MATENA1

Continuity

Chapter 2.5 (Stewart Calculus)

In Chapter 2.2 we had the following:

lim f (x) = L
x→a
if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→a− x→a+
In Chapter 2.2 we had the following:

lim f (x) = L
x→a
if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L
x→a− x→a+

Another way of stating this is:

lim f (x) exists if and only if

x→a
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→a+ x→a−
 Definition: A function f is continuous at
a number a ∈ R if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Very important: the above definition implies

there are three conditions that must be
satisfied for a function to be continuous at a:
(1) f must be defined at a
(2) lim f (x) must exist
x→a
(3) lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
If a function f is not continuous when
x = a, we say that “f is discontinuous at a”.

A point at which a function is discontinuous

is called a discontinuity.
(1) f is discontinuous at x = 1 because f is not defined
there.
(2) f is discontinuous at x = 3 because lim f (x) does not
x→3
exist (since lim− f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)).
x→3 x→3

(3) f is discontinuous at x = 5 because lim f (x) 6= f (5).

x→5
More examples of discontinuities

The function above is discontinuous at

x = 0. This kind of discontinuity is known as
an infinite discontinuity.
In the infinite discontinuity above, lim f (x)
x→0
does not exist. Why? It doesn’t exist because
lim f (x) does not exist and lim f (x) does
x→0+ x→0−
not exist. It is important to remember that
even if we write limx→a f (x) = ∞, the limit
limx→a f (x) does not exist.
Examples:
x2 − x − 2
Where is f (x) = discontinuous?
x−2
Example:
(
1
x2
if x 6= 0
Where is f (x) =
1 if x = 0
discontinuous?
Example:
x2 −x−2
(
x−2 if x 6= 2
Where is f (x) =
1 if x = 2
discontinuous?
Types of discontinuities
In example (a) and example (c) we have a
removable discontinuity. We call them
“removable” because if we redefined the
function at that point we could “remove”
the discontinuity.

In both of those examples we could remove

the discontinuity if we defined f (2) = 3.

The discontinuity in (b) is called an infinite

discontinuity.
Another example (d)
Consider the greatest integer function JxK.

JxK = the largest integer that is less than or

equal to x

Some values of JxK:

J0.5K = 0 J−1.2K = −2 J3K = 3

Where is this function discontinuous?

Greatest integer function f (x) = JxK

Example (d) has jump discontinuities.

This type of discontinuity occurs when the
limit from the left is not equal to the limit
from the right.
One-sided continuity:

Definition: A function f is continuous

from the right at a if

lim f (x) = f (a),

x→a+

and continuous from the left at a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a−
Example of one-sided continuity:
The Heaviside function (used to study
electric circuits):
(
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t > 0
H(t) is continuous from the right at 0, but
not continuous from the left at 0.
Example of one-sided continuity:
The Heaviside function (used to study
electric circuits):
(
0 if t < 0
H(t) =
1 if t > 0
H(t) is continuous from the right at 0, but
not continuous from the left at 0. Why?
lim H(t) = 1 = H(0)
t→0+
but
lim H(t) = 0 6= H(0).
t→0−
 Definition: A function f is continuous
on an interval if it is continuous at
every number in the interval.

Note: if f is defined only on one side of an

endpoint of the interval, we understand
“continuous” to mean “continuous from the
right” or “continuous from the left”.
√
An example of this last point is f (x) = x.
This function is continuous on [0, ∞).
Example:
√
Show that f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is
continuous on the interval [−1, 1].
Having proved that f is continuous on [−1, 1], it is
useful to think about what the function looks like.
√
The graph of f (x) = 1 − 1 − x2 is the lower half
of the circle x2 + (y − 1)2 = 1, i.e. the lower half of
the circle of radius 1 centred at the point (0, 1).
Building continuous functions:

Theorem: if f and g are continuous at a

and c is a constant, then the following
functions are also continuous at a:
1. f + g
2. f − g
3. cf
4. f g
f
5. if g(a) 6= 0
g
Theorem:
(a) Any polynomial is continuous
everywhere; that is, it is continuous
on R = (−∞, ∞).
(b) Any rational function is continuous
wherever it is defined; that is, it is
continuous on its domain.
Examples:
I f (x) = −3x5 + 2x4 + x3 − 2x2 + 7x − 9
is continuous everywhere because it is a
polynomial (of degree 5).
x2 + x − 2
I g(x) = 2 is continuous on
x + 2x − 3
(−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
(x − 1)(x + 2)
because g(x) = and
(x + 3)(x − 1)
hence g is undefined at x = −3 and
x = 1.
Theorem: the following types of
functions are continuous at every number
in their domains:
I polynomials
I rational functions
I root functions
I trig functions
I inverse trig functions
I exponential functions
I logarithmic functions
Example:
Where and why is the following function
continuous:

ln x + tan−1 x
f (x) =
x2 − 1
Example:

2x + 8a if x < 0


f (x) = ax2 − 4b if 0 6 x 6 2

−3x + 18

if x > 2
What values of a and b make f continuous
everywhere?
Continuity of composite functions:

Theorem: If f is continuous at b and

lim g(x) = b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b).
x→a x→a
In other words


lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x)
x→a x→a
Example: Evaluate
 1 − √x 
lim arcsin
x→1 1−x
Continuity of composite functions:

Theorem: If g is continuous at a and f is

continuous at g(a), then the composite
function f ◦ g given by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
Examples: Where are the following
functions continuous?

(a) h(x) = sin(x2), (b) F (x) = ln(1+cos x)

Below is the graph of F (x) = ln(1 + cos(x)).
The Intermediate Value Theorem:

Suppose that f is continuous on the

closed interval [a, b] and let N be any
number between f (a) and f (b), where
f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number
c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
Notice that in the second picture there are three
x-values (c1 , c2 and c3 ) where we have the y-value
of the function equal to N .

The theorem states “. . . there exists c ∈ (a, b) such

that f (c) = N ”. It is saying that there must be at
least one x-value for which f (x) = N , so having
more than one is still allowed.
 Suppose that f is continuous on the closed
interval [a, b] and let N be any number between
f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there
exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

NB: the conditions of IVT require f (a) 6= f (b).

Therefore it can also be used when f (a) > f (b).
Example: Show that there is a root of the
equation
4x3 − 6x2 + 3x − 2 = 0
in the interval (1, 2).
Example: Show that ln x + 3x = 10 has a
root in the interval (2, 4).
Practice problems
I Chapter 2.5:
1, 3, 4, 10, 14, 21, 24, 41, 43, 46, 48,
55, 59(a), 64
Challenge problem: Q74 from Chapter
2.5