Serial Communication Versatility Start Bit

A method of transmitting data between devices Supports various communication modes, Indicates the beginning of a data frame by
using a sequential approach, sending one bit at including full-duplex and half-duplex. transitioning from a high to a low voltage level.
a time over a single channel. Embedded Systems Data Bits
Parallel Communication Microcontrollers communicating with sensors, Typically 5 to 9 bits representing the actual data
A method of data transmission where multiple actuators, and other modules. being transmitted.
bits are sent simultaneously across multiple Computer Peripherals Parity Bit (Optional)
channels (wires). Devices like keyboards, mice, and printers Used for error detection; can be even or odd
Synchronous Serial Communication interfacing with computers. parity.
Data is transmitted alongside a clock signal, Industrial Automation Stop Bit(s)
ensuring synchronization between sender and Control systems managing machinery and One or two bits indicating the end of the data
receiver. processes. frame, transitioning back to a high voltage level.
Asynchronous Serial Communication Consumer Electronics Error Detection
Data is transmitted without a shared clock Devices like GPS modules, Bluetooth adapters, Optional parity bit allows for basic error
signal, using start and stop bits to frame data and display screens. checking.
packets. UART Widely Supported
UART (Universal Asynchronous A peripheral device that manages the sending Commonly integrated into microcontrollers and
Receiver/Transmitter) and receiving of asynchronous serial data. supported by various devices.
Facilitates asynchronous serial communication Serial Class Limited Distance
with minimal wiring, typically requiring only two You can send/receive data to and from your Effective communication is typically limited to
lines (TX for transmitting and RX for receiving). computer over USB, or to a device connected short distances.
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) via the Arduino's RX/TX pins. Speed Constraints
A synchronous protocol that uses multiple lines Serial Generally slower compared to synchronous
(MISO, MOSI, SCLK, and SS) for high-speed data Used when sending data over USB, and communication protocols.
transfer. viewable in the Serial Monitor in the Arduino Single Device Communication
I²C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) IDE. Designed primarily for point-to-point
Utilizes two lines (SDA for data and SCL for Serial1 communication; not ideal for multi-device
clock) to connect multiple devices with unique Used when sending data over RX/TX pins. networks.
addresses. Serial2 and Serial3  Fundamentals of Sensor Interfacing: Sensor
RS-232 and RS-485 Available on GIGA R1 WiFi, Mega 2560, and Due interfacing involves connecting sensors to
Standards for serial communication, boards. microcontrollers to measure and process
traditionally used in computer serial ports and Transmitter physical changes.
industrial systems. Converts parallel data from the CPU into serial  Analog vs. Digital Sensors: Analog sensors
Simplicity form, adds start and stop bits, and transmits it. provide continuous signals, while digital sensors
Requires fewer wires, reducing hardware Receiver output discrete levels.
complexity and cost. Receives the serial data, detects the start and  Sensing Methods: Sensors detect changes
Reliability stop bits, and converts the serial data back into using voltage, resistance, or frequency
Better suited for long-distance communication parallel form. variations.
with less susceptibility to signal degradation.
 Signal Conditioning: Amplification, filtering,  Performance Metrics: Resolution, accuracy, **Multiplexing** – A technique that refreshes
and isolation improve sensor accuracy and linearity, and speed are key DAC performance digits sequentially to display multiple numbers
compatibility. metrics. using fewer control lines.
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): ADC  Actuator Interfacing Techniques: Actuators **Arduino Code** – A program that controls a
converts analog signals into digital form for like motors and relays are controlled using 7-segment display by showing digits from 0 to 9
microcontroller processing. PWM, transistors, or driver ICs. sequentially. .
 ADC Principles: ADC involves sampling,  Motor Control: PWM controls DC motors,
quantization, and resolution to digitize analog while step sequences and pulse width manage
signals. stepper and servo motors.
 Conversion Techniques: Common ADC types  Relay Driving: Transistors or driver ICs enable
include SAR, Flash, and Delta-Sigma converters. microcontrollers to control high-current relays.
 Practical Considerations: Proper grounding,  Power Management: Flyback diodes, current
noise reduction, and sample timing ensure sensors, and heat sinks ensure safe actuator
accurate ADC results. operation.
 Internal vs. External ADCs: Internal ADCs are  Sensor Fusion: Combining data from multiple
cost-efficient but less accurate, while external sensors improves measurement accuracy.
ADCs offer higher precision.  Communication Protocols: I2C, SPI, and UART
 Sampling Theorem: To avoid aliasing, sample enable efficient communication between
at least twice the highest signal frequency sensors and microcontrollers.
(Nyquist rate).  Signal Filtering: Digital filters smooth sensor
 Error Correction: Calibration methods data for better processing.
minimize quantization errors in ADC systems.  Emerging Sensors: MEMS, biosensors, and
 Temperature Sensor Interfacing: flexible sensors are expanding technological
Temperature sensors like thermistors and applications.
thermocouples require signal conditioning for  Miniaturization: Sensors and actuators are
accurate readings. becoming more compact and energy-efficient.
 Light and Optical Sensor Integration: Light  IoT Applications: Edge computing and
sensors like photodiodes and photoresistors wireless connectivity enable smart, autonomous
detect light intensity changes. systems.
 Noise Reduction: Techniques like low-pass **7-Segment Display** – A display device for
filtering and shielding minimize sensor showing Arabic numerals, used in clocks,
interference. calculators, and meters.
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC): DAC **Common Cathode** – A display configuration
converts digital values into analog signals for where all LED cathodes are connected to a
control or waveform generation. common ground.
 DAC Principles: DAC uses methods like R-2R **Common Anode** – A display configuration
ladders or PWM filtering to generate analog where all LED anodes are connected to a
outputs. common positive voltage.