Chapter 1

UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)
Demonstrate understanding of learner-centered theories of learning and the types of
learning.
There are three chapters related to the study and understanding of learning. Supportive to these
are the learning outcomes along the following topics.
a. Analysis of learner-centered theories of learning
b. Comparison of child, adolescent, and adult learning
c. Categorizing knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and functional
knowledge

Lesson 1 – Learner-Centered Theories of Learning

Introduction
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first thing that comes to our mind is studying subjects
or courses like mathematics, science, and languages in school. In a broader sense though,
learning extends much more beyond the confines of the classroom or the school. People learn
everyday of their lives in various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major part of the
experiences for you who are studying to become teachers. As such, it is important for you to
understand the nature of learning, because you play a major role in the students’ learning.
Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will enable you to better develop
teaching methodologies and other interventions meant to improve enhance, and facilitate
learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the population at large. Learning
connotes observed changes in a person as a result of environmental events and interventions.
The process of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up the educational
ladder, developmental changes in their personality are effected. This has to do with improved
and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other
personality behaviors.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze learner-centered theories of learning.
ENGAGE LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING
For a start, learning is generally defined as any change in the behavior of the learner. The
change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or incorrect and
conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for
learning, the change should be brought about by experience or by interaction of the person with
the environment. It is not learning if the change is brought by maturation like getting taller or
hair turning gray. Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as
examples of learning.
While the definition may generally connote change either in the direction of the positive or
negative, it should be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it means a conscious
and deliberate effort to effect behavioural changes among learners in the positive direction.
Thus, we should be thinking about improving and enhancing learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills
and values, quantitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end, we should look to the
goals and objectives of education as our guide to successfully effect the desired learning
outcomes.
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental experiences and
influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values, attitudes,
behavior and world views (“Education,” n. d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior with behaviour
including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking attitudes, and
emotions.
Santrock (2012) defined learning as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge,
and thinking skills that comes about through experience. Santrock goes further to say that it is a
long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience. For
example, as a result of experience, children will change from being unable to operate a
computer into individuals who can. However, not everything that an individual knows or is able
to do is the result of experience. There are some things an individual can do due to inherited
capacities. An example of this is swallowing or blinking of the eyes. If, however, an individual
develops new methods of study works harder to solve problems, asks better questions, then
these are learning as a result of experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue,
hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basis in the brain.
Woolfolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including practice) causes
a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior or potential for
behavior.” For Ormrod (2015), “learning is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience.”
 Learning is also defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of practice and experience.” From the definitions, learning has three important
elements: a) a change in behavior, better or worse; b) change takes place through practice or
experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation); and, c) behavior change must be
relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time. All learning involve activities, whether
physical or mental. Activities learned by the individual refer to types of learning, as for
example, habits, skills, facts (“Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning” n.
d.).

Types of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in classroom
activities. These types of learning are basics ingredients to success in school. These are what
schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for
one to maintain and go through daily life
activities as for example, walking, running,
driving, climbing, and the like. These
activities involve motor coordination.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of
spoken language as well as the communication device used. Signs, pictures, symbols,
words, figures, sounds are tools used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning
which requires the use of
higher-order mental processes like
thinking, reasoning, and analysing. It
involves two processes: abstraction and
generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to
differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to these stimuli. An
example is being able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car,
and ambulance.
e. Learning of Principles. It is learning principles related to science, mathematics, grammar
and the like. Principles show the relationship
between two or more concepts, some
examples of which are formulas, laws,
associations, correlations, and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order
thinking process. This learning requires the
use of cognitive abilities – such as thinking,
reasoning, observation, imagination, and
generalization.
 g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts behavior.
Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people, objects, things, or ideas
(“Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of Learning.” n. d.).
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING
The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is difficult to visualize and
understand because it is an internal process. Hence it is not easy to present, or explain in
concrete terms what this complex process is all about. Thus, there is a need to look at theories
of learning to enable one to better conceptualize and operationalize what learning is all about.
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a wide range of activities
which cannot be explained with a limited framework. This may be the reason why there is
available wide range of theories of learning, each propounding and focusing on a particular
perspective or view to explain what learning is.
A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals acquire, retain,
and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people learn and why they learn.
They also try to explain the phenomenon of learning – its nature, and conditions under which
learning best occurs. The explanations are, however, considered as tentative. Be as it may, these
statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they are well studied or seriously thought
out, and in many cases, the result of scientific study. These theories especially guide teachers to
have a better understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn (“Educational
Learning and Learning Theories,” n. d.).
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used differently by different
theorist. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions of learning shifted from changes
that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to changes in participation in ongoing
activities with other individuals, to changes in a person’s identity within group. (“Theories of
Learning” n. d.)

LEARNING POINT: DEFINING “LEARNER-CENTERED”

Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-centeredness in educational
practice, especially in curriculum development and teaching methodology. This means that
policy, planning, and implementation of educational practice should have the learner as its focus.
It is therefore expected that theories of learning and their applications should be learner-
centered.
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their heredity,
experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on
learning – the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching
practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning and
achievement for all learners.
For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are learner-centered
principles, meant to provide a framework for developing and incorporating new strategies and
designs of teachings,
 These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of the learner.
c. They deal with external and contextual factors that interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, affective,
developmental, social, and individual difference factors related to learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the educational
system, as for example, teachers, administrations, parents, staff, and guidance counsellors.
Listed below are the learner-centered psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be (Workgroup of the
American Psychological Association Board of Educational Affairs, 1997 cited in Santrock, 2011).
Learner-centered does not only refer to learner-characteristics, but also to the beliefs,
dispositions, and practices that are created by teachers. To digress a little, principles are
statements that depict a general truth which have been established through careful study.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process. The successful learner, over time, with support and
guidance can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner can relate new information in meaningful ways.
4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in Learning. What and how much is learned is
influenced by the learner’s level of motivation. Motivation to learn is in turn influenced by
the learner’s emotional states, beliefs, interests, goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn. Learning is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation on Effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without this motivation, willingness to exert
 effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental Influences on Learning. As individuals develop, they encounter, different
opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social
domains is taken into account.
11. Socials Influences on Learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic,
social, and cultural backgrounds are taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner and learning progress – including diagnostic and outcome
assessment are integral parts of the learning process.
The above context describes the different conditions under which learning best occurs. It
therefore behoves educational practitioners, especially teachers to be creative, flexible and
innovative in their approaches and methodologies, not only in teaching, but in dealing with
their students.
Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional strategies which address
learners’ needs. They are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes learners to authentic life
problems that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves small-group efforts to
identify problems and issues they wish to tackle and explore, then identify materials and
resources to solve the problem. The teacher guides and monitors the learners’ problem
solving efforts.
2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them. This is followed by other
questions, which motivate the students to explore the questions and look for answers. The
questions cause the students to think, and provoke their curiosity. These questions are
creative. A “dull” question, like “What is the effect of the People Power Revolution in our
political and economic life?” can be translated into a more thought-provoking one like, “Is the
People Power Revolution still going on?”
3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach. Teachers create the situation
where students explore and figure out things for themselves. The guided discovery
learning evolved from discovery learning, where students still construct their own
 understanding but with the guidance of the teacher.

LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING

Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning has been discussed. It must be noted that there are
many theories of learning as a result of continuous study and research, in search for the truth. It
is the dynamic nature of theories that enable us to understand better a complex phenomenon,
as learning.

Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in the early 1900s through the research efforts
of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more objective studies about learning as
opposed to the studies on learning which relied heavily on introspection.
The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped
through positive reinforcement. Both of these increase the probability that the antecedent
behavior will be repeated or will happen again. Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue
or stimulus in the environment is presented, the individual makes a particular response to that
stimulus. Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired by
associating stimuli and responses. Thus association leads to changes in behavior. Behaviorism is
a world view that operates on the principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R). All behavior can be
explained without the need to consider the internal mental states or consciousness. Behaviorism
instruction, however, does not prepare the learners for problem-solving which currently is the
skill being developed among learners for survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the
learner as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by environmental factors like reinforcement,
feedback, practice or repetition (“Behaviorism,” n. d.). Following are the basic assumptions of
behaviorism, which many behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015)
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to a variety of animal
species. This is on the assumption that humans and other animals learn in similar ways.
Thus behaviorists-researchers apply to humans what they have derived from the studies
of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on the
stimuli and responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are observable and
measurable which contribute to objectivity of studying learning.
c. Internal processes tent to be excluded or minimized in theoretical explanations. This
thinking stemmed from the argument that these internal behaviors cannot be directly
observed. Recently, however,, there has emerged a thinking propounded by
neobehaviorists that learning is better understood if cognitive processes, be included as a
factor, that explains learning.
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
 f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or concise).
The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below: (Ormrod, 2015
and Kelly, September, 2012).
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of Rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforcers
l. Negative reinforcement

Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism

The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as the dominant
paradigm for learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is necessary to open it for
a better understanding of how people learn. Mental processes such as memory, knowing,
problem-solving, reasoning and other such processes need to be explored. People are seen not
as programmed beings that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is propounded in
behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a
result of thinking. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions, thus
learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. Changes in behavior are observed but this
only indicates what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is compared to a
computer which does a lot of processing of the data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought of
as active learners, actively engaged in their learning; and actively seeking ways to understand
and process information that they receive and relate this to what is already known and stored
within memory. Learning is thought of as an internal process rather than simply dealing with or
responding to external stimuli. Learning involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).
Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September 2012).
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
 g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Social Constructivism
As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it posits that learning is an
active constructive process. The learner himself constructs knowledge. People actively construct
or create their own representation of objective reality. New information is linked to prior
knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Learning is seen as an active
contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring it. Knowledge is
based on the learners’ personal experiences and expectations of the environment and where
they continuously test these expectations through social negotiations. Each person may have a
different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process.
The person is not a blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a situation. It assumes
that all knowledge is constructed from the leaner’s previous knowledge regardless of how one
was new knowledge and not just absorbing what is being said in the lecture. Each person
generates knowledge based on his previous experiences or knowledge. Thus, the individual
develops his own mental models to make sense of his experiences. Thus, learning is adjusting to
one’s mental models to accommodate new experiences.
The theory is about preparing the individual to solve problems. Thus, the individual needs to
have a wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to create and interpret ideas. It may
be said that results may not be the same because learners create their own ideas and thus, may
be unique to the individual persons. So constructivism does not work when results are
expectedly fixed or consistent.
Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly, September 2012). a. Case
Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
The applications of social constructivism show that class activities which require the
participation and contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to occur.
The table below presents some salient points about the above-mentioned theories of learning
considered as basic to the further study of learning.
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social
Constructivism
 View o Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
Knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed
behavioural to actively constructed by within social
responses learners based on cognitive contexts
environmental structures. through
stimuli. interactions
with a
knowledge
community.
View o Passive Active assimilation and Integration of
Learning absorption of accommodation of new students into a
predefined body information to existing knowledge
of knowledge by cognitive structures. community.
the learner. Discovery by leaners Collaborative
Promoted by assimilation and
repetition and accommodation
positive of new
reinforcement. information.
View o Extrinsic, involving Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and
Motivation positive and own goals and motivate extrinsic.
negative themselves to learn. Learning goals
reinforcement. and motives are
determined
both by learners
and extrinsic
rewards
provided by the
knowledge
community.
Implications Correct Teacher facilitates learning Collaborative
for behavioural by providing an environment learning is
Teaching responses are that promotes discovery and facilitated and
transmitted by assimilation/accommodation. guided by the
teachers and teacher.
absorbed by Group work.
students.

Thus far, the theories of learning presented above are considered as forerunners of the
study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own points and tries to relate specific factors
along a particular perspective to learning. It would be good, however, to look at the other
theories of learning the consequently evolved following the basic theories (“Strengthening
Education,” n. d.).
1. Social Learning Theory
This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both cognitive and behaviorist
frameworks that embrace attention, memory, and motivation. This theory suggests that people
learn within a social context and that learning is facilitated through concepts like modelling,
observational learning, and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal determinism” that holds
the view that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence
each other. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from model behavior,
which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. The importance
of positive role modeling on learning is well-established.
Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. It can provide a
faster, more efficient means of teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care not to model
inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break down traditional
stereotypes.

2. Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the
perspective of “situated cognition and learning.” It emphasized the significant role of context
particularly social interaction in learning. Criticism against the information-processing between
constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as pioneer work of Leo
Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Barbara Rogoff
and Jean Lave came to the to the fore and gathered support. The essence of criticism was that
the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring
within the mind in isolation from the surroundings and interactions with it. Knowledge was
considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new
view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a
situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context, and
culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to the new metaphor, for learning as
“participation and social negotiation.”
Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group work or cooperative
learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make sure that each learner is able to make
his contribution to accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials which are familiar
to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group discussions, and problem
 solving tasks.

3. Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning but
situate experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manner in
which experiences, whether first- or secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in everyday life-that lead to a change in
individual’s knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories
suggesting that experiential learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural
inclination to learn; and they learn if they are fully involved in the learning process.
Rogers put forward the following insights: a) learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach
another person directly; b) learners become more rigid under threat; c) significant learning
occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum; d) learning is
most likely to occur and to last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic continuous process or
change where new learning results in and affects learning environments.
Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences of the learners,
which could serve as inputs for related lessons. In so doing, students would feel that they
are involved in the learning process, because it is their own experiences which they are
studying.
b. Teachers should make sure that they have a feel of the experiences of the students, so
that they are better able to create an atmosphere for students that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate and guide students’ learning, so that
they do not have always be the source of learning materials.

4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that learning is a universal
human process that all individuals experience according to the same principles. Howard
Gardner’s theory of intelligence challenges the understanding that intelligence is dominated by a
single general ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many distinct intelligences:
logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and
intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability. This theory is speculative but appreciated by
teachers in broadening their framework of developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI
theory “requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional materials and strategies,
to make sure that the needs of students with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.

5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice

They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented. These concepts were
developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger. Situated learning recognizes that there is no
learning that is not situated. It emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of knowledge
and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved. The
theory further asserts that it is within communities that learning occurs must effectively.
Interactions taking place within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem solving,
building trust, understanding and relations have the potential to foster community social capital
that enhances the community members’ well-being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that
learning is most effective when it takes place in communities.
Communities of practice is not confined only to schools but to cover other settings like
workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand both the structure of communities and how
learning occurs in them (“Education,” n.d.).
According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of practice is based on the
following assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon. People organize their learning around
social communities to which they belong. Therefore, schools are powerful learning
environments for students whose social communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values, beliefs, language and
ways of doing things. These are called communities of practice. Real knowledge is
integrated in the doing, social relations, and expertise of these communities.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice are inseparable.
Because learning is intertwined with community membership, it is what lets us belong to
adjust our status in the group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is impossible to know without doing. By doing,
we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the potential for
learning. This is because individuals learn from the experiences of others.

6. 21st Century Learning Skills

The study or exploration of the 21st century learning or skills emerged from the concerns
about transforming the goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st
century characterized as knowledge and technology-driven. These are skills necessary for
students to master for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly digital and
connected age. Current discussions about 21st century skills lead classrooms and other
environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge as well as media literacy,
critical and systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic projects involving inquiry-
based collaborative work that addresses world issues support the learning of the 21st Century
Skills. (Source: http://unesco.org/new/en)
Chapter 1
UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Lesson 2
Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning

Introduction

Several factors both internal and external to the individual

relate to the kind, or even rate of learning. One of these factors is
age, which in fact is tied to developmental levels. Human
development goes through stages, each having unique
characteristics. As such, it is expected that patterns of growth
and development differ from one developmental stage to the
other. Hence, there are differences in learning among individuals
across developmental stages. These differences may either be in
rate of learning, quality of knowledge or skills acquired, approach to learning or perspective to
learning, to name some.

It is important for teachers to be aware of and know patterns of behavior that characterize
developmental levels. Knowing this will enable teachers to decide what and how to teach
students, as well as the kind of instructional materials, activities and opportunities to be given in
the classroom, as well as the teaching methodologies to be used.
 ENGAGE
ENGAGE
Intended Learning Outcome (ILO): Compare
child, adolescent, and adult learning.

LEARNING POINT: PRINCIPLES OF

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Development proceeds in an orderly

and predictable pattern. Development
occurs through developmental milestones,
defined as the appearance of
developmentally more advanced behavior,
which appear in a predictable manner. Thus
for example, a child babbles before he
learns to talk using onesyllable words. Or
he rolls over before he learns to crawl.

2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of slower growth. It means
development is not constant. For example, a learner might proceed through a rapid growth at
early childhood, but slower cognitive growth in adolescence.

3. Different individuals develop at different rates. Most

often, average age for the entire development period is used to
describe learners. This is simply an approximation due to
individual differences. Still some learners reach developmental
milestones early, some later, even if they are within the same
developmental period.

4. Development is continually affected by both nature

(heredity) and nurture (environment) (Hurst, n. d.).

The above-mentioned principles of growth and development are necessary for teachers
to know, so they could better address the learning needs, abilities, and expectations from
learners. Hence, if a teacher, for example, knows that his kindergarten pupils are on the average,
5 years old, he can say they are still at an early stage of cognitive development. To maximize the
development of cognition at this level, he develops and approaches his lessons starting from the
concrete level, and proceeding to increasing levels of abstraction. For example, in developing
the concept of the number 4, the teacher can introduce the pupils to this concept, first by using
objects to illustrate the concept.
 LEARNING POINT:
YOUNG LEARNERS (CHILDREN)

Following are the characteristics of young

learners.

1. They
can learn
on through
talking
about
themselves,
families, and
their lives.
2. They
are curious
to learn and
discover
new
concepts
their
own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see, hear and interact to
learn. 5. Their attention span is very short, thus they
need engaging and entertaining activities so as not to
lose their interest.
5. They like to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning,

8. They need to work with their students individually

because they need to be guided ("Differences of Young,
Adolescent and Adult Learners, 2018).

Given the characteristics of young learners, teachers should be innovative in coming up with
varied tasks and experiences for young learners. Since they like to work in groups use this as an
avenue for socialization. The approach to teaching should be more of cooperative learning
where young learners are able to learn from each other.
 Following are the characteristics of adolescent learners.
LEARNING POINT:
ADOLESCENT LEARNING

1. They are in search for personal

identity.

2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs

and learning expectations.

3. They become disruptive when they lost interest in

the lesson or if they feel bored.

4. They need help and support from the teacher and

to be provided with constructive feedback.

5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the

learning environment including personal experience,
the local community, and the internet.

6. They need the teachers to build bridges interests

and experiences, between the syllabus and their
world of 7. They can learn abstract issues and do
challenging activities.

8. Their personal initiative and energy are moved into

action through meaningful involvement with relevant and
current content ("Differences of Young, Adolescent and
Adult Learners," 2018).

LEARNING POINT:
ADULT LEARNING

Malcolm Knowles is a theorist on adult learning and who popularized the concept of andragogy.
This term means the art and science of helping adults learn, contrasting it with pedagogy which
is the art and science of teaching children. He did research on adult learning. Based on his
findings, following are posited about adult learners' characteristics along five areas:
 1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to
increasing self-directedness as they mature. They can
direct their own learning, meaning they can initiate their
learning even without the help of others in planning,
carrying out, and evaluating their learning activities.

2. Adult learner experience. They draw on their

accumulated experiences as their resource for learning.
3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they
assume new social or life roles.

4. Orientation to learning. They are problemcentered

and they want to apply new learnings immediately. They
are interested in subjects that have immediate relevance
and impact into their job or personal life.
5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors
(Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy, 2011).

What makes adult learners different from adolescent and young learners?

1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.

2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come to the classroom with a wide range of knowledge, expectations, and
experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their intellectual ability,
educational level, personality and cognitive learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions, thoughts, and beliefs
which need to be respected ("Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,
2018).

The following table shows the differences between adult and adolescent learning in terms of
characteristics of the learning experiences.
 Pedagogy (Adolescent) Andragogy (Adult)

Teacher-structured Learner-structured

Minimal control by the learner Minimal control by the teacher.

Focus on training for events to come Focus on assimilation of learning from

past experiences
Encourages convergent thinking Encourages divergent thinking

Focus on memory Focus on thinking/doing

Content supplied by teacher/class Content supplied partially by students

materials

Based on specified content standards Outcomes evolve as learning progresses

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some implications for teaching this
group of learners, and suggestions given by Malcolm Knowles

a. Set a cooperative climate for learning in

the classroom.

b. Assess the learner's specific needs and

interests because these are the more
important things he wants to learn.
c. Develop learning objectives based on the

learners' needs, interests and

skill levels.
d. Design sequential activities
to achieve the objectives.

e. Work collaboratively with the

learner to select methods,
materials and resources for
instruction.
f. Evaluate the quality of the
learning experience and
 make adjustments as needed,
while assessing needs for further learning

g. The experiences provided them should be problem-centered rather than content

oriented (Kearsley, 2010; Knowles, n. d.).

h. They have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

The physiological changes being experienced by adolescents at that stage, influence their
emotional, cognitive, social and even physical development. The growth spurt occurs at this
developmental stage. Because the influence of peers is very strong at this time, expectedly, they
are confronted with many distractions and other concerns that veer their attention away from
their school activities and experiences. Thus, it is important for teachers to be visibly supportive
of the challenges confronting the adolescent students. It is also important that teachers guide
and support them, so that they are able to reach their highest and proximal level of development.
Adolescents also tend to be impulsive and they have their own unique interests, as well.

Chapter 1
UNDERSTANDING LEARNING
Lesson 3Declarative Procedural, and Functional Knowledge
 This chapter deals with identifying the three types of learning and differentiating one from
the other. One of the outcomes of the learning process is the acquisition of knowledge. As will be
seen later, acquired knowledge comes in different levels depending on the kind of learning
experiences learners are exposed to.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO) Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and
functional knowledge.

ENGAGE
ENGAGE

LEARNING POINT: CATEGORIES OF

KNOWLEDGE

One of the outcomes of the learning process is the acquisition of knowledge. The other outcomes
are concerned with the acquisition and development of skills, attitudes, values, and a variety of other
factors. Knowledge, on the other hand, is fundamental. Before one can develop specific attitudes or skills,
one must first have knowledge.
Experts and researchers identify and define information in a variety of ways, according to the
literature. For the purposes of this chapter, knowledge will be classified into three categories: declarative,
procedural, and functional knowledge. Other classifications, on the other hand, will be offered,
presumably to better and more specific the distinctions. Other types of knowledge, as classified by other
authors, are considered to be classified under one of these three.

Declarative knowledge is the information acquired that one

can speak about. It is that which we know (Declarative Learning" n.
d). It is the information that one can "declare”. The capital of a
country is a declarative piece of information. They are facts and
events that can be explicitly stored and consciously recalled or
declared (Zimmerman, 2014).
Declarative knowledge is a product of declarative learning. It
is that skill that we use to acquire new information. Declarative
learning is associated with tasks that require greater amount of
attention as what happens in school.
Declarative learning is the means through which much new information is acquired, both in
education and for personal improvement. Declarative knowledge strategies are those that help the
learner construct meaning (Harris, n. d.) by linking new learning with existing knowledge.
 It refers to what one can perform and what one is able to do, as opposed to declarative
knowledge. Knowing how to ride a bike is an example of procedural knowledge. Automatic or
habitual learning, often known as motor learning and/or procedural learning, are two further
notions connected to procedural learning ("Declarative Learning" n. d.). Procedural knowledge,
unlike declarative knowledge, may or may not have a linguistic component; it can be executed
without conscious thinking or attention; and it is sometimes acquired implicitly rather than
formally ("Declarative Learning" n. d.). When opposed to declarative learning, it is typically less
conscious.
Declarative learning can develop into procedural knowledge over time. This is information
that a person has gained from doing something better than explaining it in words. Riding a bike
or dancing the tinikling are the best examples of this type of learning. The mother's repeated
repetition of "Look left, look right; If free, cross the street" is an example.

It is any piece of stored information that may be

changed and used to a variety of contexts or moved to
a range of circumstances. The key is the value of such
knowledge. Functional learning is the process through
which people acquire and categorize facts, which
cognitive theorists refer to as "schema." If knowledge
is gained through a variety of contexts and situations,
and then recalled in a range of circumstances, the
schema
becomes resilient and easily adaptable, and the knowledge becomes useful. Rather than being
abstract and theoretical, this learning is concrete and usable. (Source: www.philau.edu.).

Following are other ways of classifying knowledge.

a. Episodic Knowledge –
Biological memory is a type of memory that records not
only what happened, but also where and when it
 happened. Childhood recollections or a girl's first
day of school are examples of episodic memory b.
Semantic Knowledge –
Deals with memories and information but not tied to
personal biographies. It is organized knowledge about
facts, concepts, generalizations, and their associations.

Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) claim that there are three

subtypes of semantic knowledge.
a. Declarative. Statement of truth that deals with what
we know about the world
b. Procedural Knowledge of about how things are
done.
c. Conditional. If declarative knowledge accounts for
what, if procedural knowledge accounts for how,
conditional knowledge accounts for knowing when.

Declarative knowledge is organized according to various levels: a.

Descriptions
b. Time elements
c. Process
d. Causal relationship
e. Episodes
f. Generalization
g. Principles
h. Concepts
Dimensions of Knowledge

Following are the dimensions of knowledge as identified by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001).
a. Conceptual Knowledge. Knowledge of classification, principles, generalizations, theories,
models, situations pertinent to a particular discipline. One may be able to know and explain
the theory of multiple intelligences.
b.Metacognitive Knowledge. Awareness of one's own cognition and particular cognitive
processes.
c. Factual. Knowledge basic to specific disciplines like science or math.
Acquisition of knowledge is a continuum from gathering and putting together basic
content to being able to discriminate when to use or apply content and process. The level or
quality of the knowledge acquired expectedly will improve with experience and with appropriate
interventions, according to experts.

LEARNING POINT: EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

Santrock (2011) claimed that mental processes of experts can help the teachers guide the
students into becoming more effective learners.
Studies have shown that experts are better than novices along the following a.
Detecting features and meaningful patterns of information
b. Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner that indicates
understanding of the topic
c. Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort situations
d. Adapting an approach to new e. Using effective strategies
Knowing the above approaches that experts use in dealing with knowledge or information,
teachers would be able to determine appropriate strategies to help students also apply these
approaches that experts use.
a. Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of
Organization. Experts are better able to detect
important features of problems and context not
noticed by novices. When confronted with
information or data, experts engage in chunking of
information where, they deduce hierarchical
structures, making them recall the more important
information therein.

b. Organization and Depth of Information.

Experts' knowledge is organized around the important ideas or concepts. Thus they
have a deeper understanding of knowledge than novices. Usually, experts have more
elaborate networks of information about an area. As such the curriculum should be
designed in a way that it is easy for the students to organize information.

c. Fluent Retrieval. Experts along a certain area, are able to

retrieve information fluently or without much effort. The
advantage of effortless retrieval is that it places less
burden on the conscious effort of retrieving the
information. For example, expert readers can readily
read the written word with less effort than novices, thus,
making them pay attention as well to comprehending
and deriving meaning from the written word. Novice readers spend more time retrieving
information from the written word, thus there is less time spent given to comprehension.
d. Adaptive Expertise. Experts are able to approach unique or new situations in a flexible
manner and are not limited to the "old" approach they usually use. They are flexible and
can adapt equally well, even to new situations, rather than always responding in a rigid or
fixed way.
e. Strategies. Experts use effective strategies in understanding information in their area of
expertise and in advancing it. Acclimation is the initial stage of expertise in a particular domain
(science, mathematics). At this stage, students have limited and fragmented knowledge that
limits their ability to differentiate between accurate and inaccurate information, or between
relevant and irrelevant information Teachers should help students go beyond the acclimation
stage, by guiding them into differentiating between important and non-important, or what is
accurate from inaccurate. Teachers should also teach students strategies and practice them in
relevant situations.
f. Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning. Teachers should always talk to students on
the importance of reviewing and monitoring regularly what they have learned; and that it
is better to distribute their learning over a period of time, rather than cramming at the last
minute for review.
g. Asking Themselves Questions. Teachers should encourage students to ask themselves
questions. When students do this, they expand the number of associations with the information
they need to retrieve. Teachers should also encourage the students to periodically ask questions,
as for example, while listening to a lecture, watching a video, or even while reading. They can
also be encouraged to generate questions about their experiences, and this way, they can
better remember such experiences.
h. Taking Good Notes. This refers to taking good
notes while reading a text or from a lecture.
However, in taking down notes, they should be
taught strategies to organize their notes, so that
they can get the bigger picture of the material
they are dealing with.
• Summarizing: Have children listen first, then
deduce the main idea.
• Outlining: This requires writing down the
main topic and then the sub-topics.
• Using concept maps: They visually portray information in spider-like format.
i. Using a Study System. This refers to a system that students should adapt for studying. An
established study system will help learners for more meaningful learning.
Certain types of teaching methods or techniques are appropriate to best develop
particular types of knowledge and outcomes. It therefore requires the teacher to know
exactly what kind of learning students need to develop.
a. For developing declarative knowledge, the appropriate methods
would be to provide activities on organizing, listing, and elaborating to facilitate
learning. This calls for rehearsals, use of fact sheets, graphic organizers, use of
thinking maps, recall and remembrance strategies, and organizational concepts.
b. For developing concept learning, applications of learning is the most
appropriate. This does not involve memory or recall as in declarative learning but
the use of inquiry or expository approach is the more appropriate to use.
c. For learning procedures, the application of procedural methods to
reach the final product is a good approach. This entails the following: recognition,
recall, application, analysis and completion of steps. Simple procedures should
be demonstrated and practiced one at a time.
d. For learning of principles, cause and effect strategies are effective to
teach
principles.
 Chapter 2
Dimensions of Learner
-Centered Learning
Lesson 4 Developmental and Socio
-Cultural Dimensions of Learning

Learning is thought to have occurred because of what the individual shows in his
external behavior.
Another school of thought also posits that learning happens because of internal cognitive
processes. In

addition, there is another thinking which tries to explain that learning occurs because of
the ability of the

individual to construct his own learning using as his base, the socio-cultural context upon
which he exists
or operates. This school of thought argues that learning is socially constructed. It keeps to
the idea that learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others. This

is because human beings are social creatures and that much of learning involves
interacting with people, as

well as acquiring knowledge and skills from

them.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

Select effective strategies and methodologies related to the dimensions of learning;
Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication in the learning process

ENGAGE ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: THE SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
 Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky was a Russian Jew and psychologist who was born in 1896, the same
year as Piaget. Since Piaget was primarily concerned to explain the development of intelligence and
reasoning in humans its biological roots, Vygotsky stressed that people's culture has something to do
with their development. For several years, Vygotsky's works were forbidden for political reasons in the
Soviet Union. He died of tuberculosis at age 38 before he could fully develop his theory. However, his
argument has received much attention and interest.

For Vygotsky, cognitive development is a social process. He

maintained the idea that cognitive development is shaped by the socio
cultural contexts in which it occurs. Also, he argued that cognitive
development grows from our own interactions with the other members
of our culture. Each culture enables us to acquire tools of thought such
as language, Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next with
the use of language both oral written. Moreover, he believed that
complex forms of thinking have their roots social interactions (Duncan
1995 as cited try Bee & Boyd 2007)

Constructivism hinges on the belief that individuals cannot

simply be given knowledge. (Armstrong Henson, Savage 2007). It means people must construct their
knowledge as they interact with the things around them. When they construct knowledge, they use their
prior knowledge. Their knowledge grows by comparing new information with what they already know.
Constructivism holds the idea that the human mind constantly looks for various forms or designs
that match and attempts to resolve gaps or differences. Furthermore, Vygotsky proposed that acquiring
novel information is facilitated by an adult-an older sibling, more skilled trainer, or more knowledgeable
individual who is able to model a new behavior.

Such new leaning, as Vygotsky viewed, can be best facilitated in the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). Vygotsky was so interested in the social factors in children's development. Thus, he
developed the concept of ZPD-the area where a child cannot solve a problem alone, but may be able to
successfully solve it with appropriate assistance from an adult or skilled peer. ZPD refers to a variety of
tasks that are slightly too complex for a child to do alone but can be accomplished successfully with
guidance from an adult or more experienced child (Bee & Boyd 2007). The concept of ZPD eventually
leads to the concept of scaffolding, which is the support or guidance offered by the adult and upon
which the students buildscaffold-their own functional skills and competencies, eventually to be
incorporated into their individual repertoire (Bentzen 2005).

Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world through discussion of a phenomenon
or event. This type of learning is mediated learning experience. For example, a teacher and his class visit
the museum, and they discuss the implements used by farmers 500 years ago.
Scaffolding is a supportive strategy used by professionals or competent
people to assist students of all ages in performing and completing difficult
activities, even if they cannot do so independently at the time - or, in
Vygotsky's terms, even if the tasks are within their zone of proximal
development. Scaffolding comes in a variety of shapes and sizes (Ormrod,
2015).
a. Demonstrating the proper technique to complete a task
b. Breaking down a large or complex activity into smaller, more manageable
tasks
c. Creating a set of criteria for completing a task
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier
e. Keeping students' attention focused on critical aspects of the task
f. Asking questions that get the students focus on the task g. Giving frequent feedback about how
student is progressing
g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing
Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the probability that children will engage in
behaviors and thinking skills within their zone of proximal development. In such a situation, the children's
involvement should be mediated. supervised, and scaffolded by more competent adults.

Apprenticeship is a guided participation where a novice works with an expert mentor for a certain period
to learn how to perform complex tasks. Mentor provides structure and guidance throughout the whole
process, gradually weaning off the learner from the help and support (scaffolding).

a. Modeling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking aloud or talking about the process
while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and feedback as learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the learner, like simplifying the task,
breaking a task into smaller and more manageable units, or
providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The learner explains what he is doing and why,
allowing the mentor to examine or analyze the learner's knowledge,
reasoning and problem-solving strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his
performance with that of experts, or with a model of how the task
should be done. f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks.
With increasing learner's proficiency, the mentor presents more
complex, challenging and varied tasks to accomplish. & Exploration.
The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions and
problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his acquired skills.

Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use of socio constructivist approach to
learning. As children acquire and gain new and first-hand information and skills from experienced
members of the community, they can, in turn, teach their new knowledge to others.
Dynamic assessment often reveal more objective evaluation of children's cognitive capabilities, than
general assessments do. Dynamic assessment requires first the identification of tasks that children
cannot do independently, then provide in-depth instruction, and practice in developing cognitive
behaviors along these tasks; and finally determine the extent to which the learner benefited from the
intervention.

There are certain teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the teacher can use -
methods that are in keeping Vygotsky's socio-constructivist view of learning.

a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as

tutors and tutees. Time should be spent on training tutors.

b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for

students to work in small groups and help each other learn.
Groups may vary in size, as in a dyad or groups of four.

c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned

to a group, and the group can develop its own structure on how
to go about solving the problem.
 The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the view that learning is a product of
the cultural context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or situated learning is a theory that
suggests learning is "naturally tied to authentic activity, context and culture (Brown, Collins & Duguid,
1989). It means that most learning occurs naturally through social activities, contexts, and the culture
which learners are exposed to. This theory suggests that it is more difficult to learn from unnatural
activities. For example, in a science class, changes in the earth's surface could be learned and
understood better if students are allowed to go out of the classroom, say, go to the mountains, and make
lengthy observations, rather than by reading books or looking at pictures, to study these changes.

Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real activities of daily living where
learning occurs in a pro-social but informal setting. It suggests that learning takes place through social
relationships, within a cultural milieu. The concept of communities of practice assumes that learning
should not be viewed as a mere transmission of knowledge but as a
distinctly embedded and active social process. Such type of learning
is stimulated by specific contexts (where learning is socially-situated)
and within authentic. social and physical environments. This is saying
that the learning experiences in school, should not "insinuate"
learning materials. Instead, these materials should be meaningful and
within the experiential reach of the students.

A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of the notable proponents of
situated learning theory. Following are the highlights or the main ideas of the situated learning theory
that she advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp.

a. Knowledge is socially-constructed. Knowledge is acquired and developed thru social experiences. It

means that the learner constructs and develops knowledge on the basis of his experiences as a
member of a social group.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in and negotiating their way
through new situations. New knowledge is built as the learner experiences and deals with new
situations.
c. Knowing learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or expressed in actions of
people and people interacting
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is supposed to develop. Learning
is viewed as dependent on and inseparable from its context.

.LEARNING POINT: THE SITUATED LEARNING THEORY

The situated learning theory is one theory which exemplifies the view that learning is a product of
the cultural context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or situated. learning is a theory that
suggests learning is "naturally tied to authentic activity, context and culture (Brown, Collins & Duguid,
1989). It means that most learning occurs naturally through social activities, contexts, and the culture
which learners are exposed to. This theory suggests that it is more difficult to learn from unnatural
activities. For example, in a science class, changes in the earth's surface
could be learned and understood better if students are allowed to go out of
the classroom, say, go to the mountains, and make lengthy observations,
rather than by reading books or looking at pictures, to study these changes.

Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real

activities of daily living where learning occurs in a pro-social but informal
setting. It suggests that learning takes place through social relationships,
within a cultural milieu. The concept of communities of practice assumes
that learning should not be viewed as a mere transmission of knowledge but
as a distinctly embedded and active social process. Such type of learning is
 stimulated by specific contexts (where learning is sociallysituated) and within authentic. social and
physical environments. This is saying that the learning experiences in school, should not "unsinuate"
learning materials. Instead, these materials should be meaningful and within the experiential reach
of the students.

A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of

the notable proponents of situated learning theory. Following are the
highlights or the main ideas of the situated learning theory that she
advanced (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp.

a. Knowledge is socially-constructed. Knowledge is acquired and

developed thru social experiences. It means that the learner
constructs and develops knowledge on the basis of his experiences
as a member of a social group.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating
in and negotiating their way through new situations. New
knowledge is built as the learner experiences and
deals with new situations.
c. Knowing learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen or expressed in actions of
people and people interacting
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is supposed to develop. Learning
is viewed as dependent on and inseparable from its context.

Social Interaction

Social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals. By interacting with one another
people design rules, systems, and institutions. It is a dynamic changing sequence of social actions
between individuals or groups Social interactions provide the foundation or bases for social cultures and
structures. Social interactions refer to how people act, and how they react to people around them. It
includes those acts which people perform and the ways other people react or respond to these Ervin
Goffman, a sociologist, identified five types of social interaction namely exchange, competition,
cooperation, conflict, and coercion ("Social Interactions, n. d.).

Exchange is the most basic social interaction. It is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged
for some type of reward of equal or greater value.
Competition is a social process by which two or more people attempt to attain a goal, which only one
can.
Cooperation is a process by which people work together to attain a
common goal.
Conflict happens when there is disagreement or dissent on certain points
among group members.
Coercion is the process of persuading someone to do something or to
cooperate, using force, threat, or intimidation.

Positive or negative consequences of these types of social interaction could

either be positive or negative depending on how these interactions are
managed or handled. For example, the use of teaching techniques that
harness cooperation among students to work on problem-solving tasks,
where they work together and contribute to the solution of problems may
create in them a feeling of success and satisfaction. On the other hand, the use of force or intimidation
on students for them to finish and complete assigned tasks can leave negative feelings of dislike, anxiety,
or indifference.

Interpersonal Relation

Interpersonal relation has something to do with close, deep or strong

association or acquaintance between two or more people that may
range in duration from brief to enduring: a bond or close association
that exists between two or more people who may share common
interests or goals (Juneja, n. d.) The types of interpersonal
relationships, are friendship, love, platonic relationship, family
relationship, and work relationship, Friendship is an
unconditional interpersonal relationship which individuals enter into
by their own choice and will; love is a relationship characterized by
love, intimacy, trust and respect between individuals and might end
up in marriage: platonic is a
relationship between individuals but without feelings of desire for each other; family refers to relationship
of individuals related to each other by blood or marriage; and work relationship refers to the kind of
relationship, of individuals who work for the same organization (Juneja, n. d.).

Communication

Communication refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through a common

system of symbols, signs, behavior. It is a two-way process of reaching understanding in which
participants not only exchange information, news, ideas or feelings but also create and share meaning
Communication is a means to connect people and places.

As deduced from the above definitions, there are elements common among these three key terms. The
commonalities have to do with the concepts of "exchange." "Relationship and "bond." Going further, there
is a socio-emotional component involved when these interactions happen. This socio-emotional
component has implications for the kind of climate there is in the classroom, which consequently, will
bear on students learning.

The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and

groups, mainly, students and teachers. In the classroom, teachinglearning
activities, as well as those outside of it, are all social events because many
exchanges happen in these activities. The direction of the exchanges can
either be between student and teacher, or between student and other
students. The classroom or the school is an important institution from
which the child learns his first lessons in socialization.
 The socio-emotional climate in the classroom brought about by the
kind of social interactions and relationships existing therein, should be
one where students experience social acceptance. The students should
be made to feel that they are accepted by their peers
and teachers. Social approval inside the classroom should also be felt by all students. The absence of
approval and acceptance may result in serious negative implications on the socio-emotional climate of
the school. A social climate in the classroom that is negative can bring about fear, anxiety, and
restlessness. It can also result in disinterest in the lessons, or decrease in motivation levels.

Children's relationship with their parents, peers, and friends have a tremendous impact in their
lives. Their interactions with teachers, mentors and others also can profoundly affect their achievement
and social motivation (Santrock, 2011).

Children's social concerns influence their lives in school (Anderman & Anderman, 2010, in
Santrock, 2011). Teachers play an important role in students' achievement. It was found that effective,
engaging teachers not only provide support for students to make good progress, but also encourages
students to become self-regulated learners (Pressly, in Santrock, 2011). Wentzel (2009, in Santrock, 2011)
found that students' motivation is optimized when teachers provide them with challenging tasks in a
mastery-oriented environment that includes good emotional and cognitive support, meaningful and
interesting material to learn and master, and sufficient support for autonomy and initiative.

Moreover, researchers have also found that students who

feel that they have supportive and caring teachers are better
motivated to do school work than those who feel their teachers are
uncaring and unsupportive. Higher levels of motivation are related
to higher performance or achievement. It was also found that
children who do not do well in school have negative interactions
with teachers. Negative interactions may be due to the kind of
communication taking place between teachers and students.
Inappropriate language or that which conveys negative feelings
can in turn bring about negative feelings among students during
interaction.

The kind of interaction with peers (they can either be classmates or friends) is also a factor to
students' motivation, which is important for learning to happen. Higher motivation levels is associated
with better learning or performance. It is thus important that the social climate of the classroom or the
school be characterized by warmth brought about by positive interactions, good communication, and
good relationships between and among students and teachers.
Man by nature is a social being, and as such, his social nature has been studied and used as
bases to explain many of his behaviors. Research findings also give ideas and provide
knowledge to practitioners so that they could use and apply these to effectively deal with
classroom situations.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze research findings on the influencesvelopmental
of de and socio
-cultural dimensions of
learning.
 ENGAGE
LEARNING POINT: IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ON
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Research has been and is being done to gather more data on the developmental and socio-
cultural dimensions of learning. This will enable especially the practitioners to analyze and
evaluate for themselves what best practices to adopt and apply in their teaching tasks.
Hopefully, too, research findings would lead practitioners to modify their views, perspectives
and philosophy of education.

LEARNING POINT: RESEARCH FINDINGS ON THE INFLUENCES OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND

SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING

Parental Involvement
Parents with higher education are more likely
to think and believe that their involvement in their
children's education is very important. This may also
be explained by the fact that as children grow older
and develop more complex thought process, parents
would most likely be able to address and respond
better to such complex processes.

The more parental engagement and

involvement there is, the higher is the children's
achievement and performance in school. The more
intensively parents are involved in their children's learning, the more beneficial are the
achievement effects. This was true for all kinds and forms of parental involvement, and
for all ages and sexes.

Vinograd-Bausell & Bausell (1987) intended to see how home-teaching affected

student achievement. They enlisted the help of 195 parents to see how effective it was to
educate their children word recognition skills at home using materials provided by the
school. Measures of word-recognition skills were taken after the home-tutoring session. T
kids who were tutored at home by their parents performed much better in word recognition
than those who did not participate in this home-tutoring program (Vinograd-Bausell &
Bausell, 1987, pp. 57-65). The interaction between parent and kid throughout the home
teaching period may have established a positive and motivating learning environment.
 The impacts of child-rearing methods, which include parent-child interaction
behaviors, on learning have also been investigated. The following parenting services,
according to Wigfield et al. (2006, in
Santrock 2011, p. 459), result in improved motivation and accomplishment.

a. Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and the
right amount of support.
b. Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to internalize
theirparents' values and goals.
c. Modeling motivated achievement behavior-working hard and persisting with effortat
challenging tasks.

Authoritative parents tend to have children who are high-achievers and who interact with
peers using competent social skills. Children of indulgent parents encounter more problems
in relationships and interactions. The opposite was found among adolescents raised by
parents who were either indulgent or uninvolved.

Provision for Specific Experiences at Home

The work habits and skills of children when

they enter kindergarten best predict academic
motivation and performance in elementary and high
school. The extent to which parents emphasize
academic achievement or sports in the elementary
school years influence whether the children are likely
to choose course work and extracurricular activities
in adolescence.

Mariah Evans and associates did a study on the importance of providing resources
such as books at home.
They found that having books at home is twice as
important as parental education in determining children's academic and education level. The
findings are the same for both Chinese and American parents. This suggests that having
educational resources at home is a better predictor of achievement than ethnic.

Peer Influence
 Peer influence was also found to affect a students'
motivation in many ways. It was found that students who
are more accepted by their peers and who have good
social skills often do better in school and have positive
academic achievement motivation. In contrast, students
who were rejected, especially those who are aggressive
are at risk for problems in achievement including low
grades and dropping out of school. A recent study
revealed that having disruptive friends in adolescence was
linked to lower likelihood of graduation from high school.
In the same manner, having friends who are academically oriented is linked to higher
achievement (Dodge, 2010; Croesno et.al. 2008 in Santrock, 2011).

Kirk Johnson made an analysis of data on peer influences and social interaction and other
factors linked to academic achievement, taken from the 1998 National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP). From his analysis, he came up with the following findings

a. The peer effect is particularly a strong effect on achievement especially among fourth
graders.
b. The peer effect is independent of other variables like ethnicity, gender, income, and
other background variables.
c. Family background factors such as household environment and parental education
also play a big hand in explaining achievement and this was true to both 4th and 8th
graders.

It is worth noting that the basic social unit, which is the family, has been found acr
researches to be linked to achievement and performance.

Similar results regarding the link between peer influence and achievement were obtained
from the research of Liu (2010) where she found that peer influence and academic
outcomes in reading and mathematics were strongly related.

Teachers
Students motivation is optimized when
teachers provide them with emotional and intellectual
support. A study found that instructional and socio-
emotional support were linked to first grade students'
achievement. Students also considered teachers'
instructional behaviors in evaluating how much their
teachers cared for them
(Wentzel, 1997 in Santro

Muntner (2008) identified ten important factors

that should be considered in classrooms to improve
 and increase student-teacher interaction, which they believe should subsequently
improve social development and learning. The ten factors have been classified and
lumped into three, namely; emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional
support.

Thus far, the different findings of research suggest the links between selected factors
with sociocultural dimensions and learning. These studies have shown that parenting style.
child-rearing practices, provision of materials at home, parental involvement in school, peers,
all of which carry a socio-cultural character are related to achievement or performance in
school.

This section deals with the presentation and discussion of ideas on methodologies
and educational perspectives that can be deduced from socio-cultural theories of learning.
Findings of research are empirical bases that lend proof to the veracity or accuracy of a
theory. It should be recalled again, that educational efforts should have the welfare of the
student in mind.

 Determine the significance of developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning

in selecting strategies and methodologies.

LEARNING POINT EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND OTHER

CONTEXTUAL THEORIES
Ormrod (2015 listed down some educational implications Vygotsky’s theory other contextual
perspectives:

a. Learners can think more effectively when they

acquire the basic cognitive tools of various activities
and academic disciplines.
b. Children learn and remember more when they talk
about their experiences.
c. Children should have opportunities to engage in
activities that closely resemble those that they will
later encounter in the adult world.
d. Children often acquire better strategies when they
 collaborate or work with adults on complex tasks. Working with adults will enable
them to learn developmentally advanced strategies.
e. Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffolded tend to hasten cognitive
development.
This means that the teacher should provide as many support and aids
f. Technology-based software and applications can effectively scaffold many
challenging tasks, and occasionally offer good alternatives to real-world activities and
problems.
g. Children's abilities should be assessed under a variety of work conditions
h. Group learning activities can help children internalize
cognitive strategies.

Peer Interactive Instructional Strategies

Peer interactive strategies enable the learners or students to explore, explain, discuss
and debate certain topics in small or big groups. When students work together, in essence
they are engaged in distributed cognition. It means that learning is spread across many
minds, from which the learners can draw multiple ideas.

a. They can clarify and organize their ideas and justify their ideas. b. They tend to
elaborate on what they learned.

b. They are exposed to others' views, widening their

knowledge and perspectives.

c. They may discover flaws or inconsistencies in their thinking and do self-correction.

d. They can gain more complex and sophisticated thinking and reasoning skills.
e. They can also practice their argumentation skills-skills which experts use to advance
knowledge.
f. They can acquire a more sophisticated view of the nature of knowledge and learning

Important features of peer-interactive strategies lie on developing oral skills, convergent

and divergent thinking skills, organizational skills, and argumentation skills.

1. Class Discussion

Class discussion could be used in a variety of courses and disciplines. The members
usually engage in discussions where sometimes there may not really be a correct answer as
in interpreting classic works in literature. More importantly, the students may take interest in
or make sense of what they are reading. Following are guidelines to promote effective
discussions:

a. Class discussion should focus on the topics that lend themselves to multiple
perspectives, explanations, or approaches.
b. Make sure that students have prior knowledge about the topic for discussion.
 c. See to it that the classroom has an atmosphere conducive to open debate and
constructive evaluation of ideas
d. Class discussion should be structured in some way
e. At the end of the discussion, some closure should be provided.

2. Reciprocal Teaching

This involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the discussion and asking
questions. For the first minutes, the teacher leads the discussion, and asks questions in the
process. After sometime, the teacher turns over her role to a student, who will then take
over to lead the discussion and asks questions that the teacher has modeled. Eventually, the
students are on their own, able to derive meanings out of the discussion.

3 Cooperative Learning

Students work together in small groups to

achieve a common goal. However,
cooperative learning is not just about
grouping. For cooperative learning to be
successful, some structure must be in place
such that cooperation is not just helpful but is
necessary for academic success.
Following are the features of
cooperative learning (Ormrod, 2015, and
Woolfolk, 2013).

a. Students work in small teacher-assigned groups

b. Groups have one or more common goals toward which to achieve
c. Students have clear guidance on how to behave

• Listening to others politely and attentively

• Making sure everyone has equal chance to participate, eventually everyone
understands the material
• Asking clear and precise questions when one doesn't understand Giving
encouragement to others and offering assistance when needed.
• Offering feedback that is specific, kind and constructive
• Addressing differences of opinion, amicably, and constructively

d. Group members must depend on one another for their success

e. A structure is provided to encourage productive learning behaviors
f. The teacher serves primarily as resource person and monitor
g. g Students are accountable for their achievement h. Students are rewarded for group
success
h. At the completion of an activity, each group evaluates its effectiveness
 A look at the features of cooperative learning as a strategy, shows that there at
opportunities for constructing meaning out of the learning material. The interactions that
take place during discussions allow students to develop their organizing and thinking skills.

4. Peer Tutoring
In this strategy, students who have mastered the
topic and know it by heart teaches those who haven't.
Under this structure, students with achievement difficulties
can ask questions more easily, and get immediate
feedback, not readily
available in a regular classroom, Following are the
guidelines to teachers for peer-teaching to
be effective.

a. Teachers should make sure that tutors have

mastered the material being taught and use sound
instructional techniques.

b. Structured interactions can improve the effectiveness of peer teaching,

c. Teachers can use peer tutoring for kids with special needs.

d. Tutoring does not have to be limited to same-age peers.

5 Communities of Learners
For peer interactive methods, a sense of community is needed. This means teacher and
students have shared goals, respect and support of one's efforts, and that each one makes
an important contribution to classroom learning (Hom & Battistich, 1995. in Ormrod, 2015).
Transforming a classroom into a community of learners is a way to create a sense of
community. Teacher and students collaborate to build a body of knowledge about a topic
and help one another to learn more about it. Following are the characteristics of a classroom
that is a community of learners.

a. All students are active participants in classroom activities.

b. The primary goal is to acquire a body of knowledge on a specific topic.
c. Students draw from many resources - books, internet, film to learn more about the
topic.
d. Discussion and collaboration among students occur regularly. e. Variations in
students' interests and rates of learning are respected.
e. Everyone is a potential resource for others.
f. Teacher provides some guidance and directions for classroom activities; students may
also contribute.
g. Mechanisms for sharing what was learned are in place
h. . i. Constructive questioning and critiquing are commonplace.
i. The process of learning is emphasized, sometimes more than the product.