,600 feet) thick and does
to bring rain. On the other hand, the upper tropospheric easterlies become stronger

remain dry (probably

and constitute a true easterly jet stream. Westen Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia
new source of surface heat.
because of the divergence in this jet) and thus become the

Monsoon withdrawal

temperatures begin to fall, and

By August the intensity and duration of sunshine have decreased,
almost to a standstill in the northwest.
the surge of southwesterly air diminishes spasmodically
mm (79 inches) of rainfall at this time, however. In
Cherrapunji still receives over 2,000
west side of the highlands and spread over
September, dry, cool, northerly air begins to circle the
upper tropospheric easterlies move much
northwestern India. The easterly jet weakens, and the
are much weaker and variable,
farther south. Because the moist southwesterlies at lower levels
variable over most of the region, but
they are soon pushed back. The rainfall becomes extremely
areas and over the Bay of Bengal.
showers are still frequent in the southeastern
 of the month
October, variable winds are very frequent everywhere. At the end
Dy early
winter monsoon takes shape. The surface
cire lndian region is covered by northerly air and the
becomes a
northeasterly flow. This causes an
S derlected by the Coriolis force and
tODer-December rainy season for the exteme southeast of the Deccan (including the Madras

coast) and eastern Sri Lanka, which cannot be explained by topograplhy alone because it exiends

Weal out Over the sea. Tropical depressions and cyclones are important contributing factors.

YOSt of lndia thus begins a sunny. dry. and dusty season. The driest period comes in November

n tne Punjab; December in central India. Bengal, and Assam: January in the northerm Deccan,
auid rebruary in the southern Deccan. Conversely, the western slopes of the Karakoram
Kange and Himalayas are then reached by the midlatitude frontal depressions that come
from the
Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The winter rains they receive, moderate as
they are, place them
clearly outside the monsoonal realm.

Because crops and water supplies depend entirely on monsoonal rains, it became imperative that

quantitative long-range weather forecasts be available. Embedded in the weather patterns of

other parts of the world are clues to the summer conditions in South Asia. These clues often
appear in the months leading up to monsoon onset. For a forecast to be released at the beginning

of June, South American pressure and Indian upper-wind data for the month of April are

are positively correlated and

examined. These data, though widely separated from one another,
may be further refined in May by
may be used as predictors of June conditions. Forecasts
with the easterly winds above the city of
comparing rainfall patterns in both Zimbabwe and Java

Bengal state. In this situation the correlation between rainfall and

Kolkata (Calcutta) in West

easterly winds is negative.

 Ecological land degradation
Land degradation is the reduction or loss of the biological or economic
productivity and
complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture,
forest or
woodlands resulting from natural processes, land uses or other human activities and
habitation patterns such as land contamination. soil erosion and the destruction the
of
vegetation cover. Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment
through deplctionof resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ccosystems
and the cxtinction of wildlife. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the
cnvironment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions,
particularly drought. It is also caused by human activities that pollute or degrade the
quality of soils and land utility.
Land degradation is a global problem largely related to agricultural
use, deforestation and climate change. Causes include:

Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation

Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting
Inappropriate irrigation 1) and overdrafting
Urban sprawl and commercial development
Vehicle off-roading
Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals
Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife,
as hedgerows and copses disappear
Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment
Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem
Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics
Invasive Species
Climate change
Loss of soil carbon
Consequences
at land degradation and its impact on the
There are four main ways of looking
environment around it:
in the productive capacity of the land.
This
A temporary or permanent decline
productivity or in potential
can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual
or in vegetative cover and soilnutrients.
productivity, or a loss change
resources for human livelihoods. This
Action in the land's capacity to provide use.
can be measured from a base line of past land
 Loss of biodiversity:
A loss of range species or
decline in the environmental of ecosystem compleX1ty
quality. as a
Shifting ecological risk:
increased vulnerability
destruction or crisis,
This is measured through of a
the environment or people
to
existing risk of crisis or base line in the form
destruction. of pre
Desertification -Degradation
of Fertile
Desertification Land
desert by losing
is the degradation process by which a
its flora and fauna, this can fertile land changes itself into a
change, human activities or becaused
caused by drought, deforestation, climate
degradation of the land. occurs improper agriculture. Desertification
It is a process of
Desertification takes place because of man-made activities and climate
when a particular type biome change.
Desertification of converts into a desert biome.
Causes

Overgrazing
Deforestation
Farming Practices
Urbanization and other types
of land development
Climate Change
Stripping the land of resources
Natural Disasters
Desertification Impacts

Farming becomnes difficult or even impossible in the area

Flooding chances are more
Hunger- because of no farming
Poor quality of water
Overpopulation
Poverty as a result of the above
Steps To Reduce Desertification

Given below are the steps which may help in reducing Desertification:
Focus on Water management. Rainwater harvest must be done, water that can be
reused must not be left out as waste
Reforestation and tree regeneration
Buttressing the soil through the use of sand fences, shelter belts, woodlots and
windbreaks
Better and hyper-fertilization of soil through planting
can be used to provide mulching for fields thus
The residue from pruned trees
increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation.
Waterlogging: Definition, Causes, Effects
 When
the conditions are
so created
that the crop root-zone gets deprived of proper
to ne presence of excessive moisture or water content,
u

be waterlogged. To create such the tract 1s Said to

conditions it is not always necessary
groundwater table should ula
enter the crop root-zone. Sometimes even if water table is
oelow the root-zZone depth the canillary wnter z0ne may
and makes the air circulation impossible extend in the root-zOne dep
by filling the pores in the sol.
1ne waterlogging may be defined as rendering the soil unproductive
and interuie duG
t0 excessive moisture and creation of angerobic conditions.
The phenomenon Or
waterlogging can be best understood with the help of a hydrologic equation,
states that which

Inflow = Outflow -I- Storage

Mere intlow represents that amount of water which enters the subsoil in various
Processes. It includes seepage from the canals, infiltration of rainwater, percolation
from irrigated fields and subsoil flow. Thus although it is loss or us, it represents the
amount of water flowing into the soil.
Causes of Waterlogging:

Inadequate drainage of over-land run-off increases the rate of percolation and in

turn helps in raising the water table.
The water from rivers may infiltrate into the soil.
Seepage of water from earthen canals also adds significant quantity of water to
the underground reservoir continuously.
Sometimes subsoil does not permit free flow of subsoil water which may
accentuate the process of raising the water table.
Irrigation water is used to flood the fields. If it is used in excess it may help
appreciably in raising the water table. Good drainage facility is very essential.
Effects of Waterlogging:

Growth of Water Loving Wild Plants:When the soil iswaterlogged water loving
wild plant life grows abundantly. The growth of wild plants totally prevent the
growth of useful crops.
Impossibility of Tillage Operations:Waterlogged fields cannot be tilled properly.
The reason is that the soil contains excessive moisture content and it does not
give proper tilth.
Lowering of Soil Temperature:The presence of excessive moisture content
lowers the temperature of the soil. In low temperature the bacteriological
activities are retarded which affects the crop growth badly.
Reduction in Time of Maturity: Untimely maturity of the crops is the
characteristic of waterlogged lands. Due to this shortening of crop period the
crop yield is reduced considerably.
Salinisation
Salinization refers to the increase in salt concentration in an environmental medium,
notably soil. It is also known as salination.
Salinization of soil is an excessive accumulation of water-soluble salts. Typically, it is
table salt NaCI. The list is far more extensive and includes various compounds of
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfates, chlorides, carbohydrates, and
bicarbonates. In general, salt-affected earths are categorized as saline, sodic and saline
sodic, depending on the content.
Soil salinization causes include:

Dry climates and low precipitations when excessive salts are not flushed from
the earth;
High evaporation rate, which adds salts to the ground surface;
Poor drainage or waterlogging when salts are not washed due to a lack of water
transportation;
Irrigation with salt-rich water, which amplifies salt content in earths;
Removal of deep-rooted vegetation and a raised water table as a consequence;
Leakage from geological deposits and penetration into groundwater;
Sea-level rise when sea salts seep into lower lands;
Breezes in the coastal arcas that blow salty air masses to the nearby territories;
Seawater submergence followed by salt evaporation;
Inappropriate application of fertilizers when excess nitrification accelerates soil
salinization.
Soil salinization consequences are far from positive, covering multiple aspects of
ecology and human life. It affects crop production and water supply industries, induces
the risk of floods and soil erosion, and decreases biodiversity.

Soil Erosion
a away by
Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of field is carried
are loosened
physical sources such as wind and water. In this process, the soil particles
or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers, streams or far away lands. This has been
is
worsening due to human activities such as agriculture and deforestation. Soil erosion
a
a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in
etc. Cause of Soil Erosion
continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse,
Following are the important causes of soil erosion:
Rainfall and Flooding
cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil
Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main
erosion are caused by rainfall:
Rillerosion
 Gully erosion
Sheet erosion
Splash erosion

tandrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and
vs. kegions with very heayy and frequent rainfall face a large amount or soil 10sS.
1e lowing water during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut
basins, etc.
Agriculture

1e tarning practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities
disturb the ground, The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to soW new seeds.
Dee m0st of the crops are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow during
winters. Most of the soil is eroded during winters.
AISO, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for
water. Fine soil particles are eroded by wind.
Grazing
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their
hooves churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This 1loosens the soil
and makes it mnore prone to erosion.
Logging and Mining
A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the
soil firmly. The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter
that protects the soil from erosion, is also lost during logging.
Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

Construction
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and
grasslands are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil
making it
to
vulnerable erosion.
Rivers and Streams
The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a
V-shaped
erosion activity.
• Heavy Winds
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are
away by the wind to faraway lands. This degrades carried
the soil and results in desertification.
 Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land
Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer
of the soil. This laver is rich in the essential
nutrients required by the plants and the soil. The
degraded soil does not support crop
production and leads to low crop productivity.
Clogging of Waterways
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and
several other
chemicals. This pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.
The sediments
accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in
flooding.
Air Pollution
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic
substances such as pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled.
The dust plumes from the arid and semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when
the winds move.
Desertification
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into
deserts. Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads
to loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

Destruction of Infrastructure
can reduce their
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks
as dams, embankments, and
efficiency. Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such
drainage.
 GREEN ECONOMY
A green economy is an economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and
ecological scarcities, and aims for sustainable
development without degrading the
environment. It is closely related with ecological economics,
but has a more politically applied
focus. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report argues "that to green, an economy
be must not
only be efficient, but also fair. Fairness implies recognizing global country
and level equity
amensions, particularly in assuring a Just Transition to an economy that is low-carbon,
resource efficient, and socially
inclusive."

The International Chamber of Commerce (1CC) representing global business defines

green economy as "an economy in which economic growth
and environmental responsibility
work together in a mutually reinforcing fashion while supporting progress on
development". soclal

In 2012, the ICC published the Green Economy Roadmap, containing contributions
from international experts consulted bi-yearly. The Roadmap represents a comprehensive and
multidisciplinary effort to clarify and frame the concept of "green economy". It highlights the
role of business in bringing solutions to global challenges. It sets out the following 10
conditions which relate to business/intra-industry and collaborative action for a transition
towards a green economy:

Open and competitive markets

Metrics, accounting, and reporting
Finance and investment
Awareness
Lifecycle approach
Resource efficiency and decoupling
Employment
Education and skills
Governance and partnership
Integrated policy and decision-making

Green Sticker and ecolabel practices have emerged as consumer facing indicators of
friendliness to the environment and sustainable development. Many industries are starting to
adopt these standards as a way to promote their greening practices in a globalizing economy.
Also known as sustainability standards, these standards are special rules that guarantee the
products you buy don't hurt the environment and the people that make them. The number of
these standards has grown recently and they can now help build a new, greener economy. They
focus on economic sectors like forestry, farming, mining or fishing among others; concentrate
on environmental factors like protecting water sources and biodiversity, or reducing
homne in on
greenhouse gas emissions; support social protections and workers' rights; and
specificparts of production processes.

KarlBurkart defined a green economy as based on six mainsectors:

 Renewable energy
Green buildings
Sustainable transport
Water nanagement
Waste management
Land management

Renewable energy: is useful enerey that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, including carbon neutral sources
like sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. The term often also
encompasses biomass well, whose carbon neutral status is under debate. This type of energy
as
SOurce stands in contrast to fossil fuels, which are being used far more quickly than they are
being replenished. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electrncity
generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy serviCes.

Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
strucure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource
efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation,
maintenance, renovation, and demolition. This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the
architects, the engineers, and the client at all project stages. The Green Building practice
expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort. In doing so, the three dimensions of sustainability, i.e., planet, people
and profit across the entire supply chain need to be considered. Although new technologies are
constantly being developed to complement current practices in crcating greener structures, the
common objective of grcen buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the built environment
on human health and the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation
A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to focus on
the use of natural materials that arc available locally.
Sustainable transport refers to the broad subject of transport that is sustainable in the senses
of social. environmental and climate impacts. Components for evaluating sustainability
include the particular vehicles used for road, water or air transport; the source of energy; and
the infrastructure used to accommodate the transport
(roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals and terminals). Transport operations
and logistics as well as transit-oriented development are also involved in evaluation.
Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness
andefficiency as well as the environmental and climate impacts of the system.
Short-term activity often promotes incremental improvement in fuel efficiency and vehicle
emissions controls while long-term goals include migrating transportation from fossil-based
resources.
energy to other alternatives such as renewable energy and use of other renewable
measurement and
The entire life cycle of transport systems is subject to sustainability to the environmental,
a
optimization. Sustainable transport systems make positive contribution
serve. Transport systems exist to
Social and economic sustainability of the communities they
up opportunities offered
provide social and economic connections, and people quickly take the
low carbon transport
by increased mobility with poor households benefiting greatly from
 options. The advantages of increased mobility
ocial and economic costs that transport need to be weighed against the environmental,
systems pose.

Water resource management is the activity of nlanning. developing,

managing the optimum use distribus
of water resources. It is an aspect of water cycle
management. Water is essential for our suvival The
feldofwater resources manage
have to continue to adapt to the curent and future issues facing the allocation of water. Witn
growing uncertainties of global climate change and the long-term impacts of managemet
G

dcions, the decision-making wll be even more diffcult. It is likely that ongoing clmale
Change will lead to situations that have not been encountered. As a result, alternatve
management strategies are sought for in order to avoid setbacks in the allocation of water
resources.

to all the competing demands tor

ldeally, water resource management planning has regard
on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and denands. AS With
watel dla seeks to allocate water
other [resource management], this is rarely possible in practice.
or the biggest concerns for our water-based resources in the future is the sustainability of
Ole scarce, the importance OT
the curTent and future water resource allocation. As water becomes
Water management grows vastly-finding balance
a between humans' needs and the essential
step of water resources sustainability in the environment.

activities and actions required to

Waste management (or waste disposal) includes the transport,
manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes the collection,
regulation of the waste
treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and
mechanisms.
management process and waste-related laws, technologies, economic
type has different methods of disposal and
Waste can be solid, liquid, or gaseous and each
industrial, biological
management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including
can pose a threat to human health. Health issues are
and household. In some cases, waste
management. Health issues can also arise
associated throughout the entire process of waste
waste, and indirectly through the
indirectly or directly. Directly, through the handling of said
activity, for example, the
consumption of water, soil and food. Waste is produced by human
management is intended to reduce adverse
extraction and processing of raw materials. Waste resources and aesthetics.
effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary
among countries (developed and developing
Waste management practices are not uniform
industrial sectors can all take
nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and
building sustainable and
different approaches. Proper management of waste is important for
report
liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A
found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%-50%
systems
of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated
that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported. A large portion of waste
management
waste that is created
practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the
by household, industrial, and commercial activity. Measures of waste management include
measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms of a circular economy, effective
disposal facilities, export and import control and optimal sustainable design of products that
are produced.
Land management the process of managing the use and development (in
both urban and rural settings) of land resources Land resources are used for a vanety of
purposes which may include organic agriculture, reforestation, water resource
management and eco-tourism projects. Land management can have positive or negative ettects
on the terrestrial ecosystems. Land being over- or misused can degrade and reduce
productivity and disrupt natural equilibriums.