EXPERIMENTS ON LEARNING

LEARNING

Human development, cognition, and behaviour all depend on learning, a basic

psychological process. It includes the processes by which people learn and hold onto their
knowledge, abilities, behaviours, attitudes, and values. The psychological study of learning
has major implications for education, individual development, and societal advancement.
Learning is the result of experience or instruction and is characterized by a relatively long-
lasting change in behaviour or potential behaviour. It is essential because it supports social
advancement, education, personal development, and human growth (Cherry, 2024)

Learning is described in psychology as an experience- or instruction-based

modification of behaviour or potential behaviour that lasts relatively long. This entails having
the capacity to modify, improve, and apply new knowledge in a variety of contexts. Learning
can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively
permanent change in behaviour that results from experience. During the first half of the 20th
century, the school of thought known as behaviourism rose to dominate psychology and
sought to explain the learning process. Behaviourism sought to measure only observable
behaviours. (Cherry, 2022)

Even if you learn something relatively quickly, it is still a multi-step process. To

learn, you must encounter new information, pay attention to it, coordinate it with what you
already know, store it in your memory, and apply it. For example, say you want to fix a
running toilet. You might search for a how-to video, watch it to see if it addresses your need,
and then use the instructions to make the repair. Or, consider a time when you came across an
unfamiliar word while reading. If you stopped to look up the meaning, then you learned a
new word (Cherry, 2022)

Acquisition:

i. Definition: The initial stage of learning is when a response is established.

ii. Explanation: During acquisition, individuals are introduced to new information or skills.
This is when they first begin to learn and understand the material. For example, when you
start learning to ride a bike, the acquisition is when you first get on the bike, understand how
to balance, and learn to pedal (2024)

Retention:

i. Definition: The process of maintaining the acquired knowledge or skills over time.

ii. Explanation: Retention involves storing the learned information in long-term memory for
future use. This is about ensuring that what has been learned is not forgotten. Continuing with
the bike example, retention happens after you have practiced riding for several days or weeks,
and the knowledge of how to ride a bike becomes ingrained in your memory. (2024)

Recall/Performance:

i.Definition: The ability to retrieve and apply the learned information when needed.

ii.Explanation: This phase involves accessing and using the learned information or skills. It's
the demonstration of learning through performance. For instance, recall/performance is when
you confidently ride a bike after not having ridden one for a while, showing that you can still
remember and apply the skill you learned. (2024)

Types of learning in psychology

Classical Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a

previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. For example in
Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was
paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made
between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response. For example, if you
don't know how to swim and were to fall into a pool, you'd take action to avoid the pool.
(Cherry, 2024)
Operant Conditioning:

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response

occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by
Edward Thorndike and later by BF Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning
is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behaviour. (Cherry. 2024)

He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly
a behaviour was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of
reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement. For example, your child might learn
to complete their homework because you reward them with treats and/or praise

Observational Learning:

Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and

imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning
through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.
As demonstrated in his classic Bobo Doll experiments, people will imitate the actions of
others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective
observational learning attention, motor skills, motivation, and memory For example, a teen's
older sibling gets a speeding ticket, with the unpleasant results of fines and restrictions. The
teen then learns not to speed when they take up driving. (Cherry, 2024)

Important Figures in The Psychology of Learning

The early days of psychology as a distinct science are where the roots of the study of
learning in psychology can be found. Early theories, promoted by psychologist like John
B.Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasized behaviourist view points. They looked at observable
behaviours and how reinforcement and punishment affected them.

One of the first thinkers to study how learning influences behaviour was psychologist John B.
Watson, who suggested in his seminal 1913 paper 'Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It'
that all behaviours are a result of the learning process.
Psychology, the behaviourists believed, should be the scientific study of observable,
measurable behaviour. Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which
he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat.

i. Edward Thorndike: Thorndike discovered the law of effect, which stated that behaviors
followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by
negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

ii. Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of
classical conditioning.

iii. B.F. Skinner: Based on Thorndike's ideas, Skinner focused on how reinforcement and
punishment could be used to teach information and modify behavior.

iv. Albert Bandura: Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiments demonstrated how learning
could also occur through observation. (Cherry, 2024)

THEORIES ON LEARNING

Theories that elucidate the learning process are:

B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning

B F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning is a learning theory that focuses on how

behaviour is influenced by the consequences that follow it. According to Skinner, behaviors
that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be repeated in the future, while behaviors
that are punished or not reinforced are less likely to occur again. In other words, individuals
learn through a process of trial and error, where they adjust their behaviors based on the
outcomes they experience. This theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment
in shaping human behavior and has been widely applied in various fields such aseducation,
parenting, and therapy (Skinner, 2011).

Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning is a learning theory that focuses on the

association between a neutral stimulus and a meaningful stimulus to produce a specific
response. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) naturally
triggers an unconditioned response (such as salivation). Through repeated pairing of this
unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell), the neutral stimulus becomes
a conditioned stimulus that can elicit the same response without the presence of the original
stimulus This process demonstrates how learning occurs through associations between stimuli
in our environment, leading to changes in behavior Classical conditioning

has been influential in understanding how various behaviors are acquired and maintained in
both humans and animals.

Bandura's Social Learning Theories

Albert Bandura's social learning theory, also known as observational learning or

modeling, emphasizes the role of social interactions and observation in the process of
learning. According to Bandura, individuals can acquire new behaviours and knowledge by
observing others and imitating their actions. This theory suggests that people learn not only
through direct experiences but also by observing models and their consequences. Bandura
highlights the importance of cognitive processes such as attention, retention, reproduction,
and motivation in mediating observational learning The social learning theory has been
influential in understanding how behaviour is acquired, maintained, and modified through
modeling and social reinforcement mechanisms.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky's socio cultural theory emphasizes the role of social interactions,
cultural context, and language in shaping cognitive development and learning. According to
Vygotsky, cognitive growth occurs through social collaboration with more knowledgeable
others who provide guidance and support in a process known as scaffolding. He believed that
individuals learn best within their cultural environment and through interactions with peers,
teachers, and parents who share their knowledge and experiences. Vygotsky also introduced
the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which refers to the range of tasks
that individuals can accomplish with assistance but not independently. This theory
underscores the importance of social factors in promoting learning, problem-solving skills,
and intellectual development among learners
RECENT RESEARCHES

Differences approach to learning:

The study suggest that students with a deep-organized approach to learning are more likely to
perceive their educational experiences positively, particularly in terms of acquiring essential
skills. In contrast, those with unreflective approaches may require additional support to
enhance their learning experiences. These insights can inform educational strategies aimed at
fostering effective learning behaviors among students.(2023)

This study introduces an alternative approach to traditional psychometric methods by

proposing a model that decomposes learning changes into multiple dimensions. The study
suggests that this model provides deeper insights into the learning process compared to
conventional methods. (2024)

APPLICATIONS

a) Helps unmotivated students by reinforcement

b) Many organizers use reinforce to influence productivity

c) Systematic desensitization, relocation techniques designed to gradually expose individual

to overcome anxiety, phobias, or fears.

d) Bell and pad method, techniques used to help children who have problem with bed
wetting. This condition helps the child to get up and use the rest room.

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA):

It is a scientific approach to understanding and modifying behavior by applying principles of

learning theory. It is widely used to improve social, communication, academic, and daily
living skills, particularly in individuals with autism and developmental disorders.
ABA is deeply rooted in behavioral learning theories, particularly operant conditioning.
Learning in ABA occurs through reinforcement and punishment, which shape and modify
behavior over time. This process includes positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
shaping and generalization.
Principles of ABA :
1. The core principles of ABA are based on learning and behavior modification.
2. Behavior is influenced by the environment.
3. Behaviors can be taught and modified.
4. Reinforcement increases desired behaviours.
5. Punishment decreases undesired behaviours.

References:

Kendra Cherry, Mse. (2024, November 12). What to know about the psychology of

learning. Verywell Mind.

Kendra Cherry, Mse. (2022, November 16). How do people learn?

Verywell Mind.

Learning theories in psychology & education. Simply Psychology.

Säljö, R. (1979). Learning about learning. Higher education, 8(4), 443-451.

The Psychology of Learning Theories & Types explained 2024. Psychologyorg.

(2024, May 21).
 WHOLE V/S PART LEARNING

Introduction

William James, often regarded as the "Father of American Psychology," explored

foundational principles of learning and memory in his seminal work, The Principles of
Psychology (1890). While not specifically coining the "whole vs. part learning" experiment,
James laid the groundwork for understanding cognitive processes related to holistic and
segmented learning approaches. Edgar Dale, on the other hand, is more directly connected to
educational psychology and emphasized learning effectiveness through methods such as the
"Cone of Experience."

The Whole vs. Part Learning experiment is a significant concept in psychology, often
attributed to the foundational work of psychologists like Edgar Dale and William James. The
principle examines how individuals learn better when information is presented as a whole
versus in segmented parts. This method has been extensively studied in the context of
memory, skill acquisition, and education. Learning psychologists, like Postman and Egan
back in 1949, say that learning is when someone's behaviour changes in a way that shows
they've gotten better at something through practice and the right conditions. The American
Psychological Association, says learning is when a person gets new information, skills, or
abilities by practicing, watching others, or having other experiences, and it leads to changes
in how they act, what they know, or even how their brain works. This whole process of
learning happens when people pay attention to new information, make sense of it in their
heads, and then connect it to what they already know from their memories

Whole Learning:

The Whole Learning Method is a pedagogical approach emphasizing the presentation

of material in its entirety rather than breaking it into smaller parts. This method asserts that
learners gain a deeper understanding when they perceive the complete concept, allowing for
better integration of its components. Rooted in principles of Gestalt psychology, this method
highlights the human tendency to organize and interpret stimuli as coherent wholes. Pioneers
like Max Wertheimer advocated for whole learning, stating, "The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts "

This perspective underscores the idea that holistic learning fosters a more meaningful
and interconnected understanding of the material. Whole learning is particularly effective in
tasks where understanding the relationship between parts is crucial, such as reading
comprehension, problem-solving, and learning sequences like dance routines or athletic
moves. The method contrasts with part learning, where material is segmented into smaller
units, often used for tasks involving rote memorization or isolated skills.

The method has found significant applications in educational psychology, language

acquisition, and skill development. For instance, John Dewey's experiential learning theory
aligns with whole learning by advocating for meaningful and contextualized learning
experiences. Similarly, research on motor learning suggests that practicing entire movements,
rather than isolated components, leads to better skill retention and application. However,
whole learning encourages critical thinking, integration, and the ability to see connections
between ideas.

Part Learning:

The Part Learning Method is a teaching and learning strategy where material is
divided into smaller, manageable segments that are studied individually before being
combined into a whole. This method is particularly effective for tasks involving a high level
of complexity or requiring sequential memorization, as it reduces cognitive load and allows
learners to focus on mastering each component before integrating them.

Rooted in theories of memory and skill acquisition, part learning is often associated
with Hermann Ebbinghaus, whose studies on the serial position effect highlighted the
advantages of breaking learning into chunks The method is widely used for activities such as
learning a musical piece, mastering a speech, or solving complex problems, where isolating
individual elements or steps enhances retention and performance.

One key advantage of the part learning method is its ability to minimize overwhelm,
making it ideal for novice learners or tasks involving unfamiliar concepts. By concentrating
on discrete segments, learners can build confidence and competence incrementally For
example, in language acquisition, mastering vocabulary lists before constructing sentences
exemplifies part learning. However, the part learning method has limitations. It may lead to
fragmentation of knowledge, where learners fail to see connections between the segments.
This can hinder the ability to apply the learned material to real-world, integrated tasks. To
address this, part learning is often paired with techniques that emphasize synthesis, such as
practice sessions where individual parts are combined and rehearsed as a whole.

Factors Influencing Learning

 Whole learning is ideal for simpler tasks or those requiring an understanding of the
relationship between components, such as storytelling or reading comprehension. In
contrast, part learning works better for complex tasks with distinct, independent parts,
such as memorizing a long sequence or mastering intricate procedures
 Tasks with highly interconnected components, like playing a musical piece or
performing a sports move, benefit from whole learning. Part learning is more effective
for tasks where components can be learned in isolation, like solving mathematical
equations.
 Experienced learners may benefit more from whole learning, as they can integrate
components more readily. Novices often require part learning to build foundational
skills before synthesizing them.
 Whole learning can overwhelm learners if the material is too complex. Part learning
reduces cognitive strain by focusing attention on smaller segments.
 Whole learning often provides a sense of purpose and context, enhancing motivation
However, part learning allows for incremental progress, boosting confidence in
learners who might otherwise feel discouraged.

Choosing between whole learning and part learning depends on the task at hand and the
learner's needs. Whole learning focuses on understanding the big picture, making it effective
for tasks where the parts are closely connected-like learning a story, performing a routine, or
solving problems that require seeing relationships. It encourages deeper understanding and is
great for tasks that benefit from context and integration. On the other hand, part learning
breaks tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks. This approach works well when the
material is complex or overwhelming, like memorizing a long speech or mastering steps in a
process. It allows learners to focus on one piece at a time, building confidence as they go.
Both methods have their place. For example, when learning a musical piece, you might
practice individual sections first (part learning) and then play the entire composition to tie it
together (whole learning)

References:

American Psychological Association. Learning and memory. APA Dictionary of Psychology

from https//dictionary.apa.org

Dale, E. (1969). Audiovisual methods in teaching (3rd ed) New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Ruger &

C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
(Original work published 1885)

James, W. (1890) The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Henry Holt

and Company

Postman, L., & Egan, J. P. (1949). Experimental analysis of learning. Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 39(1), 99-121. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0058707

Wertheimer, M. (1944). Gestalt theory. Social Research, 11(1/4), 78-99.