Mechanics of Materials

THICK CYLINDERS

Dr. S Venkateswara Rao

Civil Engineering Department
9/17/2022 1
At any point in a cylindrical pressure vessel, there are
three stresses in three perpendicular directions
Stress element
Longitudinal stress
l (closed ends)

Tangential
stress θ
Hoop stress
r
Radial stress

1. Longitudinal Stress σL
2. Hoop Stress σh
3. Radial Stress σr
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Assumptions in thin cylinders:

1. σr is negligible compared to σL and σh

2. σh is uniform along the thickness
3. The longitudinal strain is uniform so that plane sections
(transverse) remain plane before and after the
application of internal pressure.

In case of thick cylinders, 1 and 2 are not valid, but 3 is

true.

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Thin Cylinder geometry:

d = inner diameter
t = thickness of cylinder wall

If thin cylinder analysis

Thin cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure ‘p’

hoop stress (tensile)

longitudinal stress (tensile) (if ends are closed)

radial stress (compressive) neglected

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 Thin cylinders Thick cylinders
1. low internal fluid pressure medium
1 internal fluid pressure

2. radial stress is neglected when radial stress is not neglected

compared to Hoop stress and and it is varying over the wall
Longitudinal stress thickness of cylinder

3. 2-dimensional stress system 3-dimensional stress system

Hoop stress and Longitudinal Hoop stress, Longitudinal
stress stress and Radial stress

4. hoop stress is assumed to be hoop stress is varying over the

constant over the wall wall thickness of cylinder
thickness of cylinder

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Assumptions in Lame’s theory:

The material of thick cylinder is homogeneous & isotropic

The material of thick cylinder obeys Hooke’s law.

Longitudinal stress is same at any point in the thick cylinder

Plane sections which are normal to the axis of thick cylinder

remain plane even under the internal fluid pressure

i.e., longitudinal strain is same at all points i.e,. independent

of the radius

longitudinal strain εl = constant at all points i.e. it is not

function
9/17/2022 of radius ‘x’ 6
 = Constant

E and μ are material constants

Longitudinal stress σl is also constant from Lame’s assumption
Note: at any point in the thick cylinder, the algebraic sum of
the hoop stress and radial stress is equal to 2A

Note: at any point in the thick cylinder, the radial stress is

always compressive and its magnitude is equal to radial
pressure i.e., px.
9/17/2022 7
Where A is called Lame’s constant
Consider a thick cylinder of r1 = outer
radius & r2 = inner radius

p = internal fluid pressure acts at r2

Outer surface of thick cylinder is under

atmospheric pressure i.e. datum (i.e.
zero)

Therefore, the pressure varies from p (at

r2) to zero (at r1)
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Consider an elemental ring at radius ‘x’ and thickness ‘dx’ in the
cross section of thick cylinder.
px = radial pressure at radius ‘x’
px+dpx = radial pressure at radius ‘x+dx’

where dpx = change in radial pressure over ‘dx’ thickness

Consider failure of thin ring having
radius ‘x’ and thickness ‘dx’

Bursting force = pressure x projected

area of curved surface onto horizontal
plane
=
=
=
by neglecting higher order terms
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Resisting force =
for equilibrium, Bursting force = Resisting force

From and

By integrating on both sides

and

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Lame’s equations for Radial pressure and Hoop stress
Thick Cylinder
The ends of thick cylinder are closed with plates rigidly
r1 = outer radius & r2 = inner radius
Lame’s equations: hoop stress and radial pressure
Thick Cylinder subjected to Thick Cylinder subjected to
internal fluid pressure only external fluid pressure only
ends are closed
pi = internal fluid pressure acts at r2 po = external fluid pressure acts at r1
Boundary conditions: Boundary conditions:
(i) at radius x = r2, radial pressure px = pi (i) at radius x = r2, radial pressure px = 0
(ii) at radius x = r1, radial pressure px = 0 (ii) at radius x = r1, radial pressure px = po
Lame’s constants
Lame’s constants

Stresses: Tensile +ve

9/17/2022
Compressive –ve 11
 maximum hoop stress maximum hoop stress
(occurs at inner surface) (occurs at inner surface)

minimum hoop stress minimum hoop stress

(occurs at outer surface) (occurs at outer surface)

maximum radial stress maximum radial stress

(occurs at inner surface) (occurs at outer surface)

minimum radial stress minimum radial stress

(occurs at outer surface) (occurs at inner surface)

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Longitudinal stress: Longitudinal stress:
pi = internal fluid pressure po = external fluid pressure
i.e., radial pressure on the i.e., radial pressure on the outer
inner surface of thick surface of thick cylinder as well
cylinder as well as on lids as on lids
The force exerted by fluid pressure on the lids causes
longitudinal stress in the thick cylinder.
Bursting force = Bursting force =
This bursting force is resisted by resistance generated on the
cross section of thick cylinder. This resistance is parallel to
longitudinal axis of thick cylinder.

Resisting force = Resisting force =

for equilibrium, Bursting force = Resisting force

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 for equilibrium, Bursting force = Resisting force

tensile compressive

Note:
If the ends are opened then

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Stresses in thick cylinders:
Stresses are depends on the nature of loading which may be
i. Only internal pressure (Pi)
ii. Only an external pressure (Pe)
iii. Both internal and external pressure (Pi and Pe)

Only internal pressure:

a. The hoop stress will be in tensile
b. The longitudinal stress will be in tensile
c. The radial stress will be compressive

Only external pressure:

a. The hoop stress will be compressive
b. The longitudinal stress will be compressive
c. The radial stress will be compressive
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Both internal and external stresses:
a. The hoop stress will be tensile (if Pi > Pe)
b. The longitudinal stress will be tensile (if Pi > Pe)
c. The radial stress will be compressive

Variation of Hoop stress and Radial stress over the wall

thickness of thick cylinder

To join the maximum hoop stress point and minimum hoop

stress point

To join the maximum radial stress point and minimum radial

stress point

Find the value of stress at the mid-point of wall thickness of

thick cylinder and judge the curve
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9/17/2022 17
Thick cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure only

Thick cylinder subjected to external fluid pressure only

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Thick cylinder subjected to both internal and external fluid
pressure only (internal fluid pressure is more than the
external fluid pressure)

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Orthogonal Strains
Hoop strain in thick cylinder

Longitudinal strain in thick cylinder

Radial strain in thick cylinder

Volumetric strain (fluid stored in thick cylinder) is

Volume (storage capacity) is

Change is storage capacity of thick cylinder is

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Note:
1) Lame’s constants A and B are positive when the thick
cylinder is subjected to internal fluid pressure only.
2) Lame’s constants A and B are negative when thick cylinder
is subjected to external fluid pressure only.
3) Lame’s constant A is equal to the longitudinal stress in a
thick cylinder, when ends are closed.
4) The numerical difference between maximum and minimum
hoop stresses in a thick cylinder is equal to the numerical
difference of internal and external fluid pressure.
5) Hoop stress and Longitudinal stress are Tensile and
Radial stress is Compressive when the thick cylinder is
subjected to internal fluid pressure only.
6) Hoop stress, Radial stress and Longitudinal stress are
Compressive when the thick cylinder is subjected to
external fluid pressure only.
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 h,r2

h,r1
h(tensile)

O r2 r1
r(comp.)
r,r2

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Q1. A thick cylinder of 320 mm inner diameter and 480 mm
outer diameter, is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 8
MPa. The Young’s modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of
cylinder material are 200 GPa and 0.3 respectively.
1. Draw the variation of stresses over the wall thickness of cylinder.
2. Find the orthogonal stresses at any point on the inner surface of
thick cylinder when the ends are opened.
3. Find the orthogonal stresses at any point on the outer surface of
thick cylinder when the ends are opened.
4. Find the orthogonal stresses at any point on the inner surface of
thick cylinder when the ends are closed.
5. Find the orthogonal stresses at any point on the outer surface of
thick cylinder when the ends are closed.
6. Calculate the change in wall thickness of cylinder when the ends
of thick cylinder are closed.
7. Calculate the change in wall thickness of cylinder when the ends
of cylinder are opened.
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Solution:
Outer radius = r1 = 240 mm
Inner radius = r2 = 160 mm
Internal fluid pressure = pi = 8 MPa= 8 N/mm2(acts at r2)Young’s
modulus of elasticity of cylinder material E = 200 GPa = 2x105
MPa = 2X105N/mm2
Poisson’s ratio of cylinder material ν = 0.3
Lame’s equations:
Hoop stress
Radial pressure
Boundary conditions
(i)at x = r2 =160 mm, px = 8 Mpa (ii) at x = r2 = 240 mm, px =
0
Lame’s constants A and B
A = 6.4 B = 368640
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 Hoop stresses Radial stresses
20.8 MPa (tensile) 8 MPa (compressive)

12.8 MPa (tensile) 0

Longitudinal stress (when ends are closed)
= 6.4 MPa (tensile)
(numerically equal to Lame’s constant A)
Orthogonal stresses
when ends are closed when ends are opened
At inner surface20.8 MPa (T), 6.4 MPa (T), 20.8 MPa (T), 0MPa,
8 MPa (C) 8 MPa (C)
At outer surface12.8 MPa (T), 6.4 MPa (T), 12.8 MPa (T), 0MPa,
0 MPa 0 MPa

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Hoop strain in thick cylinder

Hoop strain at inner surface x = r2

tensile

Hoop strain at outer surface x = r1

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Change in inner diameter = inner diameter x hoop strain at inner
surface
(increase)

Change in outer diameter = outer diameter x hoop strain at outer

surface
(increase)

(f) change in wall thickness (when ends are closed)

= 0.003968 mm (decrease)

(g) change in wall thickness (when ends are opened)

0.0032 mm (decrease)

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H.W.A thick cylinder of 120 mm and 200 mm as inner and outer
diameters respectively, is subjected to an external fluid pressure of
40 MPa. Draw the variation of stresses over the wall thickness of
cylinder.
(Ans: A = -62.5, B = -225000, hoop stresses = 125 MPa & 85 MPa
both compressive,
radial stresses 0& 40 MPa compressive)

H.W.A thick cylinder of 100 mm and 180 mm as inner and outer

diameters respectively, is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 45
MPa and external radial pressure of 10 MPa. Draw the variation of
stresses over the wall thickness of cylinder.

(Ans: A = 5.625, B = 126562.5, hoop stresses = 56.25 MPa &21.25

MPa both tensile,
radial stresses 45 MPa &10 MPa both compressive)
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Q.2. Find the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell
of internal diameter 160 mm to withstand an internal preassure of
8 MPa. The maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceed
35 MPa.
Solution:
r2 = 80 mm
Internal Pressure Px = 8 MPa
At r2 = 80 mm, P r2 = 8 MPa and σ r2 = 35 MPa
Maximum hoop stress occurs at the inner radius.
R1 = External radius
Hoop stress =

Radial stress =
Apply the boundary conditions, At r2 = 80 mm, P r2 = 8 MPa and
σ r2 = 35 MPa
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8 = B/802 – A
35 = B/802 + A
Subtracting the eq. A = 13.5 and B = 21.5 x 6400
Px = {(21.5 x 6400) / x2} -13.5

At x1 = r2, Px = 0
0 = {(21.5 x 6400) / r2 2} -13.5

r2 = 100.96 mm

Thickness of shell = 100.96 – 80 = 20.96 mm

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Q.3.A thick cylinder having 160 mm and 200 mm inner and
outer diameters respectively has been designed to withstand a
certain internal fluid pressure but re-boring became necessary.
Determine the limit to the new inside diameter if the maximum
hoop stress is not to exceed the previous value by more than
5% while the internal fluid pressure is same as before. (Ans: r
= 80.8813 mm)
Solution:
Before re boring
After re boring, the new value of inner radius = r

The maximum hoop stress is not to exceed the previous value

by more than 5%

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Q.4.A steel cylinder of 200 mm external diameter and 150 mm
internal diameter is used for a working internal pressure of 12
MPa. Owing to external corrosion, the external diameter of the
cylinder has to be machined down to 195 mm, find how much
the working pressure must be reduced for the maximum hoop
stress to be the same as before.(Ans: p = 10.9931 mm)

Solution:
Before external corrosion

After external corrosion

p = new value of int. fluid pressure
D = 195 mm (outer diameter)

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Q.5.If a cylinder of internal diameter d, wall thickness t and
subjected to internal pressure only, is assumed to be a thin cylinder,
what is the greatest value for the thickness and internal diameter
ratio, if the error in the estimated maximum hoop stress is not to
exceed 5%.
Solution:
internal fluid pressure = and wall thickness and inner
diameter ratio for thin cylinder

for thick cylinder

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Maximum hoop stress in thick cylinder

error in the estimated maximum hoop stress is not to exceed 5%

9/17/2022 34
 or

A closed cylinder has an internal diameter 420 mm and an

external diameter 520 mm. It is 1.5 m long and is subjected to an
internal pressure of 8 MPa. Draw the distribution of hoop and
radial stresses across the thickness. Determine the change in
internal volume and thickness. Take E = 200 GPa and ν = 0.3
9/17/2022 35
Compound cylinders
 To enhance the strength of existing thick cylinder.
One thick cylinder over another thick cylinder.
Initially the inner radius of outer cylinder is less than the outer
radius of inner cylinder.

Outer cylinder is subjected to rise of temperature so that the

outer cylinder slides freely on the inner cylinder.

After sliding the outer cylinder over the inner cylinder, the
temperature is brought back to room temperature.

This process is called shrink-fitting.

After shrink-fit, both surfaces will settle at radius of r3 and both

cylinders
9/17/2022 act together as single cylinder. 36
Due to shrink-fit, outer cylinder exerts radial pressure on the
inner cylinder. This radial pressure is called shrinkage pressure
(ps), which is at common surface i.e., radius of r3.

Therefore, the inner cylinder is under hoop compression and outer

cylinder is under hoop tension.
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Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder
Inner radius of inner cylinder = Outer radius of outer cylinder
=
Radius of both cylinders at common surface (junction) =
Before Fluid is admitted
Radial pressure (shrinkage pressure) at common surface =

Lami’s constants: and Lami’s constants: and

Boundary conditions: Boundary conditions:

1) at x = r2, px = 0 1) at x = r1, px = 0
2) at x = r3, px =ps  2) at x = r3, px = 
find and (both are negative) find and (both are positive)
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Hoop stresses: Hoop stresses:
.. (Compressive) .. (Tensile)

.. (Compressive) .. (Tensile)

After Fluid is admitted

Both cylinders act together as a single cylinder i.e., compound
cylinder
Radial pressure (fluid pressure) at inner surface of compound
cylinder =
Lami’s constants: A and B
Boundary condition:
at x = r2 , px =
Boundary condition:
at x = r1 , px = 0
9/17/2022 find A and B 39
Hoop Stresses:
(Tensile)

(Tensile)

at common surface (Tensile)

due to internal fluid pressure in the compound cylinder, the radial

pressure at common surface is

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Final Stresses:
Tensile +ve Compressive -ve

Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder

Hoop stress at x = r2 x = r 3 x = r3 at x = r1
Due to shrinkage pressure ps (C) (C) (T) (T)
Due to Internal fluid pressure pf (T) (T) (T) (T)
Total

Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder

Radial stress at x = r2 x = r3 x = r3 at x = r1
Due to shrinkage pressure ps 0 - ps - ps 0
Due to Internal fluid pressure pf - pf ( .. ) ( .. ) 0
Total (All are compressive)

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 Shrink-fit allowance
(Initial difference of radii at junction)

Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder

Inner radius of inner cylinder = Outer radius of outer cylinder =
r2 r1
Radius of both cylinders at common surface (junction) = r3
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Inner Cylinder Outer Cylinder
Inner radius of inner cylinder = Outer radius of outer cylinder
=
Radius of both cylinders at common surface (junction) =
Before Fluid is admitted
Radial pressure (shrinkage pressure) at common surface =

Lami’s constants: and Lami’s constants: and

Boundary conditions: Boundary conditions:

1) at x = r2, px = 0 1) at x = r1, px = 0
2) at x = r3, px =ps  2) at x = r3, px = 
find and (both are negative) find and (both are positive)
9/17/2022 43
Hoop stresses: Hoop stresses:
.. (Compressive) .. (Tensile)

.. (Compressive) .. (Tensile)

Hoop strain at junction: (from Hoop strain at junction: (from

stresses) stresses

(Compressive) (tensile)

9/17/2022 44
Hoop strain at junction: (from Hoop strain at junction: (from
deformations) deformations)

difference between the difference between the

initial outer radius of inner initial inner radius of outer
cylinder and r3 i.e., the cylinder and r3 i.e., the
negative deformation due to positive deformation due
the shrink-fit of outer to the shrink-fit of outer
cylinder over the inner cylinder over the inner
cylinder. cylinder.

9/17/2022 45
Shrink-fit allowance

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The initial difference in diameters at junction of both cylinders =

Temperature of the outer cylinder to be raised = t

Coefficient of thermal expansion of outer cylinder material = 

9/17/2022 47
Q. Find the ratio of thickness to internal diameter for a tube
subjected to internal pressure when the ratio of internal pressure
to maximum circumferential stress is 0.5. Find the change in
thickness of metal in such a tube of 200 mm internal diameter
when the internal pressure is 75 MPa. E = 200 GPa, ν = 0.3.

and 

Then

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 increase

150 – 75 = 75 MPa

increase

Decrease in thickness = (decrease)

9/17/2022 49
Q. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a cylinder of
external diameter 300 mm and internal diameter of 250 mm
over another cylinder of external diameter 250 mm and internal
diameter 200 mm. The radial pressure at the junction after
shrinking is 8 MPa. Find the final stresses set up across the
section, when the compound cylinder is subjected to an internal
fluid pressure of 84.5 Mpa.
Ans:
For outer cylinder :
External radius r1 = 150 mm
Radius at the junction r3 = 125 mm
For inner cylinder:
Internal radius r2 = 100 mm
Radial pressure due to shrinkage at the junction ps = 8MPa
Fluid pressure in the compound cylinder pf = 84.5 MPa
9/17/2022 50
i) Stresses due to shrinking in the outer and inner cylinders
before the fluid pressure is admitted.
a) Lame’s equations for outer cylinder:
Boundary conditions:
1) at x = r1, px = 0
2) at x = r3, px = 

0 = (b1/1502) – a1 ---- (1)

8 = (b1/1252) – a1 ---- (2)
Subtracting (2) from (1)
b1 = 409090.9
a1 = 18.18
Hoop stress σx = (409090.9/x2) + a1
Hoop stress in the outer cylinder due to shrinking

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σ150 = (409090.9/1502) + 18.18 = 36.36 MPa (Tensile)

σ125 = (409090.9/1252) + 18.18 = 44.36 MPa (Tensile)

b) Lame’s equations for the inner cylinder:

1) at x = r2, px = 0
2) at x = r3, px =ps 

0 = (b2/1002) – a2 ----(3)

8 = (b2/1252) – a2 ----(4)
Subtracting (3) from (4)

b2 = -222222.22
a2 = -22.22
9/17/2022 52
Hoop stress σx = -(222222.2/x2) – a2

σ125 = (-222222.2/1252) – 22.22 = -36.44 MPa (Compressive)

σ100 = (-222222.2/1002) – 22.22 = -44.44 MPa (Compressive)

ii) Stresses due to fluid pressure alone

When the fluid pressure is admitted inside the compound
cylinder, the two cylinders together will be considered as one
single unit.
Boundary condition:
at x = r2 , px = pf
Boundary condition:
at x = r1 , px = 0

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84.5 = B/1002 – A ------ (5)

0 = B/ 1502 – A ------ (6)

Subtracting (6) from (5)
B = 1521000
A = 67.6

Hoop stress σx = (1521000/x2) + A

σ100 = (1521000/1002) + 67.6 = 219.7 MPa (Tensile)

σ125 = (1521000/1252) + 67.6 = 164.94 MPa (Tensile)

σ150 = (1521000/1502) + 67.6 = 135.2 MPa (Tensile)

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The resultant stresses will be the algebraic sum of the initial
stresses due to shrinking and those due to internal fluid pressure
Inner Cylinder:
F100 = σ100 due to shrinkage + σ100 due to internal fluid pressure
= -44.44 + 219.7 = 175.26 MPa (Tensile)

F125 = σ125 due to shrinkage + σ125 due to internal fluid pressure

= -36.44 + 164.94 = 128.5 MPa (Tensile)
Outer Cylinder:
F125 = σ125 due to shrinkage + σ125 due to internal fluid pressure
= 44.36 + 164.94 = 209.3 MPa (Tensile)

F150 = σ150 due to shrinkage + σ150 due to internal fluid pressure

= 36.36 + 135.2 = 171.56 MPa (Tensile)

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Q. A compound cylinder is made by shrinking a jacket on to a
cylinder. For the compound cylinder, the outer and inner radii
are 100 mm and 60 mm, and the radius at the junction is 80
mm. Before the fluid pressure of 40 MPa is applied, the radial
pressure at the junction is 10 MPa. Determine the final stresses
in the cylinder. Also calculate the difference in the diameters
of tubes before the jacket is shrunk on to the cylinder and the
temperature at which this can be done. Take E = 200 GPa and
α = 12x10-6/°C
ans?

t= 4.0991 C

2delta(r3)=0.0078mm

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Q. A steel cylinder of 300 mm external diameter is to be
shrunk to another cylinder of 150 mm internal diameter. After
shrinking, the diameter at the junction is 250 mm and radial
pressure at the common junction is 28 MPa. Find the original
difference in radii at the junction. Take E = 200 Gpa.
Ans:
for Outer cylinder:
px = (b1/r32) – a1
At x = 150 mm, px = 0
At x = 125 mm, px = 28 MPa.
(b1/1502) – a1 = 0
(b1/1252) – a1 = 28

Then b1 = 1432000, a1 = 63.6

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for inner cylinder: px = (b2/r32) – a2
At x = 75 mm, px = 0
At x = 125 mm, px = 28 MPa.
(b2/752) – a2 = 0
(b2/1252) – a2 = 28

Then b2 = -216100, a2 = - 43.75

Difference of radii at junction =

(σh)outer = (b1/r32) + a1 =

(σh)inner = (b2/r32) + a2 =

Difference in radii at junction = 0.13 mm 2 *delta(r3)=diff in radii

9/17/2022 ans = 0.1197mm 58
Q. A steel tube of 200 mm external diameter is to be shrunk
onto another steel tube of 60 mm internal diameter. The
diameter at the junction after shrinking is 120 mm. Before
shrinking ob, the difference of diameters at the junction is 0.08
mm. Calculate the radial pressure at the junction and the hoop
stresses developed in the two tubes after shrinking on. Take E =
200 GPa.

Ans:
Original difference of radii at the junction
= 2r3/E (a1 – a2) = 0.04

for Outer cylinder:

px = (b1/x2) – a1

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At x = 100 mm, px = 0
(b1/1002) – a1 = 0 then b1 = 1000a1 ------ (1)
At x = 60 mm, px = ps
(b1/602) – a1 = ps ------ (2)

for Inner cylinder:

px = (b2/x2) – a2

At x = 30 mm, px = 0
(b2/302) – a2 = 0 then b2 = 900a2 ------ (3)
At x = 60 mm, px = ps
(b2/602) – a2 = ps ------ (4)

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Equating equations (2) and (4)
(b1/602) – a1 = (b2/602) – a2

(b1 –b2)/3600 = (a1 – a2)

From (1) and (3)
(1000a1 – 900 a2) / 3600 = (a1 – a2)
a2 = - (27/64) a1 ------ (5)

a1 = - 46.88 a2 = 19.77

b1 = - 42192 b2 = 197700

ps = (b1/602) – a1 = 35.16 MPa

9/17/2022 61
Hoop stresses:
For outer cylinder: (σh)outer = (b1/x2) + a1
σ100 = (197700/1002) + 19.77 = 39.54 N/mm2
σ60 = (197700/602) + 19.77 = 74.68 N/mm2

For outer cylinder: (σh)inner = (b2/x2) + a2

σ60 = - (42192/602) – 46.88 = - 58.6 N/mm2
σ30 = - (42192/302) – 46.88 = - 93.76 N/mm2

Q. A steel tube of 240 mm outer diameter is to be shrunk on to

another tube of 80 mm internal diameter. The common diameter
at the junction of two tubes is to be 160 mm after shrinking-on.
The original difference of diameters of the two tubes at the
junction is 0.08 mm before shrinking-on. Find the stresses in the
two tubes after shrinking-on. The Young’s modulus of tube
material is E= 200 GPa.
9/17/2022 62
Q. Two thick steel cylinders A and B, closed at the ends, have
the same dimensions, the outer diameter being 1.6 times the
inner diameter. The cylinder A is subjected to internal pressure
only and the cylinder B is subjected to external pressure only.
Find the ratio of these pressures, (a) when the greatest
circumferential stress has the same numerical value, and (b)
when the greatest circumferential strain has the same
numerical value.ν = 0.304. (Ans: (a) 1.4382 (b) 1.16394)

Solution: for both cylinders r1 = 1.6 r2

Cylinder A is subjected to internal fluid pressure pi only

----------- (1)
9/17/2022 63
 --------- (2)

Cylinder B is subjected to external fluid pressure po only

------- (3)

9/17/2022 64
 --------------- (4)
For numerically same stress, equate eq. (1) and (3)

For numerically same strains, equate eq. (2) and (4)

9/17/2022 65
 Mechanics of Materials

DIRECT AND BENDING

STRESSES

Dr. S Venkateswara Rao

Civil Engineering Department
9/16/2022 1
A prismatic member is subjected to an axial load P (acts along
the longitudinal axis)
Axial (direct) stress ---- (1)

A prismatic member is subjected to lateral load (acts normal to

longitudinal axis), which causes bending
Bending stress ------- (2)

If the external load is parallel to the longitudinal axis i.e., the

point of application of load is away from the centroid of cross
section, then that load is called eccentric load.
 P P
P P
e e

P
P
A + B = C + D
Fig (A) shows the given eccentric loading condition on the member.
Fig (B) shows the collinear force system i.e., superposed on the
given eccentric loading condition. These two loadings are regrouped
and shown in Fig.(C) and Fig.(D).

Fig (C) shows the member is subjected to axial load. Fig (D) shows
the couple force system on the member. The couple produces
moment which induces bending (towards right) in the member. The
corresponding stresses can be superposed and the resulting stress at
any point in the cross section of the member can be determined.
 ----- (3)
Maximum stress is always compressive i.e., on the right edge.

----- (4)
Minimum stress may be compressive, zero or tensile i.e.,
depending on the magnitude of bending stress. Minimum stress
is on the left edge.

Case (i): If σa > σb then σmin will be always positive i.e.,

compressive.
Case (ii): If σa = σb then σmin will zero
Case (iii): If σa < σb then σmin will be negative i.e., tensile.

To avoid tensile stress anywhere in the cross section, the 3rd

case shall not be allowed.
A. Core or Kernel of cross section
It is the area in which the load shall be applied on the cross
section to avoid tensile stress anywhere in the cross section.

Core of a Circular cross section

d = diameter

Circle having diameter of

Note: circular c/s is symmetrical about any of its diameter,
eccentricity is limited to d/8 in the direction of each diameter,
therefore the core or kernel of circular section is a circle having
diameter of d/4.
B. Core of a Hollow circular cross section
d = inner diameter
D = outer diameter

Circle having radius of

C. Core of a Rectangular cross section

x and y are the centroidal axes

B and H are dimensions of the
member cross section in x and y
directions respectively
P, Q, R and S are the corners of the
member.
corner( Q ) is under compression

corner ( S ) is under tension

corners ( P ) and ( R ) may be under tension or under compression

axial stress is compressive at all four corners

bending stress

compressive at corners P and Q, tensile at corners R and S

bending stress

compressive at corners Q and R, tensile at corners P and S

Sign Convention:
compressive stress is considered as positive
tensile stress is considered as negative

To avoid tensile stress anywhere in the cross section, i.e., corner

‘S’,

extreme condition
Middle-third rule

The stress will be of same sign

throughout the section if the load
line is within the middle third of the
rectangular cross-section.

D. Core of a Hollow
Rectangular cross section

B = width of outer rectangle

H = depth of outer rectangle

b = width of inner rectangle

h = depth of inner rectangle
Water and earth pressure on walls

Lateral forces exerted on the walls by the retaining material

This lateral force causes bending moment on the base of wall

which is already under axial compression.
Failures of retaining walls:
1. Sliding
2. Overturning
ABCD – Retaining wall of
trapezoidal shape
CD = a = top width
AB = b = bottom width
AD = h1 = height
γ = Unit weight of masonry
kN/m3

Consider 1 m length of wall

W = weight of wall =
acts at from AD
i.e., center of gravity for top view at the bottom (AB)
trapezium ABCD
h = depth of water impounded i.e., (h<h1)
P = lateral force due to water pressure

AD is water face
Water pressure is zero at the top surface and at bottom of
wall,
where = unit weight of water i.e., 10 kN/m3

Consider 1m length of wall

Lateral force due to water

acts at from bottom
R = resultant force of W and P
E is point of incidence of resultant R on base AB

The effect of lateral force is to shift the incidence of vertical

force line from F to E.

e = eccentricity =

To locate the point ‘E’, take moments about ‘A’ i.e.,

i.e. 1m in length direction of wall

 compressive acts at B

compressive acts at A

Q. A circular rod of 20 mm diameter carries a pull along a line

which is parallel to the longitudinal axis.

a) Locate the position of load if the maximum stress is 40 %

greater than the minimum stress on a section normal to the
longitudinal axis.
b) Locate the position of load if the maximum stress is 20 %
greater than the mean stress on a section normal to the
longitudinal axis.
σmax = 1.4 x σmin
(P/A + Pe/Z) = 1.4 (P/A – Pe/Z)
0.4 (P/A) = 2.4 (Pe/Z)
e = (0.4/A) x (Z/2.4)
e = 0.416

σmax = 1.2 x σmin

(P/A + Pe/Z) = 1.2 (P/A – Pe/Z)
0.2 (P/A) = 2.2 (Pe/Z)
e = (0.2/A) x (Z/2.2)
e = 0.454
Q. A compression member of hollow circular cross section
carries a compressive load. Determine the maximum distance of
this load from longitudinal axis to avoid tensile stress anywhere
in the cross section. The inner diameter is 5/7 times of outer
diameter.
to avoid tensile stress anywhere in the cross section,

e = 0.1887D

Q. A simply supported beam carries uniformly distributed load

of 50 kN/m over a span of 2m along with the 40 kN axial
compressive force. The cross section of the beam is rectangular
of 100 mm X 200 mm. Find the magnitude and location of
maximum and minimum normal stresses induced in the cross
section of beam. Also locate the point at which the stress is zero.

axial stress (compressive) = σa and bending stress = σb

(compressive at the top and tensile at the bottom of cross
section)

y = distance of point at which stress is zero, from top of mid-

span cross section
from stress variation on the mid – span cross section of beam,
Q. A vertical compression member of 1m long, 80 mm and 100
mm inner and outer diameter respectively is subjected to a
compressive load of 10 kN inclined at 30° with respect to the
longitudinal axis at top end and the other end is on the fixed
base. Find the extreme stresses at the base.
Ans.
Axial stress = (compressive)

bending stress = (C or T)

maximum stress = 89.3258 MPa (compressive)

minimum stress = 83.1999 MPa (tensile)

Q. A rectangular column of width 200 mm and thickness 150
mm carries a point load of 240 kN at an eccentricity of 10 mm
as shown in Fig. Determine the maximum and minimum
stresses on the section. If the minimum stress is given as zero,
then find the eccentricity of point load of 240 kN acting on the
rectangular column. Also find the corresponding maximum
stress on the section. 10 mm 240 kN
Ans. σmax = (P/A)[1+ (6e/b)]

= (240000/30000)[1+ (6x10/200)]
= 10.4 N/mm2
σmin = (P/A)[1- (6e/b)]

= (240000/30000)[1- (6x10/200)]
= 5.6 N/mm2
200 mm
σmin = 0
= (240000/30000)[1- (6e/200)]
= 33.33 mm

σmax = (240000/30000)[1+ (6x33.33/200)]

= 16 N/mm2

Q. A hallow rectangular column of external depth 1 m and

external width 0.8 m is 10 cm thick. Find the maximum and
minimum stress in the section of the column if a vertical load
of 200 kN is acting with an eccentricity of 15 cm from the
centroidal y axis.
Q. A short column of external diameter 40 cm and internal
diameter 20 cm carries an eccentric load of 80 kN. Find the
greatest eccentricity with which the load can produce zero
tension on the cross section.
Ans. Area of cross section A = π/4 (4002 - 2002)

Moment of Inertia I = π/64 (4004 - 2004)

Direct Stress σa = 80 x 103 / (3000π)

Moment M = P x e

Bending stress σb = (80 x 103 x e) x y /I

Minimum stress = σa – σb = 0
Eccentricity e = 62.5mm
A masonry pier of 3m X 2m in a bridge, supports a vertical load
of 50 kN as shown in fig. Determine the stresses at the four
corners of pier. What is the required additional axial load to
avoid tensile stress anywhere in the cross section? Also find the
final stresses.

Eccentric Load P = 50 kN
Axial stress
compressive at any point in
the cross section

Moment of Inertia about xx-

axis

Moment of Inertia about yy-

axis
Eccentricity of load:
with reference to x-axis (i.e., from y-axis) is
with reference to y-axis (i.e., from x-axis) is

Bending Moment about x-axis (reference axis is ‘x’)

Bending stress about x-axis (reference axis is ‘x’)

corners D and C in compression

corners A and B in tension

Bending Moment about y-axis (reference axis is ‘y’)

Bending stress about y-axis (reference axis is ‘y’)

corners C and B in compression

corners D and A in tension
compressive stress is +ve and tensile stress is -ve

stresses at four corners:

at A is tensile
At B is compressive

At C is compressive

At D is Compressive
Required additional axial load to eliminate tensile stress
anywhere in the cross section is

Additional axial stress is

compressive at any point in the cross section

Final stresses (compressive) :

Q. A short column of rectangular section is constructed of a
material with maximum permissible compressive stress of 90
MPa and tensile stress of 25 MPa. If the compressive load is
1500 kN, at what eccentricity can it be applied along the two
principal axes. If the load is increased to 3000 kN, what is the
pemissible eccentricity along the principal axes.
Y

X
200 mm

400 mm

Area of the section A = 400 x 200 = 80000 mm2

Ixx = (400 x 2003)/12 = 2.67 x 108 mm4

Iyy = (200 x 4003)/12 = 10.67 x 108 mm4

Let ex and ey are the maximum eccentricities along x and y

axes.

Direct stress σa = (1500 x 103) / 8 x 104 = 18.75 MPa

Bending moment about YY axis = 1500 x103 x ex

Bending stress σb = {(1500 x 103 x ex) / 10.67 x 108}x(400/2)

Maximum compressive stress = 18.75 + 0.28 ex = 90

Then ex = 253 mm
In terms of permissible tensile stress = 18.75 - 0.28 ex = 25
ex = 155 mm, Permissible eccentricity ex = 155 mm

Eccentricity along y axis :

Bending Moment about XX axis = 1500 x103 x ey

Maximum bending stress =

{(1500 x 103 x ey) / 2.67 x 108}x(200/2) = 0.56 ey

Maximum compressive stress = 18.75 + 0.56 ey = 90

Then ey = 127 mm
In terms of permissible tensile stress = 18.75 - 0.56 ey = 25
ey = 78 mm, Permissible eccentricity ey = 78 mm

Repeat the same for 3000 kN

Q. A hallow short column of outside diameter 300 mm and
thickness 10 mm carries a load of 1000 kN. Determine at what
eccentricity along a diameter can the load be placed if the
permissible stresses are 150 MPa in compression and 80 MPa
in tension.

Q. Find the stresses at all four corners of the cross section of

short hollow rectangular pier in a bridge, supporting a vertical
point load of 500 kN on a diagonal at 0.8 m from the vertical
axis of the pier. Neglect the self weight of the pier.
Q. A compression member of hallow circular section of 250 mm
outer and 10 mm thickness is subjected to a compressive load at
(75,75) with reference to the centre of the circular section. Find
the maximum stress in the section if the load is 500 kN.
Y
Area of the section = π/4 (2502 – 2302) A
= 7540 mm2
Ixx = Iyy = I = π/64 (2504 – 2304)
= 54.4 x 106 mm4 X X

Direct compressive stress

σa = 500 x 103 / 7540 = 66.3 N/mm2 B

Y
Moments about both the axes
Mx = My = 500 x 103 x 75 = 25 x 106 N-mm
Bending Stress σb = (25 x 106 y) / 54.4 x 106 = 0.46y
Maximum compressive stress will be at A and maximum
tensile stress will be at B.
These points are at 45° to the x – axis, y = 125 cos45° = 88.4
mm
Bending stress = 0.46 x 88.4 = 40.6 N/mm2

Maximum compressive stress at A = 66.3 + 40.6 + 40.6 =

147.5 N/mm2
Maximum tensile stress at b = 66.3 - 40.6 - 40.6 = -14.9N/mm2

Q. A square section with an eccentric hole as shown fig. carries

a load of 300 kN. Find the stresses at the four corners if i) the
load is at point 1 and ii) if the load is at point 2.
 Y
C D
50 mm
2
102.89 mm

75 mm
X 1 X

97.11 mm 75 mm

A B

50 mm 100 mm 50 mm
Y

Area of the section = (200 x 200) – (100 x 75) = 32,500 mm2

To find the centroid, take base as reference
32,500 ŷ = (200x200x100) –(100x75x 112.5)
ŷ = 97.11 mm from base
Ixx = 128.4 x 106 mm4
Iyy = 127 x 106 mm4
1) When the load is at 1
Direct stress σa = 300 x 103 / 32,500 = 9.23 N/mm2
For this load ex = 50 mm and ey = 0 mm
My = 300 x 103 x 50 = 15 x 106 N-mm
The position of this load causes tension at A and C and
compression at B and D
σA = 9.23 – (15 x 106 x 100) / 127 x 106 = - 2.58 N/mm2

σB = 9.23 + (15 x 106 x 100) / 127 x 106 = 21N/mm2

σC = 9.23 – (15 x 106 x 100) / 127 x 106 = - 2.58 N/mm2

σD = 21N/mm2
2) When the load is at point 2
Direct stress remains same ie. 9.23 N/mm2
The moment is now about x-axis, ex = 0
ey = 102.89 – 50 = 52.89 mm
Mx = 300 x 106 x 52.89 = 15.87 x 106 N-mm
Tension at A and B and compression at C and D
σA = 9.23 – (15.87 x 106 x 97.11) / 128.4 x 106 = - 2.77 N/mm2

σB = 9.23 – 12 = - 2.77 N/mm2

σC = 9.23 + (15.87 x 106 x 102.89) / 128.4 x 106 = 22N/mm2

σD = 22N/mm2
Q. A concrete dam 25 meters high is trapezoidal in section and
retains water to a maximum height of 24 m. If the concrete
weights 24 kN/m3 and water 10 kN/m3, find the maximum width
of the base for no tension at the base section.

The water pressure diagram is triangular and the resultant acts at

8 m form the base.
Consider 1 m length of the dam.
The cross section of the dam at the base is a rectangle of 1 m
wide and b m deep.
Being a rectangular section, the middle third rule applies.
The resultant of the water pressure and the self weight should
fall within b/6 from the centre line of the base.

The equilibrium of the dam requires that the overturning

moments about A of the water pressure and self weight be
balanced by the moment of the reactive force at the base.

Moment due to water pressure Mw = 10 x 24 x (24/2) x (24/3)

= 23040 kN-m
Moment due to self weight
= {2.5 x 25 x 24 x (2.5/2)} +
{(b-2.5)x(25/2)x24x(2.5+(b-2.5)/3)}= 1875+100(b-2.5)(b+5)
Vertical component of the reaction has a moment about A, the
vertical component Rv = self weight of the dam
Self Weight = (b+2.5)/2 x 25 x24 = 300 (b+2.5)
In the extreme case this acts at (2/3)b from A
Moment due to Rv = 300(b+2.5) x (2/3)b = 200b(b+2.5)

200b(b+2.5) = 23040 + 1875 + 100 (b-2.5)(b+5)

b = 14.15 m
This is the minimum width required for no tension at the base.
Q. A trapezoidal masonry dam is of 18 m height. The dam is
having water upto a depth of 15 m on its vertical side. The top
and bottom width of the dam are 4 m and 8 m respectively. The
weight density of masonry is given as 19.62 kN/m2. Determine
a. The resultant force on the dam per meter length
b. The point where the resultant cuts the base
c. The max. and min. stress intention at the base.
A short cast iron column has a rectangular cross section of 160
mm X 200 mm with a circular hole of 80 mm diameter as
shown in the fig. It carries a compressive load P = 100 kN as
shown. Determine the stresses at all four corners of the pier.
(Ans: yy centroidal axis is at 83.73 mm from edge AD, ,
eccentricity in x-direction = 23.73 mm
eccentricity in y-direction = 50 mm
stress at corner A = 11.6 MPa (compressive)
stress at corner B = 5.65 MPa (compressive)
stress at corner C = 3.9 MPa (tensile)
stress at corner D = 2.02 MPa (compressive)
 Mechanics of Materials

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

Dr. S Venkateswara Rao

Civil Engineering Department
10/20/2022 1
Column is a vertical member carrying axial compressive force
and moment in general.

Compressive axial force is predominant force and moment is

secondary force on column.

Column is a compression member that is so slender compared

to its length.

Compression members are classified by their length and least

lateral dimension.

Stanchion --- steel columns made of rolled steel sections

in buildings
Post --- end compression members in truss girder bridges
Strut --- compression members in roof trusses
Boom --- principal compression member in a crane

The critical load, which the member can carry before failure,
depends upon
1) member dimensions (cross section and length)
2) end conditions.

Bending is due to lateral force (normal to longitudinal axis) on

a member

Buckling (crippling) is the bending of a member due to

compressive force along or parallel to longitudinal axis.

Buckling shape is the shape of curved configuration of the

longitudinal axis of column under the axial compressive load.
Buckling load is considerably less than the crushing load.

Buckling stresses are in addition to the direct compressive

stress due to applied load.

Buckling tendency of a column varies with the ratio of the

length to least lateral dimension.

Failure of columns

Short column fails due to crushing without buckling i.e when

axial compressive stress exceeds the crushing stress of material

Intermediate column fails due to crushing and buckling

Long column fails due to buckling

Euler’s theory of Buckling
The buckling load of long columns is determined by Euler’s
theory.
Assumptions:
1. The material of column is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The material of column obeys Hooke’s law.
3. Longitudinal axis of column is perfectly straight when it is
unloaded.
4. The line of thrust coincides exactly with the unstrained
longitudinal axis.
5. The flexural rigidity of column is uniform i.e., the column is
prismatic.
Limitations:
1. The longitudinal axis of column may not be straight when
unloaded. The column may have initial curvature, distortion
or crookedness.

2. The line of thrust may not coincide exactly with the

unstrained longitudinal axis.

3. The Euler’s buckling load depends not on the strength of

column material but only on the dimensions and modulus of
elasticity.

4. The Euler’s buckling load is valid for long columns having

slenderness ratio beyond certain value which depends on the
material properties i.e., Young’s modulus of elasticity and
proportionality limit.
Sign convention for bending moment based on buckling
shape:
BM is positive the if the buckling shape has concave surface
towards the initial position.

BM is negative if the buckling shape has convex surface

towards the initial position.
A) Column with both ends hinged
A prismatic column AB of length ‘l’ is subjected to axial
compressive load of ‘P’. The flexural rigidity of column cross
section is ‘EI’.
The origin of x-y axes is at A.

2nd order 1st degree homogeneous differential equation

solution of differential equation:

Boundary conditions:
i) at A, x = 0, y = 0  C1 = 0

ii) at B, x = l, y = 0  
if , there is no buckling


For a column with both ends hinged, Euler’s Buckling Load is

B) Column with one end fixed and another end free
A prismatic column AB of length ‘l’ is subjected to axial
compressive load of ‘P’. The flexural rigidity of column cross
section is ‘EI’.
The origin of x-y axes is at A.

2nd order 1st degree non-homogeneous differential

Equation
Let

solution of differential equation:

Boundary conditions
i) at A, x = 0, y = 0 

ii) at A, x = 0,   

iii) at B, x = l,  

For a column with one end fixed and another end free,
Euler’s Buckling Load is
C) Column with both ends fixed
A prismatic column AB of length ‘l’ is subjected to axial
compressive load of ‘P’. The flexural rigidity of column cross
section is ‘EI’.
The origin of x-y axes is at A.

2nd order 1st degree non-homogeneous differential

Equation

Let
solution of differential equation:

Boundary conditions:
i) at A, x = 0, y = 0 

ii) at A, x = 0,   

iii) at B, x = l,  

iv) at B, x = l, y =0 
By satisfying the boundary conditions (iii) & (iv)

For a column with both ends fixed, Euler’s Buckling Load is

D) Column with one end fixed and another end hinged
A prismatic column AB of length ‘l’ is subjected to axial
compressive load of ‘P’. The flexural rigidity of column cross
section is ‘EI’.
The origin of x-y axes is at A.

2nd order 1st degree non-homogeneous differential

Equation

Let

solution of differential equation:

Boundary conditions:
i) at A, x = 0, y = 0 

ii) at A, x = 0,   

iii) at B, x = l,  

For a column with one end fixed and another end hinged,
Euler’s Buckling Load is
Equivalent Length or Effective Length
End Conditions Euler’s Buckling Effective Length
Load (Equivalent Length ) L
Both ends l
hinged
One end fixed
and other end 2l
free
Both ends fixed

One end fixed

and other end
hinged
Effective length is the distance between the zero-moment points
(Points of contra-flexure)
Validity of Euler’s theory or Limitation of Euler’s theory

Euler’s buckling stress

The denominator in the above equation, is known as

slenderness ratio

Slenderness ratio: It is ratio of Effective length and Least

radius of gyration

Draw the graph between and

Euler’s buckling stress is shown by the line ACB in the diagram.

Euler’s buckling stress is limited by the proportionality limit.

Therefore, Euler’s formula cannot be applied, if the slenderness

ratio is less than OD.

For mild steel, E = 2x105 N/mm2,

As per Hooke’s law, the proportionality limit is 250 N/mm2

The limit for slenderness ratio is

For mild steel of 250 grade, Euler’s formula is applicable for

columns with both ends hinged, having slenderness ratio more
than 89. Hence the dotted line portion AC in the Euler’s
buckling stress curve is not valid.
Rankine’s Theory
Euler’s theory is valid only for columns having slenderness ratio
beyond certain limit which depends on the Young’s modulus of
elasticity and allowable stress of column’s material.

Rankine’s theory is valid for all columns.

Rankine’s load = PR

Euler’s buckling load =

Crushing load = where σc is the crushing stress for

material of column
Reciprocal of Rankine’s load is the summation of reciprocals
of crushing load and Euler’s load

Validity of Rankine’s theory for short column

For the given material σc is constant, therefore is also

constant. For the short column, PE is very large, hence is
very small compared to .

Therefore, is approximately equal to . Hence,

Validity of Rankine’s theory for long column

For the long column, PE is extremely small, hence is very large

compared to .

Therefore, is approximately equal to

Hence

Hence the Rankine’s theory is valid for all columns.

 
where α is called as Rankine’s constant. It is found
experimentally and not from the expression.

material (MPa)
Wrought iron 255
Cast iron 567
Mild steel 330
Strong
50
Timber
Q. A column of timber section 15 cm x 20 cm is 6 m long with
both ends being fixed. If the Young’s modulus for timber = 17.5
kN/mm2, determine 1) Crippling load and 2)safe load for the
column if factor of safety as 3.

Effective length Le = l/2

Ixx = 10000 x 104 mm4

Iyy = 5625 x 104 mm4

P = (π2 x 17.5 x 5625 x 104) / 3000 = 1079.48 kN

Safe load = Crippling load / Factor of Safety

= 1079.48 / 3 = 360 kN
Q. A hallow mild steel column 6 m long 4 cm internal diameter
and 5 mm thick with both ends hinged. Find the crippling load
and safe load taking factor of safety as 3. Take E = 200 GPa.

Q. A simply supported beam of length 4 m is subjected to udl of

30 kN/m over the entire length and deflects 15 mm at the centre.
Determine the crippling load when the beam is used as a
column with the following conditions
1) One end fixed and other end hinged
2) Both the ends pin jointed

udl = 30 kN/m = 30 N/mm

δ = 15 mm = (5wl4) / 384 EI

EI = 0.67 x 1013 Nmm2

1) P = 2π2EI/l2 = 8224.5 kN

2) P = π2EI/l2 = 4112.25 kN

Q. Calculate the Euler’s critical load for a strut of T – section,

the flange width 10 cm, overall depth 8 cm and both flange and
web 1 cm thick. The strut is 3 m long and built in at both ends.
Take E = 200 GPa.

Q. A tube of short length having outer and inner diameters of

50 mm and 40 mm respectively, failed in axial compression at
250 kN. When the same tube of 2 m length is tested as a strut
with fixed ends, it failed at 150 kN load. Determine the
Rankine’s load of the same tube, if it is used as a strut of 3 m
length with one end fixed and another hinged.
Area of section = π (502 – 402) = 706.8 mm2
Axial Compressive strength = 250 x 103 / 706 .8 = 353.67 N/mm2
Effect length Le = 2000/2 = 1000 mm
k2 = I / A = 256.25 mm2

= 62494.58 N
Q. A mild steel column of 6 m height is built up with two 300
mm x 90 mm channels placed back-to-back with 150 mm apart
and a plate of 400 mm x 12 mm on each flange of channels, so
that formed symmetrical cross section. Calculate the safe axial
load on the column with a factor of safety of 3.5. Both the ends
of column are firmly built in with the beams.
The cross sectional properties of each channel section are
A = 4564 mm2, distance of c.g. from back of web = 23.6 mm,
Ixx = 63.626X106 mm4 and Iyy = 3.108X106 mm4 ;sc = 320 MPa,
a = 1/7500
A = 2[4564+(400X12)] =18728 mm2

L = 3000 mm
Q. A hallow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long with both
ends fixed. Determine the minimum diameter of the column. If
it has to carry a safe load of 250 kN with a factor of safety of 5.
Take the internal diameter as 0.8 times the external diameter.
Take σc = 550 N/mm2 and α = 1/1600 in Rankine’s formula.

Effect length L = l/2 = 4000/2 = 2000 mm

Internal diameter = 0.8 D

Safe load = Crippling load / FOS

Crippling load = 5 x 250 = 1250 kN

Area of column A = π/4 (D2 – (0.8D)2) = π x 0.09D2
Moment of Inertia I = π/64 (D4 – (0.8D)4) = π x 0.009D4
Radius of gyration k = √(I/A) = 0.32 D

Rankine’s Load P = (σc x A) / {1+α(L/k)2}

1250 x 103 = (550 x π x 0.09D2) / {1+(1/1600)(2000/0/32D)}

D2 = 18592.5 mm2
External diameter D = 136.3 mm
Internal diameter d = 109 mm
Column under Eccentric Loading

When short column is under eccentric load (P) with an

eccentricity (e)

If σallow = allowable stress for given material

Reduction factor due to eccentricity

If buckling effect is considered, from Rankine’s equation,

Reduction factor due to buckling

Therefore, the Rankine’s formula for long column under

eccentric loading, by considering both effects of eccentricity
and buckling

The above equation is empirical equation.

From first principles, the expression for maximum compressive

stress is derived. This formula is known as Secant Formula.
 Column of length ‘L’ is hinged at both
ends.
A is lower end of column
B is upper end of column
AB = longitudinal axis
P = eccentric load
e = eccentricity of load
O = origin of co-ordinate axes OX and
OY

DD is a section located at distance ‘x’

x from origin.

Any point on line DD will have same

displacement in Y direction due to
buckling.
B.M. at section DD is ‘Py’ (+ve due to concave buckling)

Note: If member is short then there is no buckling, but

eccentricity causes bending. Any point in the member is
subjected to bending moment of ‘Pe’ in addition to axial
compression of ‘P’.

Solution of the differential equation:

Boundary conditions: 1) At A, i.e., x=0, y = e 

2. At C, i.e., x= L/2,

3. At C, i.e., x= L/2, y = ymax,

Maximum bending moment (which occurs at CC) is

Maximum compressive stress in the cross section of column is

where, yc is the extreme fiber distance in the compression zone
due to buckling

(The above maximum compressive stress occurs on the left edge

cross section at CC)
Use of Secant formula:

1) The allowable eccentricity for given stress can be found.

2)The maximum stress in the cross section of column can be

found for the given condition.
Limitation of Secant formula:

The magnitude of eccentric load cannot be found for the given

stress and given eccentricity.
Perry’s formula:

The limitation of Secant formula is overcome by Perry’s formula,

which is empirical expression (based on experiments).

Experimentally it was found that

from which ‘σ’ can be calculated and from ‘σ’, the magnitude of
eccentric load can be found.

is Euler’s buckling stress.

Q. A cast iron column of 2.4 m long, 100 mm outer diameter
and 80 mm inner diameter with fixed ends carries compressive
load. The allowable crushing stress and Rankine’s constant for
cast iron is 60 MPa and 1/1600. If the load is eccentric by 5
mm, determine the reduction factor in the load due to (i)
eccentricity and (ii) buckling.

Reduction factor due to eccentricity

Reduction factor due to buckling

Area A = π/2 (1002 – 802) = 2827.43 mm2

MI = π/4 (1004 – 804) = 2898119.2 mm4

k2 = I/A = 1025 mm2
Reduction factor due to eccentricity = 1 + (5x50)/10252
= 1.244
Reduction factor due to buckling = 1.61

Rankine’s load P = σ A /(1.24 x 1.61) =

Q. A straight tube of 2m long with fixed ends carries a

compressive load of 5 kN. The tube is of 40 mm outer diameter
and 36 mm inner diameter. The load is parallel to the axis of
column at an eccentricity of 1.5 mm. Find the maximum and
minimum stresses in the tube. Young’s modulus of column
material is 210 GPa.
Area A = π/2 (402 – 362) = mm2

MI = π/4 (404 – 364) = 43215mm4

k2 = I/A = 13.45 mm2
σa = P/A = 20.94 MPa
σb = My/I
= My/Ak2
M = 8047.9 N-mm

σb = 3.72 MPa

Maximum stress = σa + σb = 24.66 N/mm2

Minimum Stress = σa - σb = 17.2 N/mm2

Q. A pipe of 2.4 m long with hinged ends has to carry a

compressive load of 25 kN, which is parallel to the longitudinal
axis at an eccentricity of 6 mm. The pipe is of 48 mm outer
diameter and 40 mm inner diameter. Determine the extreme
stresses in the tube. Also find the maximum permissible
eccentricity so that no tension exists anywhere in the cross
section. Young’s modulus of pipe material is 205 GPa.
Q. A tubular steel strut with a 44 mm inner diameter and a 56
mm outer diameter is of 2.2 m long with hinged ends. The
compressive load is parallel to its longitudinal axis. Calculate
the maximum eccentricity for a crippling load of 75% of the
Euler’s buckling load. The yield stress is 290 MPa and Young’s
modulus of steel is 207 GPa.

Area = 942.5 mm2

MI = 298765 mm4

PE = π2EI/L2 = 126111.6 N
P = 0.75 x PE = 94583.7 N

k2 = 317 mm2
σa = 100.35 MPa

= 452777 N-mm

σb = 189.64 MPa

e = 4.46 mm
Q. A mild steel column of 100 mm outside diameter and 80 mm
inside diameter is of 2.5 m long with hinged ends. Determine
the maximum permissible load with an eccentricity of 15 mm, if
the maximum compressive stress is limited to 75 MPa and
Young’s modulus of mild steel is 205 GPa.

D d l e sallow E End-Conditions L A M.I. k2 PE sE

100 80 2.5 15 75 205 H- H 2.5 2827.4334 2898119.223 1025 938187.92 331.8161

mm mm m mm Mpa Gpa m mm2 mm4 mm2 N Mpa

so2 - 698.16682 so + 24886.207 = 0
so1 = 660.4883247 MPa s0 shall be less than sallow
so2 = 37.67849721 MPa Allowable load P = 106533.44 N
 Mechanics of Materials

SPRINGS

Dr. S Venkateswara Rao

Civil Engineering Department
11/16/2022 1
Springs are used to absorb energy due to shocks (effect of blow
on the vehicle is reduced)

Spring may be regarded as a device of storing energy in the form

of strain energy

Properties of Spring: (spring is under elastic condition)

Capacity of the spring to absorb the energy

Deformation produced by a given load, without exceeding the

allowable stress

Natural frequency of vibration in some cases

Stiffness of the spring is the load require to produce unit
deformation
Resilience of the spring is the capacity for storing energy
without exceeding the allowable stress
Classification of Springs based on shape:
1. Coiled springs:
Helical springs (made of wire)
Close-coiled helical springs
Open-coiled helical springs

2. Spiral springs (made of thin wire)

Spiral springs
Close-coiled conical spiral springs

3. Leaf springs (carriage springs)

Consisting of one or more flat plates
Flat Spiral spring
Classification of Springs based on Load to be carried:
1. Torsion springs
Spring wire cross section is subjected to torsion only
Example: Close-coiled helical spring under axial load

2. Bending springs
Spring wire cross section is subjected to bending only
Example: Carriage springs

Open-coiled helical spring falls in both categories

Close-coiled helical spring

Close-coiled helical spring is made of wire in the form of helix

described on a right circular cylinder

The coils of a helical spring are so close together that they can
be considered as practically lying, in planes at right angles to
the axis of the helix
Angle of helix: (a)

The angle between the plane of coil and normal to the axis of
helix (axis of spring).

Angle of helix is neglected in Close-coiled helical springs

Close-coiled helical spring under axial load

Axial load may be tensile or compressive

Axial load on spring is along the axis of spring. This load

causes twisting moment on the cross section of spring wire

It is assumed that each coil is situated in a plane normal to the

axis of the spring (angle of helix is less than 100)
 Geometry:
d = diameter of spring wire
R = mean radius of coil
n = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G = shear modulus (rigidity
modulus) of spring wire material
Load:
W = axial load on the spring
Resistance:
τ = torsional shear stress in the spring wire cross section

Deformation:
δ = axial deformation in the spring
θ = angle of twist in the cross section of spring wire
Twisting moment on the cross section of spring wire

Angle of twist in the cross section of wire

Axial deformation

Torsional shear stress in the wire

direct shear stress

Maximum shear stress

For most of the springs,

therefore direct shear stress is neglected
Maximum shear stress

Strain Energy stored in the spring wire

Strain energy in the spring per unit volume

Resilience of spring is

proof resilience
Strain Energy per unit volume in the spring

Stiffness of the spring

Close coiled helical spring under axial torque (T)

Geometry:
d = diameter of spring wire
R = mean radius of coil
n = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of
spring wire material
Load:
T = axial torque applied on the spring about
the axis of spring.
The twisting couple T will tend to unwind or wind up the
spring.

This axial torque T causes bending moment on the spring wire

at all cross sections equal to ‘T’.

Change in curvature =
R = initial radius of curvature
Rˈ= new value of radius of curvature due to the axial torque on
spring
n = initial number of coils in the spring
nˈ= new value for number of coils in the spring due to the axial
torque on spring
L = total length of spring wire
In the above equation, it is assumed that the axial twist ‘T’ wind
up the spring, therefore

R  R and n  n

total angle of twist at the free end of spring about the axis
of spring, in radians

Increase in number of coils (or turns) =

The bending moment in the cross section of wire

angle of twist at the free end of spring about the axis of spring, in
radians

Increase in number of coils (or turns) =

Bending stress in the wire

Strain Energy stored in the spring

Strain Energy per unit volume stored in the spring

Q. A close-coiled helical spring absorbs 72 J of energy when
compressed through 60 mm. If the spring consists of 8 coils at a
mean diameter of 10 times the wire diameter, determine the coil
diameter and maximum shear stress in the wire. The rigidity
modulus of wire material is 82 GPa.

Solution:
U = 72000 N-mm d = 60 mm n = 8 R = 5d G = 0.82X105
MPa (or) N/mm2

W = 2400 N

d = 31.219 mm

τ = 62.706 MPa
Q. A wagon weighing 35 kN moves at a speed of 3.6 kmph.
Determine the number of springs required in a buffer-stop to
absorb the energy of motion during a compression of 180 mm.
The mean diameter of coil is 220 mm and the diameter of wire
is 24 mm. Each spring consists of 30 coils. The rigidity modulus
of wire material is 90 GPa.
Solution:
Given data: Weight (find mass), v, d, R, d, n, & G ---
Unknowns: N (no. of springs)
Find W from δ; find U ;find KE = ½ mv2 ; find no. of
springs from U and KE
W (kN) v (kmph) d (mm) G (Gpa) R (mm) d (mm) n n1
35 3.6 180 90 110 24 30 ?
k.E.=(J) 1783.9 W = (N) 2103.2
n1 = 9.4242 U = (J) 189.29
Q. A closely coiled helical spring of mean diameter 20 cm is
made of 3 cm diameter rod and has 16 turns. A weight of 3 kN
is dropped on this spring. Find the height by which the weight
should be dropped before striking the spring so that the spring
may be compressed by 18 cm. Take G = 80 GPa.

R = 100 mm d = 30 mm n = 16 W = 3000 N δ = 180 mm

Let h = height through which the weight W is dropped.

180 = (64 x W x 1003 x 16) / (304 x 8 x 104)

W = 11390 N

Work Done by the falling weight on the spring = W(h+δ)

Energy stored in the spring = Wδ/2

Equating work done and energy

3000 (h+δ) = (11390 x180)/2

h = 161.7 mm

Q. A close coiled helical spring made of 10 mm diameter wire

with 8 coils at 150 mm mean diameter is subjected to axial load
of 130 N. The rigidity modulus of wire material is 32GPa. Find
the elongation in the spring. Also calculate the stress and strain
energy per unit volume in the spring wire.
If this spring is subjected to an axial torque of 9 Nm instead of
the axial load, find axial twist in the spring, stress and strain
energy per unit volume in the spring wire. E = 85 GPa
Solution:
n=8 d = 10 mm R = 75 mm W = 130 N
G = 0.32x105 N/mm2

Torsional shear stress

Strain energy per unit volume

=19263.69 J/m3
Spring is subjected to axial torque of 9 N-m in place of axial load
Axial twist in the spring
Bending stress in the wire

Strain energy per unit volume

Q. Determine the wire diameter, number of coils and the coil

mean diameter of a close-coiled helical spring having stiffness
of 600 N/m and solid length (height) of 60 mm. The maximum
shear stress is 100 MPa when it is subjected to a maximum load
of 40 N. The rigidity modulus of wire material is 32 GPa.
Solution:
k = 0.6 N/mm nd = 60 mm τmax = 100 MPa
when Wmax = 40 N G = 0.32x105 N/mm2
Unknowns d, n, & R
Stiffness: k = 600 N/m = 0.6 N/mm,
Solid length = 60 mm  mm
Maximum shear stress

d = 3.29 mm n = 18.23 D = 35.02 mm

Q. A close coiled helical spring requires an axial load of W to
produce unit axial deformation and an axial torque of T to
produce unit angular rotation (independent of W). Show that .

Also find the value of ν if 120 kN axial load extends the spring by
80 mm and 500 Nm torque produces an angular rotation of 900 if
D = 25mm.
From axial load:

From axial Twist:

ν = 0.358
Q. A close coiled helical spring absorbs 40 kN-m energy when
fully compressed i.e., coils are in contact. The free height of
spring is 120 mm, coil mean diameter is 80 mm allowable shear
stress is 120 MPa. Determine the diameter of spring wire and
number coils. The rigidity modulus of wire material is 82 GPa.

ν = 0.265
Q. A close coiled helical spring absorbs 40 kN-m energy when
fully compressed i.e., coils are in contact. The free height of
spring is 120 mm, coil mean diameter is 80 mm allowable shear
stress is 120 MPa. Determine the diameter of spring wire and
number coils. The rigidity modulus of wire material is 82 GPa.
Solution:
Given data: U = 40 kN-m = 40x106 N-mm R = 40 mm
τallow = 120 Mpa G = 0.82 x 105 MPa
Unknowns d& n
Free height-axial deformation (δ) =solid height (nd)

cubic equation by trial, d = 39.2 mm, n = 3

Q. A close coiled helical spring is made with round wire,
having ‘n’ number of coils such that the mean diameter of coils
‘D’ is equal to ten times the wire diameter ‘d’. Show that the
stiffness of such spring is ‘D/n’. The rigidity modulus of spring
wire material is 80 GPa.
The above spring is required to support 1 kN load with an
extension of 100 mm and a maximum shear stress of 350 MPa.
Find the weight of spring, mean coil diameter, number of coils.
Unit weight of spring material is 78000 N/m3.

Solution: R = 5d

Stiffness

Strain energy N-mm

Weight

R=42.6487mm
 D = 85.2975 mm

Stiffness
Open-coiled Helical Springs
Axial load may be tensile or compressive

Axial load on spring is along the axis of spring. This load on

Open coiled helical spring produces twisting moment and
bending moment in the wire

Angle of helix: (α)

The angle between the plane of coil and normal to the axis of
helix (axis of spring)
Geometry:
d = diameter of spring wire
R = mean radius of coil
D = mean diameter of coils = 2R
n = number of coils in the spring
α = angle of helix

where p = pitch of coils

Material:
G = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of spring wire material
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of spring wire material

Load:
W = axial load on the spring

Resistance:
Axial load on Open coiled helical spring produces both twisting
moment and bending moment in the cross section of spring wire.
τ = torsional shear stress in the spring wire cross section
σb = bending stress in the spring wire cross section

Deformation:
δ = axial deformation in the spring
θ = angle of twist in the cross section of spring wire
Open coiled Helical spring subjected to axial load:
Consider an open coiled helical spring subjected to an axial load
W, p is the pitch of the coil and is the vertical distance traversed
as the wire goes around the helical path in one turn.

d is the diameter of the wire and R is the mean radius of the

coil.

α is the angle made by the helical centre line to the horizontal

tan α = p/2πR

If we consider the diametrical plane cutting the coil, the axial

load produces a moment M = WR as in the case of a closed
coiled spring.
The vertical load W is also inclined to the plane of the section at
an angle α. This leads to the following four effects on the
section of the coil.
1. Bending moment Mb = M sin α = WR sin α
2. Torsional moment Mt = M cos α = WR cos α
3. Axial Tension T = W sin α
4. Transverse shear V = W cos α

Mb and Mt are components of M acting at an angle α to the

helical centre line.

The axial tension and transverse shear are components of the

vertical load W acting obliquely to the normal section of the
wire.
1. Maximum bending stress σb = 32Mb/πd3 = 32 WR sinα / πd3

2. Maximum shear stress τt = 16Mt/πd3 = 16 WR cosα / πd3

3. Uniform tensile stress due to axial tension T

= σt = 4 W sin α/πd2
4. The tensile stress due to transverse shear V is
τv = (4/3) x average shear stress for a circular section
τv = (4/3) x W cos α / (πd2/4) = 16 W cos α / πd2

The maximum tensile stress σmax = σb + σt

= (32 WR sinα / πd3 ) + (4 W sin α/πd2 )

= 32 WR sinα / πd3 (1+ (d/8R))
Second term within the brackets is very small.
The direct tensile stress is very small compared to the bending
stress.
The maximum shear stress τmax = τt + τv

= (16 WR cosα / πd3) + (16 W cos α / πd2)

= (16 WR cos α / πd3) (1+(d/3R))

The second term within the brackets is small.
The stress due to transverse shear is small compared to torsional
moment.
Combined effect of theses stresses, the major principle stress
σ = (σmax /2) + √((σmax /2)2 + (τmax)2)

= 16 WR sinα / πd3 (1+ (d/8R)) + √{(16 WR sinα / πd3 (1+

(d/8R))2 + (16 WR cos α / πd3) (1+(d/3R))2}
Neglecting the effects of axial tension and transverse shear
σ = (16 WR sinα / πd3) + √{(16 WR sinα / πd3)2 + (16 W cos α /
πd3)2}

= (16 WR/ πd3){sin α + √(sin2α + cos2α)}

= (16 WR/ πd3)(sin α + 1)

Similarly, the maximum shear stress

τmax = ±√{(σmax/2)2 + (τmax)2}

= ±√{(16 WR sinα / πd3 (1+ (d/8R))2 + (16 WR cos α / πd3)

(1+(d/3R))2}

τmax = ± (16WR/πd3) neglecting the axial tension and transverse

shear
Deformation of the Spring
Under the action of the axial load, the spring undergoes
deformation, can be measured as a vertical deflection of the
spring or as a total angular rotation of the lower point with respect
to the fixed upper point.

Due to axial twist Mt:

The axial twist Mt = WR cosα
Consider an elementary length ds
of the spring.
Assuming the upper and lower portions, adjacent to ds are rigid.

The relative rotation between 1 and 2 is dυ

Torsion formula T/J = Gθ/L θ = TL/GJ

dυ = M ds / GJ = WR cosα ds / GJ
The rotation dυ is considered as a vector and resolved into
components dυ cosα and dυ sinα as rotations about horizontal
and vertical axes.
Rotation about the vertical axes does not causes any deflection
and the rotation about the horizontal axis contributes the vertical
deflection of the coil.

The vertical deflection due to the rotation component is Rdυ cosα

dΔ1 = (WR2cos2α / GJ) ds

The torque Mt is over the whole length of the spring

L = 2πRn/cosα

The axial deflection due to twist Δ1 =

Δ1 = (WR2cos2α/GJ)(2πRn/cosα)

= 64 WR3n cos α / Gd4

Deflection due to Bending Moment Mb:

Any elemental length ds is subjected to a constant BM,
Mb = WR sin α
The relative rotation between the ends of the elementary length
ds is dυ = (M/EI)ds = (WR sin α /EI) ds

This relative rotation can be resolved into horizontal and vertical

components as dυ sin α and dυ cos α

Only horizontal component dυ sin α leads to vertical deflection.

Vertical deflection Δ2 due to constant BM.
Mb acting on an element of length ds.
Δ2 = R dυ sinα = (WR2sin2α / EI) ds

Δ2 = (WR2sin2α / EI) ds

Δ2 = (WR2sin2α/EI)(2πRn/cos α)

= (128WR3 nsin2α/Ed4cosα)

Total deflection Δ = Δ1 + Δ2

= (64 WR3n cos α / Gd4) + (128WR3 nsin2α/Ed4cosα)

= (64 WR3n / d4 cos α) {(cos2 α /G) + (2sin2 α /E)}

Angular rotation:
The angular rotation of the loaded end of the spring with respect
to the fixed top can similarly found.

Consider the effect of only the BM and torque.

Due to torque Mt: If dθ1 is the relative rotation between the

ends of the spring about vertical axis, then dθ1 = dυ sinα

Where dυ = (WR cosα / GJ) ds

dθ1 = (WR cosα sinα / GJ) ds

To obtain the total rotation of the bottom end wrt the top end,
integrate over the entire length L = 2πRn/cosα
θ1 =

= (WR cosα sinα / GJ) ds

= (WR cosα sinα / GJ) (2πRn/cosα) = (64 WR2n sinα)/ Gd4

Due to Bending Moment Mb

The rotation of the elementary length ds due to the BM Mb is
dθ2 = dυ cosα where dυ is (WR sin α /EI) ds

dθ2 = (WR sinα cos α / EI) ds

θ2 = = (WR cosα sinα / EI) ds

= (WR cosα sinα / EI) (2πRn/cosα) = (128 WR2n sinα)/ Ed4

This rotation is anticlockwise as seen from the top and is
opposite to that of θ1

The total rotation of the bottom end of the spring w.r.t the fixed
top end is

θ = θ1 + θ2

= {(64 WR2n sinα)/ Gd4 } - {(128 WR2n sinα)/ Ed4 }

= {64 WR2n sinα)/ Gd4 }{(1/G) – (2/E)}

θ is clockwise when looked at from the top, the coil is wound
up.
Due to this rotation, which is in the same direction in which the
coils wound, the number of coils increases.
If nˈ is the number of coils after rotation, then
θ = 2πnˈ - 2πn

nˈ = (θ/2π) + n

Open coiled Spring under axial torsion:

Consider open coiled helical spring
Subjected to an axial torsion.

The spring has n coils of diameter 2R made up of wire diameter

d.
If p is the pitch of the coils, then the inclination of the helical
axis is tan α = p/2πR

Due to the applied torque T, each section of the wire is

subjected to a moment T.
The moment T acting at any section can be resolved into normal
and tangential components.

Mb = T cos α and Mt = T sin α

σ = (M/I)y = {(T cos α)/(πd4/64)} d/2 = (32Tcos α)/πd3

τ = (Mt/J)r = {(T sin α)/(πd4/32)} d/2 = (16Tsin α)/πd3

Due to the normal stress σ and shear stress τ, the principal stress

σ1 =

= (32Tcos α)/2πd3 + √{(32Tcos α)/πd3}2 + {(16Tsin α)/πd3}2

= (16T/πd3) (1+cos α)
The maximum shear stress τmax = ±√(σ/2)2 +τ2

= ±√((32Tcos α)/πd3)2 + {(16Tsin α)/πd3} 2

= ±16T/πd3

Axial deformation of the spring:

The axial deflection is caused by the torque Mt as well as BM Mb.

Due to torque Mt :
dυ = Mt ds / GJ = T sin α ds / GJ

The component of this rotation about the horizontal axis causes

vertical deflection

Horizontal component is dυ cos α

dΔ1 = R dυ cos α = (RT sin α cos α) ds / GJ
Integrate over the length of the spring
Δ1 = dΔ1

= (RT sin α cos α) ds /GJ ={(RT sin α cos α) ds / GJ}(2πRn/cosα)

Δ1 = 64R2Tn sin α / Gd4

Due to BM Mb:
The relative rotation between the ends of the elementary length ds
is dυ = Mb ds/EI = T cos α ds /EI

Horizontal component of dυ = dυ sinα

The vertical deflection due to the horizontal component of

rotation is dΔ2 = R dυ sin α = (RT cos α sin α ds)/EI
This deflection is downward and opposite to that due to Mt
Δ2 = dΔ2

= (RT cos α sin α ds)/EI = {(RT cos α sin α ds)/EI}{{2πRn/cosα)}

Δ2 = (128R2TnSinα) / Ed4

Total deflection (downward) Δ = Δ1 - Δ2

Δ = (64R2Tn sin α / Gd4) – ((128R2TnSinα) / Ed4)

= (64R2Tn sin α / d4) {(1/G) – (2/E)}

Rotation: Vertical components of the rotation vectors due to the

effects Mb and Mt cause an angular rotation between the fixed
point at the top and lower point where the twist is applied.
Due to torque Mt:
The component causing rotation is dυ sinα, where dυ is the
relative rotation between the ends of the elementary length ds.
The rotation between the ends of the spring
θ1 = dυ sin α = (T sin α sin α) ds / GJ

= (T sin2α / GJ) {(2πRn) /cos α} = 64 TRnsin2α / Gd4 cosα

Due to BM Mb:
The vertical component of the rotation is

dθ2 = dυ cos α = (T cos α cos α ds)/EI

θ2 = dυ cos α = {(T cos2 α)/EI}{(2πRn)/cosα}

θ2 = (128 TRn cos2α) / (Ed4 cos α)

Total rotation θ = θ1 + θ2
= {64 TRnsin2α / Gd4 cosα} + {(128 TRn cos2α) / (Ed4 cos α)}

= (64 TRn / d4 cosα) {(sin2α / G) + (2cos2α/E)}

If nˈ is the new number of turns due to this rotation, then

nˈ = (θ/2π) + n

Strain energy of open coiled helical spring:

Due to axial load:
If the axial load is W, then the torque Mt = WR cos α and Mb =
WR sinα.

The strain energy stored in the spring over an elementary length

ds is dU = (Mb2 ds/2EI) + (Mt2 ds/2GJ)
U = (Mb2 ds/2EI) + (Mt2 ds/2GJ)

={(W2R2sin2α)/2EI}{2πRn/cosα}+{(W2R2cos2α)/2GJ}{2πRn/cosα

= (32P2R3n)/(d4 cosα) {(2sin2α/E) +(cos2α/G)}

Due to axial torque:

The sections of the spring are subjected to a constant torque Mt = T
sin α and BM Mb = T cosα over the elemental length ds
Strain Energy dU = (Mb2 ds/2EI) + (Mt2 ds/2GJ)

= (32T2Rn)/(d4 cosα) {(sin2α/G) +(2cos2α/E)}

An open coiled helical spring is made by winding 8 mm diameter
wire on a 100 mm diameter shaft with 12 coils having an
inclination of 600 with the axis of shaft. Determine the axial
deformation in the spring under the axial force of 80 N. Also find
the angle turned by the free end of spring. Calculate the maximum
normal stress and shear stress induced in the spring wire.The
rigidity modulus and young’s modulus of wire material are 80 GPa
and 205 GPa respectively.
Ans:
E = 2.05x105N/mm2 G = 0.8x105N/mm2

d = 8 mm R = 54 mm n = 12 α = 300 W = 80 N

= 32.2211 mm
 = 0.060009 rad = 3.438 deg

T = WR cos α = 3741.23 N-mm BM = WR sin α = 2160 N-mm

τ = 37.215MPa σb = 42.9718MPa

Maximum normal stress = 64.456 MPa

Maximum shear stress = 42.97MPa
Q. The mean coil diameter of an open coiled helical spring is 80
mm and the pitch of coils is 65 mm. The diameter of spring wire
is 6 mm and number of coils is 8. Determine the axial
deformation in the spring under the axial force of 80 N. Also find
the angle turned by the free end of spring. Calculate the
maximum normal stress and shear stress induced in the spring
wire. The rigidity modulus and young’s modulus of wire material
are 80 GPa and 200GPa respectively.

Solution: E = 2x105 N/mm2 G = 0.8x105 N/mm2

d = 6 mm R = 40 mm n = 8 p = 65 mm W = 80 N

α = 14.5°

δ = 25.78 mm
 θ = 0.031654 rad = 1.813643°

T = WR cos α = N-mm BM = WR sin α = N-mm

MPa MPa

Maximum normal stress = 94.343 MPa

Maximum shear stress = 75.451 MPa

Q. An open coiled helical spring having 8 turns is made of steel
wire of 6 mm diameter. It has a mean coil diameter of 80 mm and a
pitch of 65 mm. If the spring is subjected to an axial torque of 5 N-
m, determine the maximum normal and shear stresses induced in
the spring wire. Also find the angle of rotation of the spring and
axial deformation in the spring. The rigidity modulus and young’s
modulus of wire material are 80 GPa and 200 GPa respectively.

Solution: n = 8 d = 6 mm R = 40 mm G = 80000 MPa

p = 65 mm T = 5 N-m = 5000 N-mm E = 200000 MPa

angle of helix α = 14.5°

= 1.97 mm

= 0.83 rad
Shear stress in the wire = 29.52 MPa

Bending stress in the wire = 228.27 MPa

Max. normal stress = 232.03 MPa

Max. shear stress = 117.89 MPa

H.W. An open coiled helical spring has 10 coils having 80 mm
mean diameter with 12 mm diameter wire. The angle of helix is
150. Determine the axial deformation of the spring under the
axial force of 250 N. Find the maximum normal and shear
stresses induced in the wire. The rigidity modulus and young’s
modulus of wire material are 80 GPa and 204 GPa respectively.

Ans: d = 6.2983 mm, θ = 0.0086 rad = 0.494°,

σb= 15.256 MPa, τ = 28.469 MPa,
σ1,2 = 37.101 -21.845 MPa, τmax =29.473 MPa)

H.W. An open coiled helical spring has 10 coils having 80 mm

mean diameter with 12 mm diameter wire. The angle of helix is
150. Determine the axial deformation of the spring under axial
torque of 60 N-m. Find the maximum normal and shear stresses
induced in the wire. The rigidity modulus and young’s modulus
of wire material are 80 GPa and 204 GPa respectively.
Ans: (d = 2.06755 mm, θ = 0.76568° = 43.8705 deg,
σb= 341.63 MPa, τ = 45.769 MPa,
σ1,2 = 347.65, -6.026 MPa, τmax = 176.84 MPa

Q. In the estimation of axial deformation of open coiled helical

spring under axial load, close coiled formula is adopted,
determine the maximum value for angle of helix for which the
error shall not exceed 1 %. Assume E = 2.5 G.
Q. In an open coiled helical spring, the stresses due to twisting
and bending are 120 MPa and 90 MPa respectively when the
spring is loaded axially. The spring consists of 8 coils at a mean
diameter of 10 times the wire diameter. Determine the maximum
permissible load and the diameter of wire for a maximum
deflection of 30 mm. The rigidity modulus and young’s modulus
of wire material are 80 GPa and 204 GPa respectively.

Solution:
τ = 120 MPa σb = 90 MPa dmax = 30 mm n=8 R = 5d
E= 204 Gpa G=80 GPa W = ?d =?
W = 258.533 N

d = 7.1673 mm
Q. An open coiled helical spring of 120mm mean diameter has
10 coils made with 20 mm diameter steel wire, at a slope of 300
to horizontal when the coil axis is vertical. Find the axial load
and torque required to extend the spring by 5mm by preventing
the rotation. Indicate whether the torque tends to windup or
unwind the spring. The rigidity modulus and young’s modulus
of wire material are 80 GPa and 200 GPa respectively.

Solution: R = 60 mm, n = 10, d = 20 mm, a = 300,

E = 200 GPa & G = 80 GPa
W=426N &T=-2.6N-m i.e. unwind
Compound Springs

Two or more close coiled helical springs together resisting the

external load

Springs may be in series or parallel

Load may be tensile or compressive but axial

on the compound spring
(axis of springs must be same)
W = axial load on the compound spring

d = axial deformation in the compound spring

stiffness of the compound spring is

Spring – 1
Geometry:
d1 = diameter of spring wire
R1 = mean radius of coil
n1 = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G1 = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of spring wire material
Load:
W1 = axial load resisted by the spring 1 (out of total load W)
Resistance:
τ1 = torsional shear stress in the 1st spring wire cross section

Deformation:
δ1 = axial deformation in the spring 1

Stiffness of the spring 1 is

Spring – 2
Geometry:
d2 = diameter of spring wire
R2 = mean radius of coil
n2 = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G2 = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of spring wire material
Load:
W2 = axial load resisted by the spring 2 (out of total load W)
Resistance:
τ2 = torsional shear stress in the 2nd spring wire cross section
Deformation:
δ2 = axial deformation in the spring 2

Stiffness of the spring 2 is

By force equilibrium, the axial load carried by each spring is
same

From compatibility condition, the total deflection in the

compound spring is the sum of deflections in each spring

Springs connected in parallel

Two springs compressed by two parallel plates

Springs are concentric i.e., one spring is placed inside the other
spring coaxially i.e.,
longitudinal axis is same for both springs
radial clearance i.e., distance between the two springs is same in
any radial direction.
W = axial load on the compound spring
Stiffness of the compound spring is

By compatibility condition, the axial

deformation in each spring is same.

By force equilibrium, the total load carried by

the compound spring is the sum of loads carried
by each spring

Spring – 1
Geometry:
d1 = diameter of spring wire
R1 = mean radius of coil
n1 = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G1 = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of spring wire material
Load:
W1 = axial load resisted by the spring 1 (out of total load W)
Resistance:
τ1 = torsional shear stress in the 1st spring wire cross section
Deformation:
δ1 = axial deformation in the spring 1

Stiffness of the spring 1 is

Spring – 2
Geometry:
d2 = diameter of spring wire
R2 = mean radius of coil
n2 = number of coils in the spring
Material:
G2 = shear modulus (rigidity modulus) of spring wire material
Load:
W2 = axial load resisted by the spring 2 (out of total load W)
Resistance:
τ2 = torsional shear stress in the 2nd spring wire cross section
Deformation:
δ2 = axial deformation in the spring 2

Stiffness of the spring 2 is

Q. A composite spring consists of two close coiled helical springs
connected in series. Each spring has 14 coils at a mean diameter
of 20 mm. If the stiffness of composite spring is 800 N/m and
wire diameter of one spring is 2.5 mm. The rigidity modulus of
wire material is 78 GPa in both springs.
1. Determine the wire diameter in the other spring.
2. If the allowable shear stress is 150 MPa, what will be the load
carrying capacity of composite spring?
3. Find the deformations in each spring as well as in the
composite spring.
Ans; n = 14 R = 20 mm d1 = 2.5 d2 = ?

for composite spring, stiffness is k = 0.8 N/mm

G = 0.78 x 105 N/mm2 for both springs
Force equilibrium equation:
Compatibility equation:
  d2 = 1.862 mm

find W1 & W2lesser of two  W= 19.013N

5.58 mm

18.15 mm
δ = 23.7 mm
A compound spring has two close coiled helical springs connected in
series. Each spring has a mean diameter of 8 times the wire diameter.
One spring has 20 coils and 2.5 mm wire diameter. Find the diameter
of the wire in the other spring if it has 15 coils and the stiffness of the
composite spring is 1.3 N/mm. Find the greatest axial load that can be
applied and the corresponding extension for a maximum shear stress of
300 MPa. The rigidity modulus of wire material is 80 GPa in both
springs. Ans:2.1355mm, 67.1583 N, 27.5081 mm, 24.1522mm
Q. The inner spring of a compound helical spring is concentric
with the outer one but 8mm shorter than outer one which is
having 12 coils at 30 mm mean diameter and 4mm wire diameter.
If an axial load of 250 N on compound spring, which compresses
the outer spring by 20 mm, determine the stiffness of inner
spring. What will be the wire diameter of inner spring if it has 10
coils and the radial clearance between the two springs is 2mm.
The rigidity modulus of springs wire material is 78 GPa.

Solution: springs in parallel (one spring is inside the other spring)

Initially inner spring is shorter by 8 mm in height
axial load on compound spring is W = 250 N
axial deformation in the outer spring is δO = 20 mm
Radial clearance between the springs = 2 mm
G = 0.78x105 N/mm2 for both springs
Force equilibrium equation:
The required Axial load to compress the only outer spring by 20
mm
154.07 N

Axial load carried by inner spring is WI = 95.925 N

axial deformation in the inner spring is δI = 20 - 8 = 12 mm
stiffness of inner spring = 7.9938 N/mm
mean radius of coil for inner spring is

inner spring wire diam. = 2.764 mm

Q. In a compound helical spring made of same material, the inner
spring is concentric with the outer one. The maximum
permissible deflection and the solid length of each spring is 40
mm and 50 mm respectively. The allowable shear stress and the
rigidity modulus of wire material are 850 MPa and 84 GPa
respectively for each spring. The compound spring is subjected
to an axial load of 6kN. The mean diameter of coil for inner
spring is 80 mm and radial clearance between the two springs is
2.5 mm. Determine the load shared by each spring and wire
diameters of each spring.

Solution: springs in parallel (concentric) i.e., longitudinal axis is

same for both springs
Radial clearance between the springs = 2.5 mm

G = 0.84x105 N/mm2 for both springs

Allowable shear stress = 850 MPa
Axial load on compound spring: W = 6000 N

For deflection to be same in both springs

For shear stress to be same in both springs

For solid height to be same in both springs

 mm

Radial clearance = 2.5 mm

mm
From stress equality condition

Force equilibrium equation:

N
 Carriage or Leaf springs
Carriage springs find wide applications in all forms of
transport vehicles.

It is also called a
semi-elliptic spring
because of its shape.
This spring consists of number of plates placed one above the
other and tied to form a single bending element.

It can undergo sufficient deformation and can absorb a

considerable amount of energy without permanent distortion.

Let the spring consists of n plates, each of the same width b and
thickness t.

The plates are so arranged that each overlaps its neighbor by

L/2n at each end.

Neglecting the friction between them, the plates are free to slide
over each other.
If we consider the section at the end of any plate, and there are x
plates at the section, the section is at a distance of xL/2n form
the end of the spring.

If W is the central load carried by the spring, each plate receives

a load of W/2 from the plate above and is supported by the ends
of the plate below it, which are at L/2n from its ends.

Each plate acts as a doubly overhanging beam with equal

overhang at the ends subjected to symmetrical loads and
reactions.

The Bending Moment w.r.t. x-x is (W/2)(xL/2n) = WxL/4n

Since there are x plates and assuming the plates are of equal
sections and bend to the same radius of curvature, this BM is
shared equally by all the plates.

BM in one plate = (WxL/4n)(1/x) = WL/4n

For a plate I = bt3/12

Maximum distance from the NA is t/2

Maximum stress σmax = My/I = {(WL/4n)(t/2)} /(bt3/12)

= 3WL/(2nbt2)

If the maximum stress is specified for the plate material, then

the number of plates required n = 3WL/(2 σmax bt2)
Maximum deflection in the leaf spring
The plates are all strapped together and bend to the same radius
of curvature.

The maximum deflection of all the plates is the same.

Considering the longest plate of length L, maximum deflection
by double integration method.

EI d2y/dx2 = - M = WL/4n

EI dy/dx = WLx/4n + C1

EI y = (WL/4n)(x2/2) + C1x + C2

At x = 0, y = 0 C2 = 0
At x = L/2, dy/dx = 0 C1 = -WL2/8n

Maximum deflection is at x = L/2

EIymax = (WL/4n)(L/2) +(-WL2/8n)(L/2)

ymax = -(WL3 / 32nEI)

Negative sign indicates that the deflection is upwards.

If I = bt3/12, then ymax = 3WL3 / 8nEbt3

The radius to which the plates must be bent initially determined

by the proof load or proof stress.
The proof load is the load required to be applied to straighten
the spring.
If σp is the proof stress then σp/y = E/R
Where y = t/2 for maximum stress

R = Ey/σp = Ey/2σp

Strain Energy of leaf spring

The BM is constant in the leaf spring between the supports.
To make uniform bending stress, the ends of the leaves are
tapered to account for variation of BM at the ends.

Strain Energy U = M2/2EI x length of the beam

= (WL/4n)2 (1/2EI) x total length of plates

For a rectangular section, section modulus Z = bt2/6

M = σmax Z= σmax x (bt2/6)

Strain energy in terms of maximum stress

U = {σmax x (bt2/6)}2 x (1/2EI) x length of plates

Substituting I = bt3/12

U = {(σmax )2b2t4 }/36 x (1/2Ebt3/12) x length of plate

= (σmax )2/6E x (bt x total length of plates)

= (σmax )2/6E x volume of the spring

If L is the length of longest plate and n is the number of plates,

each lower plate is shorter by a length L/n

Total length = L + (L-L/n) + (L-2L/n) +….....+ (L – (n-1)L/n

Total length of plates = nL – L/n (1+2+3 + …….+(n-1)

= nL – (L/n)(n(n-1)/2

= L/2 (n+1)

Q. A leaf spring is made of plates 50 mm wide and 8 mm thick.

The spring has a span of 700 mm. Determine the number of plates
required to carry a central load of 4.5 kN. The maximum
allowable stress in the plate is 200 MPa. What is the maximum
deflection under this load. Determine the strain energy stored in
the spring under this laod.

Maximum bending moment in any plate = WL/4n

σmax = 3WL/(2nbt2)
 n = 3WL/2σmaxbt2
n = 7.4 say 8

Maximum central deflection ymax = 3WL3 / 8nEbt3

= 14.13 mm
Strain energy stored in the spring
= (σmax )2/6E x volume of the spring

σmax = 3WL/(2nbt2) = 184.6 MPa

U = (184.62 / 6x2x105) x volume

Length of the spring = (L/2)(n+1) = 3150 mm

Volume of spring = 3150 x 50 x 8 = 1260000 mm3

U = 35.784 Nm
A carriage spring has to carry a central load of 9000 N. It has a
length of 900 mm, and consists of plates 76 mm wide and 8 mm
thick. If the maximum stress is limited to 220 MPa and the
maximum deflection to 32 mm, find the number of plates
required. Determine the actual values of maximum stress and
deflection using the number of plates selected. Also find the
radius to which the plates must be bent so that the spring
straightens under the load. E = 200 GPa
 Mechanics of Materials

PRINCIPAL STRESSES
AND STRAINS
AT A POINT

Dr. S Venkateswara Rao

Civil Engineering Department
11/11/2022 1
We studied different types of stresses like tensile, compressive,
shear, flexural stresses. Each of them separately.

In many structures, a combination of these stresses acts at a

point.

It is quite possible that the combined effect of these stresses in a

particular direction is more than that of individual stresses.

3 – dimensional Stress system

Ex: Thick cylinder with closed ends and subjected to fluid
pressure

2 – dimensional Stress system

Ex: Thin cylinder with closed ends and subjected to fluid
pressure.
Each surface can have one normal stress and two shear stresses.

Each stress is named with two subscripts.

σ is for normal stresses and τ is for shear stresses.

The first subscript to the symbol denotes the plane on which the
stress is acting and the second subscript denotes the direction of
the stress.

σxx means the normal stress acting on the x – plane and in the
direction of x axis.

τzy means a shear stress on the z – plane acting in the direction of

y – axis.
Consider an element in XY plane
and subjected to 2-dimensional stress
system with shear stress.

Unit thickness of element i.e.,

in Z- direction

X-face = face whose normal is X-axis

Y-face = face whose normal is Y-axis
σX = normal stress acting on X-face
σY = normal stress acting on Y-face
τXY = shear stress acting on X-face & Y-face
Sign convention:
Normal stresses: Tensile +ve and Compressive -ve
Shear stresses: Clockwise rotation +ve and
Anticlockwise rotation -ve
Consider a section PQ in the element.
The normal of PQis inclined at θ
(anticlockwise) with positive X-axis.
Therefore, the section PQ is inclined
at θ with y-axis.

Cut the element along the section PQ

and draw the free body diagram of any one part.
Given stresses are σX,σYand τXY
Unknown stresses are
σn= normal stress on the plane AC
(inclined at θ anticlockwise with positive X-axis)
τ = shear stress on the plane AC
(inclined at θ clockwise with positive Y -axis)

All these stresses are at a point. Represent all the stresses in terms
of forces. All these forces are at a point.
Area of the plane AC = A,
Area of the plane AB = A cos θ
Area of the plane BC = A sin θ

Write the equilibrium of forces

along σn and τ directions.
By using trigonometric relations,

----- (1)

------- (2)

Equations 1 and 2 give the normal and shear stresses on any

plane for which the normal is at θ anti-clockwise from x-axis

Planes defining maximum or minimum normal stresses:

(from equation 1)

-------- (3)
Equation 3 gives two values for 2θ that differ by 1800. Hence
the planes on which maximum and minimum normal stresses
0
Planes defining zero shear stress: (from equation 2)

τ=0 result is same as equation 3,

The maximum and minimum normal stresses occur on planes of

zero shearing stress

The normal stresses on planes of zero shearing stress, are called

Principal stresses and the planes on which they act are called
Principal planes.

The Principal stresses are maximum and minimum values of

normal stresses

Planes defining maximum shear stress: (from equation 2)

 ------- (4)
Equation 4 gives two values for 2θ that differ by 1800. Hence the
planes on which maximum in-plane shear stresses occurs, are 900
apart.

Equation 4 is negative reciprocal of equation 3. Therefore, the

values of 2θ defined by equation 3 and equation 4 differ by 900.

The planes of maximum in-plane shearing stresses are inclined

at 450 with the principal planes.

Equation 3 and equation 4 are modified as

----- (5)
-------(6)
Principal Stresses:
by substituting the values from equation (5) in equation (1), the
expressions for major and minor principal stresses are obtained.
P

from equation (5) Q R

from equation (1)

------ (7)

The positive sign in the above equation gives major principal

stress σ1. Similarly, the negative sign in the above equation gives
the minor principal stress σ .
Maximum Shear Stress:
by substituting the values from equation (6) in equation (2), the
expression for maximum in-plane shearing stresses is obtained.
P

from equation (6)

Q R

from equation (2)

------ (8)
from equation 7 and equation 8,

--------- (9)
from equation 7

------- (10)
Algebraic sum of normal stresses on any two orthogonal planes is
invariant

Principle of Complimentary Shear:

Shearing stresses on any two orthogonal planes are equal in

magnitude and opposite in direction

All the above analytical equations are valid when the given stress
system is on the orthogonal planes.

The normal stress on maximum shear planes is when the

given stress system is on orthogonal planes.
Q. The plane stress system on an element of a stressed body as
shown in Fig. Determine the stresses on plane whose normal is
inclined at 30° to the x – axis.

σn = 72.68 N/mm2

τ = 27.32 N/mm2
Q. The stress system on an element of a stressed body are as shown
in Fig. Determine the planes on which there is no shear stress.
What are the stresses acting on these planes
Shear stress on a plane is

σx = 150 N/mm2 σy = -70 N/mm2 τxy = 30 N/mm2

τ = {150 – (-70)}/2 sin2θ + 30cos 2θ

This equation shows the variation of shear stresses as the angle θ
varies.
To identify the planes on which shear stress is zero

0 = 110 sin 2θ + 30cos 2θ

tan 2θ = - 0.273

2θ = -15.26° and 164.74° θ = -7.63° and 82.37°

σ1 = 154 N/mm2 when 2θ = -15.26°

σ2 = -58.2 N/mm2 when 2θ = 164.74°

 MOHR’s Circle

Analytical method
Analytical expressions for the stress system on orthogonal
planes
-----(1)

------- (2)

--------- (5)

-------- (6)

---(7) --(8)
Note: All the analytical equations are valid when the given stress
system is on the orthogonal planes.

Graphical method MOHR’s Circle

Equation 1 and equation 2 are rearranged as,

By squaring and adding the above two equations

which represents the equation of a circle i.e.
where ‘r’ is the radius of circle and ‘a’ is the shift of circle
center from origin along x-axis.

The two-dimensional stress system at any point is represented

by a circle which is known as Mohr’s circle by renaming the x-
axis as σ-axis and y-axis as τ-axis

Radius of Mohr’s circle is which represents

the magnitude of maximum shear stress.

Centre of Mohr’s circle is at along σ-axis from origin

i.e., from τ-axis.
Center of Mohr’s circle is always on the σ - axis
For any given stress system Mohr’s circle is always
symmetrical about σ - axis
Procedure to draw Mohr’s circle:

1. Representing the rectangular σ - τ axes

a) σ - axis: The position of normal stress axis (σ - axis) i.e.,
horizontal axis will be always at the middle of graph sheet
because the center of Mohr’s circle lies on σ - axis always and
the Mohr’s circle is equally distributed on either side of σ - axis
always.

b) τ - axis: The position of shear stress axis (τ - axis) i.e., vertical

axis on the graph sheet is based on the nature of given normal
stresses.
S. No. Nature of given normal stresses Position of τ - axis on graph sheet
a) Both are tensile Left extreme
b) One is tensile and the other one
Middle
is compressive
c) Both are compressive Right extreme
2. Mark the Origin ‘O’. Represent the scale on top right corner as
1 cm = 10 Mpa (in general) on both axes (scale must be same on
both axes).

3. On rectangular σ - τ axes, plot the points A and B:

i) the given stresses σx, τxy acting on x-face as coordinates of
point A
ii) the stresses σy, τxy acting on y-face as coordinates of point B.

The orthogonal Stress components on a

plane in the element are represented as
coordinates of a point in the Mohr’s circle.
Sign convention:
normal positive tensile stress as positive
a)
stress negative compressive stress as negative
clockwise rotation about any point inside the
positive
shear element
b)
stress anti-clockwise rotation about any point inside the
negative
element
positive anti-clockwise
c) angle
negative clockwise

4. Join these points A and B by a thin straight line. This line AB

represents,
a) diameter of Mohr’s circle, if the given stress system is on
orthogonal planes
b) chord of Mohr’s circle, if the given stress system is on
oblique planes.
5. Locate the center of Mohr’s
circle ‘C’,
a) If AB is diameter of circle,
then the intersection of AB with
the σ-axis at ‘C’
b) If AB is chord of circle, then
the intersection of perpendicular
bisector of chord AB,
with the σ-axis at‘C’.

6. CA and CB shall be equal in length in any case. Draw the

Mohr’s circle with ‘C’ as center and CA= CB as radius.
7. The major principal stress is represented by OD where D is the
right extreme point of Mohr’s circle on σ-axis. The minor
principal stress is represented by OE where E is the left extreme
point of Mohr’s circle on σ-axis.
8. Draw a line FCG parallel to τ -axis on Mohr’s circle. The point
F is the top most point and G is the bottom most point of Mohr’s
circle. The radius of Mohr’s circle (CA = CB = CD = CE = CF =
CG) represents the magnitude of maximum shear stress.

9. The normal stress on maximum shear plane is represented by

OC.

10. ACD = BCE = 2θp, where θp represents the inclination of

the principal planes with respect to x-y coordinate axes on the
element.

11. ACF = BCG = 2θs, where θs represents the inclination of

the maximum shear planes with respect to x-y coordinate axes on
the element.
12. Relation between the element diagram and Mohr’s circle
diagram:
S. No. Element diagram Mohr’s circle

1) x-axis radial line CA

2) y-axis radial line CB
3) α = angle between normal 2α = angle between those two
lines of any two planes corresponding radial lines
Mohr’s Circle for different types of problems (2-dimensional
stress system)
1. Bi-axial with shear

2. Bi-axial without shear

3.a. Uni-axial with shear

3.b. Uni-axial with shear

4.a. Uni-axial without shear

4.b. Uni-axial without shear

5. Pure shear

In pure shear condition,

1. the magnitude of major and minor principal stresses is equal
to that of given shear stress
2. the magnitude of maximum shear stress is equal to the given
shear stress
 THEORIES OF FAILURE
 In practice most of the elements are subjected to a state of complex stress system i.e.,
combination of axial load, lateral load, and torque.
 The phenomenon of failure of an element under the complex stress system is explained
by theories of failure i.e., the failure causing parameter is identified.
 Failure
 Rupture
 Failure of an element represents either direct separation of particles from each other
(brittle failure) or slipping of particles accompanied by considerable plastic deformation
(ductile failure) in the material of element.
The following are the theories of failure of a material:
1. Principal stress theory
2. Principal strain theory
3. Shear stress theory
4. Strain energy theory
5. Shear strain energy theory (Distortion energy theory)
Data:
1) Principal Stresses:
1 = major principal stress
2 = intermediate principal stress
3 = minor principal stress
2) allowable stress
y = Yield stress in simple tension test
allowable stress = Yield stress or (Ultimate Stress) / Factor of safety
O = y / F.S. .. .. for ductile materials
O = u / F.S. .. .. for brittle materials
3) Material Constants:
Young’s modulus of elasticity E and Poisson’s ratio
Various Theories of Failure
Principal Stress Theory (Rankine’s theory):
According to this theory, the failure of a material is assumed to have taken place
under a state of complex stresses when the value ofmajor principal stressis
equal to that ofstressat yield point obtained in a simple tension test.
The failure condition is 𝝈 𝟏 = 𝝈𝟎
The design criterion is 𝝈𝟏 < 𝝈𝟎
 This is the simplest and oldest theory of failure.
 This theory does not consider the effects of other principal stresses and shearing stresses.
 The Principal stress theory is found to be accurate for brittle materials.

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Principal Strain Theory(St.Venant’s theory):
According to this theory, the failure of a material is assumed to have taken place
under a state of complex stresses when the value of major principal strain is
equal to that of strainat yield point obtained in a simple tension test.
1 𝜎𝑂
The failure condition is𝜺𝟏 = 𝜺𝟎  𝜎1 − 𝜇 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 
𝐸 𝐸
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝁 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝑶
The design criterion is 𝜎1 − 𝜇 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 < 𝜎𝑂
 This theory is applicable to ductile materials.
 This theory becomes invalid in many cases.
For example, when there are two equal like normal stresses acting on orthogonal planes,
this theory is not applicable.
𝜎𝑦
Let 1 = 2 = , then the failure condition becomes(- ) = y∴ 𝜎 = 1−𝜇 .
This relation indicates that the maximum tensile stress is more than the yield stress, which is
absurd.
Shear Stress Theory(GuestandTresca’s theory):
According to this theory, the failure of a material is assumed to have taken place
under a state of complex stresses when the value of maximum shear stress is
equal to that of the stress at yield point obtained in a simple tension test.
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝜎𝑂
The failure condition is𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙,𝑶 
2
= 2
 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟑 = 𝝈𝑶
The design criterion is 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 < 𝜎𝑂
 This theory has been found to give quite satisfactory results for ductile materials.
 This theory does not give accurate results in case of a state of pure shear.
 This theory becomes invalid if the state of stress consists of two equal like normal stresses
acting on perpendicular planes.
Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami andHaigh’s theory):
According to this theory, the failure of a material is assumed to have been taken
place under a state of complex stresses when the value of total strain energy
per unit volume is equal to that of energy per unit volumeat yield point obtained
in a simple tension test.
1 𝜎𝑂2
The failure condition is 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟎  𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 =
2𝐸 2𝐸

𝝈𝟐𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝝁 𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏 = 𝝈𝟐𝑶

The design criterion is 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 < 𝜎𝑂2
 This theory has been found to give good results for ductile materials.

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Shear Strain Energy Theory(Distortion energy theory)
(Von Mises&Hencky’s theory):
According to this theory, the failure of a material is assumed to have taken place
under a state of complex stresses when the value of the shear strain energy per
unit volume is equal to that of the energy per unit volume at yield point obtained
in a simple tension test.
The failure condition is𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕 = 𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕,𝟎 
1 2 2 2
𝜎02
𝜎 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 =
12𝐺 1 6𝐺
𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝝈 𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐
+ 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐
= 𝟐𝝈𝟐𝟎
The design criterion is 𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 < 𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 ,0 
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 < 2𝜎02
 This theory gives very good results for the ductile materials.
 It is not valid for hydrostatic pressure condition and three equal tensile principal stresses
condition.
Strain Energy due to Principal Stresses:
Co-ordinate axes are X, Y and Z as shown.
Geometry of element is dx, dy and dz along the respective co-ordinate axes.
Principal stresses on the element are 𝝈𝟏 , 𝝈𝟐 and 𝝈𝟑 in X, Y and Z directions respectively.
The corresponding Principal strains are
1
𝜀1 = 𝜎 − 𝜇(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )
𝐸 1
1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜇(𝜎3 + 𝜎1 )
𝐸
1
𝜀3 = 𝜎3 − 𝜇(𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )
𝐸
1
Strain energy = 2X force X deformation
1 1
𝑈= 𝑃∆= 𝜎𝐴 𝜖𝑙
2 2
1 1 1
𝑈= 𝜎 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜀1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝜀2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜎 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝜀3 𝑑𝑧
2 1 2 2 2 3
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
= 2
𝜎1 𝜀1 + 2
𝜎2 𝜀2 + 2
𝜎3 𝜀3

= 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2𝐸
𝜎1 𝜎1 − 𝜇 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 + 𝜎2 𝜎2 − 𝜇 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎3 − 𝜇 𝜎1 + 𝜎2

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 1
𝑈= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
2𝐸
1
Strain energy is𝑈 = 2𝐸 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 𝑉
Strain energy per unit volume is
𝟏
𝒖= 𝝈𝟐𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐𝟑 − 𝟐𝝁 𝝈𝟏 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟑 + 𝝈𝟑 𝝈𝟏
𝟐𝑬
Shear Strain Energy (Distortion energy):
Co-ordinate axes are X, Y and Z as shown.
Geometry of element is dx, dy and dzalong the respective co-ordinate axes.
Principal stresses on the element are 𝝈𝟏 , 𝝈𝟐 and 𝝈𝟑 in X, Y and Z directions respectively.
𝜎1 ≠ 𝜎2 ≠ 𝜎3
The corresponding strains are
1
𝜀1 = 𝜎 − 𝜇(𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝐸 1
1
𝜀2 = 𝜎2 − 𝜇(𝜎3 + 𝜎1
𝐸
1
𝜀3 = 𝜎3 − 𝜇(𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝐸
Strain energy per unit volume is
1 2
𝑢= 𝜎1 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1
2𝐸
Due to external loading, the element undergoes
 dilation (i.e., change in size)
 distortion (i.e., change in shape)
(a) Strain energy per unit volume due to dilation:
The element is subjected to hydrostatic stress system,
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎(compressive)
1 (1−2𝜇 )(𝜎)
𝜀1 = 𝐸 𝜎1 − 𝜇(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = (compressive)
𝐸
(1−2𝜇 )(𝜎)
Similarly,𝜀2 = 𝜀3 = (compressive)
𝐸
(𝟏−𝟐𝝁)(𝝈)
𝜺𝟏 = 𝜺𝟐 = 𝜺𝟑 = 𝑬
 the strain (i.e., rate of deformation) is same in all three directions
 the element undergoes only dilation without distortion.
The Strain energy per unit volume due to dilation is

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 1 (1−2𝜇 )(3𝜎 2 )
𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2𝐸 [ 𝜎 2 + 𝜎 2 + 𝜎 2 − 2𝜇 𝜎 2 + 𝜎 2 + 𝜎 2 )] = 
2𝐸
(𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁)(𝟑𝝈𝟐 ) 𝝈𝟐
𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑲
For an element (subjected to principal stresses in all three orthogonal directions)
to undergoonly dilation without any distortion, then theelement shall be subjected
toequal and like normal stresses in all threeorthogonal directions

(b)Strain energy due to distortion:

The element is subjected to tri-axial state of principal stresses
𝜎1 ≠ 𝜎2 ≠ 𝜎3
The three orthogonal strains are
1 1 1
𝜀1 = 𝐸 𝜎1 − 𝜇(𝜎2 + 𝜎3 , 𝜀2 = 𝐸 𝜎2 − 𝜇(𝜎3 + 𝜎1 and𝜀3 = 𝐸 𝜎3 − 𝜇(𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝜀1 ≠ 𝜀2 ≠ 𝜀3
 the strain (i.e., rate of deformation) is different in each of the three directions
The three orthogonal strains are not equal
therefore, distortion will be present
The volumetric strain is
(1 − 2𝜇) 𝑑𝑉
𝜀𝑣 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 + 𝜀3 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 =
𝐸 𝑉
where dv is the change in volume of V.
for constant volume (no dilation) condition, dv shall be zero i.e.,

either   shall be 0.5 i.e., natural rubber

or  𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 = 𝟎 i.e., materials other
algebraic sum of three than natural rubber
orthogonal stresses shall be zero
For no dilation, the algebraic sum of three orthogonal stresses must be zero
For an element (subjected to principal stresses in all three orthogonal
directions) to undergo only distortion without any dilation, then the
algebraic sum of these three principal stresses must be equal to zero.
Each principal stress is divided into two components
Principalstress = Dilationcomponent + Distortioncomponent
𝜎1 = 𝜎′ + 𝜎1′
𝜎2 = 𝜎′ + 𝜎2′
𝜎3 = 𝜎′ + 𝜎3′
by adding all three principal stresses, 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 3𝜎 ′ + (𝜎1′ + 𝜎2′ + 𝜎3′ )

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 (𝜎1 +𝜎2 +𝜎3 )
For only distortion without dilation𝜎1′ + 𝜎2′ + 𝜎3′ = 0𝜎 ′ =
3
The Strain energy per unit volume due to dilation only, is
2
(1 − 2𝜇)(3𝜎 2 ) (1 − 2𝜇)(3𝜎 ′ 2 ) 3(1 − 2𝜇) 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =
2𝐸 2𝐸 2𝐸 3
(𝟏−𝟐𝝁) 𝟐
𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑
𝟔𝑬
The Strain energy per unit volume due to only distortion only is
𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒖 − 𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
1
𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜇 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1
2𝐸
1 − 2𝜇
− 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 2
6𝐸
1 1 − 2𝜇
= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 −
2𝐸 6𝐸
2𝜇 2 1 − 2𝜇
− 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 +
2𝐸 6𝐸
2 1+𝜇
= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32
6𝐸
2 1+𝜇
− 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1
6𝐸
1 1
= 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1
6𝐺 6𝐺
𝟏
𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟑 𝟐 + 𝝈𝟑 − 𝝈𝟏 𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝑮
𝟏 𝟐
For simple tension test:𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝝈𝟎
𝟔𝑮

oOo

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