Revision Notes for Class 12 Mathematics

Chapter 5 – Continuity and Differentiability

Continuity

1. Definition:

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a ; where a  domain of f (x) , if

lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = f (a ) The graph as shown is discontinuous at x = 1, 2 and 3 .

x→a− x→a

i.e., LHL = RHL = value of a function at x = a 2. Properties of Continuous Functions

or lim f ( x) = f (a ) Let f (x) and g (x) be continuous functions at x = a . Then,

x→a

1.1 Reasons of discontinuity 1. cf (x) is continuous at x = a , where c is any constant.

If f (x) is not continuous at x = a , we say that f (x) is discontinuous at x = a 2. f (x)  g (x) is continuous at x = a .

There are following possibilities of discontinuity: 3. f ( x)  g ( x) is continuous at x = a .

1. lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) exist but they are not equal. 4. f (x) / g(x) is continuous at x = a , provided g (a)  0 .-
x→a− x→a+

5. Assuming f (x) be continuous on [a, b] in such a way that the function f (a) and f ( b)
2. lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) exists and are equal but not equal to f (a)
x→a− x→a+
will be at opposite signs, then there will exists at least one solution of equation f ( x) = 0 in
the open interval (a, b)
3. f (a) is not defined.
3. The Intermediate Value Theorem
4. At least one of the limits does not exist. The graph of the function will show a break at the
location of discontinuity from a geometric standpoint. Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, also a and b are any two points of I . Then if y0
is a number between f (a) and f (b) , their exits a number c between a and b such that
f (c) = y0

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The Function f , being continuous on (a, b) takes on every value between f (a) and f (b) 5. A List of Continuous Functions

Note:
S.No Function f ( x) Interval in which f(x) is continuous
That a function f which is continuous in [a, b] possesses the following properties:

(i) If f (a) and f (b) possess opposite signs, then there exists at least one solution of the
equation f ( x) = 0 in the open interval (a, b) . 1 Constant (c) (−, )

(ii) If K is any real number between f (a) and f (b) , then there exists at least one solution of
the equation f (x) = K in the open interval (a, b) .
2 x n , n is an integer (−, )

4. Continuity in an Interval
3 x − n , n is a positive integer (−, ) − {0}
(a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is continuous at each and every point
 (a, b)

(b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if : 4 | x −a | (−, )

(1) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b) and

(2) f is right continuous at 'a' i.e. Limit x→a + f (x) = f (a) = a finite quantity

5 P(x) = a 0 x n + a1x n−1 + .. + a n (−, )

(3) f is left continuous at 'b'; i.e. Limit −
f ( x) = f (b) = a finite quantity
x →b

6 sin x (−, )

7 cos x (−, )

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 (a) Missing Point Discontinuity:
  
8 (−, ) − (2n + 1) : n  I 
tan x
 2  Where lim f ( x ) exists finitely but f (a) is not defined.
x→a

E.g. f ( x) =
(
(1 − x) 9 − x 2 ) will have a missing point discontinuity at x = 1 , and
9 cot x (−, ) − {n : n  I (1 − x)

sin x
f (x) = will have a missing point discontinuity at x = 0
x
10 sec x (−, ) − {(2n + 1)

11 cosec x  / 2: nI

12 ex (−, ) − {n : n  I }

(−, )
13 log c x
& (0, )

(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity :

6. Types Of Discontinuities
Where lim  f (a) exists f (a) also exists but.
Type-1 : (Removable type of discontinuities) x→a

lim  f (a)
In this case, Limit f (x) exists but it will not equal to f (c) . As a result, the function is said to x→a
x →c

have a removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the first kind. In such scenario, we can
x 2 − 16
redefine the function such that Limit f ( x) = f (c) and make it continuous at x = c . It can be E.g. f ( x) = , x  4 and f (4) = 9 will have an isolated point discontinuity at x = 4
x →c x−4
further categorised as:

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 0 if x  I 
In the same way, f ( x) = [ x] + [− x] =  will have an isolated point discontinuity at
 −1 if x  I 
all x ∈ I.

(a) Finite Discontinuity:

1 1
E.g., f ( x) = x − [ x] at all integral x; f ( x) = tan −1 at x = 0 and f (x) = 1
at x = 0 (note
x
1+ 2x
)
that f ( 0+ ) = 0; f ( 0− ) = 1 1 + 2−

Type-2 : (non-removable type of discontinuities) (b) Infinite Discontinuity:

In case, Limit f ( x) does not exist, then it is not possible to make the function continuous by 1 1
x→a E.g., f ( x) = or g ( x) = at x = 4; f ( x) = 2tan x
redefining it. Such discontinuities are known as non-removable discontinuity or discontinuity x−4 ( x − 4)2
of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of discontinuity can be further classified as:
 cos x
at x = and f ( x) = at x = 0
2 x

(c) Oscillatory Discontinuity:

1
E.g., f ( x) = sin at x = 0
x

In all these cases the value of f (a) of the function at x = a (point of discontinuity) may or
may not exist but Limit does not exist.
x→a

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 (c) If f (x) is continuous and g (x) is discontinuous at x = a then the product function
 ( x) = f ( x)  g ( x) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a . e.g.

 
sin x0
f ( x) = x and g ( x) =  x

 0 x=0
(d) If f (x) and g (x) both are discontinuous at x = a then the product function
 ( x) = f ( x)  g ( x) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a. e.g

1 x 0
f ( x) = − g ( x) = 
 −1 x  0
(e) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous

e.g. f ( x) = 1 − x + x − 1 is not continuous at x = 1

From the adjacent graph note that
(f) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have a range also in the closed
f is continuous at x = − 1 interval.

f has isolated discontinuity at x = 1 (g) If f is continuous at x = a and g is continuous at x = f (a) then the composite g[ f (x)]
is continuous at x = a
f has missing point discontinuity at x = 2
x sin x
E.g. f (x) = and g (x) =| x | are continuous at x = 0 , hence the composite
f has non-removable (finite type) discontinuity at the origin. x2 + 2
x sin x
Note: ( gof )(x) = 2 will also be continuous at x = 0 .
x +2

(a) In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the nonnegative difference between the value
of the RHL at x = a and LHL at x = a is called the jump of discontinuity. A function having
a finite number of jumps in a given interval I is called a piece wise continuous or sectionally Differentiability
continuous function in this interval.
1. Definition
(b) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential and Logarithmic functions are
continuous in their domains. Let f (x) be a real valued function defined on an open interval (a, b) where c  (a, b) . Then
f ( x) is said to be differentiable or derivable at x = c

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 f (x) − f (c) f (a − h) − f (a)
if, lim exists finitely. - Slope of Left hand secant = as h → 0, Q → A and secant AQ → tangent at
x →c (x − c) −h
A
This limit is called the derivative or differentiable coefficient of the function f ( x) at x = c ,
d  f ( a − h) − f ( a ) 
and is denoted by f  (c) or ( f (x))x =c  Left hand derivative = Lim h→0  
dx  −h 

= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from left) f  ( a − )

Thus, f (x) is differentiable at x = c .

f (0 − f (c)
 lim exists finitely
→c (−c)

f (0 − f (c) f (0 − f (c)
 lim = lim
→c (−c) c (−c)

f (c − h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
 lim = lim
h →0 −h h →0 h

f (x) − f (c) f (c − h) − f (c)

Hence, lim = lim is called the left hand derivative of f ( x) at
x →c−(x − c) h →0 −h
f (x) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
x = c and is denoted by f  ( c − ) or Lf  (c) While, lim+ = lim is called
x→c x −c h→0 h
the right hand derivative of f ( x) at x = c and is denoted by f ( c ) or Rf (c)
 + 

f (a + h) − f (a)
- Slope of Right hand secant = as h → 0, P → A and secant (AP) → tangent at
h If f  ( c− )  f  ( c + ) , we say that f (x) is not differentiable at x = c .
A

 f (a + h) − f (a) 
 Right hand derivative = Limh →0  
 h  2. Differentiability in a Set

= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from right) f ( a  +

) 1. A function f ( x) defined on an open interval (a, b) is said to be differentiable or derivable
in open interval (a, b) , if it is differentiable at each point of (a, b)

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2. A function f ( x) defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to be differentiable or derivable. 3. Relation Between Continuity and Differentiability
"If f is derivable in the open interval (a, b) and also the end points a and b, then f is said to
We learned in the last section that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must also be
be derivable in the closed interval [a, b]"
continuous at that point, and therefore a discontinuous function cannot be differentiable. The
f () − f (a) f () − f (b) following theorem establishes this fact.
i.e., lim and lim− , both exist.
→a + −a →b −b
Theorem: If a function is differentiable at a given point, it must be continuous at that same
A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is differentiable at every point of its point. However, the inverse is not always true.
domain.
or f ( x) is differentiable at x = c
Note:
 f (x) is continuous at x = c
1. If f ( x) and g ( x) are derivable at x = a then the functions
Converse: The reverse of the preceding theorem is not always true, i.e., a function might be
f ( x) + g ( x), f ( x) − g ( x), f ( x)  g ( x) will also be derivable at x = a and if g (a)  0 then the
continuous but not differentiable at a given point.
function f (x) / g(x) will also be derivable at x = a
E.g., The function f ( x) =| x | is continuous at x = 0 but it is not differentiable at x = 0 .
2. If f ( x) is differentiable at x = a and g ( x) is not differentiable at x = a , then the product
function F(x) = f (x)  g (x) can still be differentiable at x = a. E.g. f (x) = x and g (x) =| x | Note:

3. If f ( x) and g (x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the product function; (a) Let f  + (a) = p; f  − (a) = q where p q are finite then
F (x) = f (x)  g (x) can still be differentiable at x = a. E.g. f (x) =| x | and g(x) =| x |
 f is derivable at x = a
4. If f ( x) and g ( x) both are not differentiable at x = a then the sum function
F (x) = f (x) + g (x) may be a differentiable function. E.g., f ( x) =| x | and g (x) = − | x |  f is continuous at x = a

5. If f ( x) is derivable at x = a (ii) p  q  f is not derivable at x = a .

 f  ( x) is continuous at x = a . It is very important to note that f may be still continuous at x = a

e.g. In short, for a function f:

2 if  0 Differentiable  Continuous.
f ( x) = 
0 if = 0
Not Differentiable  Not Continuous

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(i.e., function may be continuous) (b) The derivative of a given function f at a point x = a of its domain is defined as:

But, f (a + h) − f (a)
Limit , provided the limit exists is denoted by f  (a)
h→0 h
Not Continuous  Not Differentiable.
Note that alternatively, we can define
(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at x = a it geometrically implies a
sharp corner at x = a f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = Limit x →a , provided the limit exists.
x −a
Theorem 2: Let f and g be real functions such that fog is defined if g is continuous at
x = a and f is continuous at g . This method is called first principle of finding the derivative of f ( x)

Differentiation: 2. Derivative of Standard Function

1. Definition (i)
dx
( )
d n
x = n  x n −1; x  R, n  R, x  0

(a) Let us consider a function y = f (x) defined in a certain interval. It has a definite value for
each value of the independent variable x in this interval. (ii)
dx
( )
d x
e = ex

Now, the ratio of the function's increment to the independent variable's increment,
(iii)
d x
dx
( )
a = a x  ln a(a  0)
y f ( x + x) − f ( x)
=
x x
d 1
(iv) (ln | x |) =
y dx x
Now, as x → 0, y → 0 and → finite quantity, then derivative f ( x) exists and is
x
d 1
dy  y  f ( x + x) − f ( x) (v) ( loga | x |) = loga e
denoted by y  or f  ( x) or Thus, f  ( x) = lim   = lim (if it exits) for dx x
x →0 x x
dx   x→0
the limit to exist, d
(vi) (sin x) = cos x
dx
f (x + h) − f (x) f (x − h) − f (x)
lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 −h d
(vii) (cos x) = − sin x
( Right Hand derivative ) ( Left Hand derivative ) dx

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 d g ( f ( x)) = x  g  ( f ( x))  f  ( x) = 1
(viii) (tan x) = sec2 x
dx
dy dy dx 1 dy dx
d This result can also be written as, if exists and  0 , then = or  = 1 or
(ix) (sec x) = sec x  tan x dx dx dy  dy  dx dy
dx  
 dx 
dy 1
d =
(x) (cosec x) = − cosec x  cot x dx  dx   dx 
dx  dy   dy  0 
  
d
(xi) (cot x) = − cosec2 x
dx

d 3. Theorems On Derivatives
(xii) ( constant ) = 0
dx
If u and v are derivable functions of x , then,

(xiii)
d
(
sin −1 x =
1
) , −1  x  1
(i) Term by term differentiation :
d du dv
dx 1− x2 (u  v) = 
dx dx dx
−1
(xiv)
d
(
cos −1 x = ), −1  x  1
(ii) Multiplication by a constant
d du
(Ku) = K , where K is any constant
dx 1− x2
dx dx

(xv)
d
dx
(
tan −1 x = )1
1+ x2
, x R (iii) "Product Rule"
d dv
(u.v) = u + v
du
known as In general,
dx dx dx
−1
(xvi)
d
dx
(
cot −1 x = )
1+ x2
, x R (a) If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , , un are the functions of x , then

d
( u1  u 2  u3  u 4 .u n )
(xvii)
d
(
sec−1 x = )1
, | x | 1 dx
dx | x | x 2 −1
 du   du 
−1 =  1  ( u 2 u 3u 4  u n ) +  2  ( u1u 3u 4  u n )
(xviii)
d
(
cosec −1 x = ) , | x | 1  dx   dx 
dx | x | x2 −1
 du   du 
+  3  ( u1u2u4 un ) +  4  ( u1u2u3u5 un )
(xix) Results:  dx   dx 
 dun 
If the inverse functions f ( g ) are defined by y = f ( x); x = g ( y). Then + +  ( u1u2u3 un −1 )
 dx 

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(iv) Quotient Rule (v) cos 3x = 4cos3 x − 3cos x

 du   dv  3tan x − tan 3 x
v  − u  (vi) tan 3x =
d u  dx   dx  where v  0 known as 1 − 3tan 2 x
  =
dx  v  v2
  1 + tan x
dy dy du dw (vii) tan  + x  =
(b) Chain Rule : If y = f (u), u = g (w), w = h(x) then =   4  1 − tan x
dx du dw dx
  1 − tan x
dy (viii) tan  − x  =
or = f  (u)  g  ( )  h (x) 4  1 + tan x
dx
x x
Note: (ix) (1  sin x) = cos  sin
2 2
dy du
In general, if y = f (u) then = f  (u)   x y 
dx dx (x) tan −1 x  tan −1 y = tan −1  
 1 xy 

4. Methods of Differentiation
(xi) 
sin −1 x  sin −1 y = sin −1 x 1 − y 2  y 1 − x 2 
4.1 Derivative by using Trigonometrical Substitution (xii) cos−1 x  cos−1 y = cos−1 xy  1 − x2 1 − y 2 
The use of trigonometrical transforms before differentiation greatly reduces the amount of
labour required. The following are some of the most significant findings: (xiii) sin −1 x + cos−1 x = tan −1 x + cot −1 x = sec−1 x + cosec−1 x =  / 2

2 tan x (xiv) sin −1 x = cosec−1 (1/ x);cos −1 x = sec−1 (1/ x); tan −1 x = cot −1 (1/ x)
(i) sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x =
1 + tan 2 x
Note:
1 − tan 2 x
(ii) cos 2x = 2cos x − 1 = 1 − 2sin x =
2 2
Some standard substitutions:
1 + tan 2 x

2 tan x 1 − cos 2x Expressions Substitutions

(iii) tan 2x = , tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x 1 + cos 2x
(i) (a 2
− x2 ) x = a sin  or a cos
(iv) sin 3x = 3sin x − 4sin 3 x

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(ii) (a 2
+ x2 ) x = a tan  or a cot 

(iii) (x 2
− a2 ) x = a sec or a cosec
Important Notes (Alternate methods)

a+x a−x 1. If y = { f (x)}g (x) = e g (x)ln f (x) ( ( variable ) varable

(iv)   or   x = a cos or a cos 2 ) x = eln x 
a−x a+x
dy  d d 
 = e g (x)ln f (x)   g (x)  ln f (x) + ln f (x)  g (x) 
(v) (a − x)(x − b) or x = a cos2  + bsin 2 
dx  dx dx 
 f  (x) 
= { f (x)}g (x)   g (x)  + ln f (x)  g  (x) 
a−x  x−   f (x) 
  or  
 x−b  a−x
2. If y = { f (x)}g (x)
(vii) ( x − a)( x − b) or x = a sec2  − b tan 2 
dy
 =
dx
 x−a  x− 
  or  
 x−b   x−a Derivative of y treating f (x) as constant + Derivative of y treating g (x) as constant

(ix) ( 2ax − x ) 2
x = a(1 − cos  ) = { f (x)}g (x)  ln f (x) 
d
g (x) + g (x){ f (x)}g (x)−1 
d
f (x)
dx dx

= { f (x)}g (x)  ln f (x)  g  (x) + g (x) { f (x)}g (x) −1  f  (x)

4.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

To find the derivative of:

4.3 Implicit Differentiation:
If y =  f1 (x) or y = f1 (x)  f 2 (x)  f3 (x) 
f 2 (x)
 (x, y ) = 0

f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)  f3 ( x)  (i) To get dy / dx with the use of implicit function, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x ,
or y=
g1 ( x)  g 2 ( x)  g3 ( x) 
regarding y as a function of x & then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side to finally
find dy / dx .
then it's easier to take the function's logarithm first and then differentiate. This is referred to
as the logarithmic function's derivative.
(ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit function, both x and y are present.

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Alternate Method: If f ( x, y) = 0

 f  4.6 Derivative of Infinite Series

 
x
= −  = −
dy diff of f w.r.t. x treating y as constant
then When one or more terms are removed from an infinite series, the series stays unaltered. as a
dx  f  diff . of f w.r.t. y treating x as constant
 y  result.
 

(A) If y = f ( x) + f ( x) + f ( x) +  

4.4 Parametric Differentiation then y = ( )

f (x) + y  y 2 − y = f (x)

If y = f (t); x = g (t) where t is a Parameter, then

dy
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get (2 y − 1) = f  ( x)
dy dy / dt dx
=
dx dx / dt
{f ( x )}−1

Note: (B) If y = {f (x)}{f (x )} , then y = {f (x)}y  y = e yln f (x)

1.
dy dy dt
=  Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get
dx dt dx
dy y{ f ( x)}y −1  f  ( x) y 2 f  ( x)
= =
d 2 y d  dy  d  dy  dt  dy dx 1 − { f ( x)}  n f ( x) f ( x){1 − y nf ( x)}
y
2. 2 =   =     in terms of t )
dx dx  dx  dt  dx  dx  dx

d  f  (t)  1 5. Derivative of Order Two & Three

=   { From (1)}
dt  g  (t)  f  (t)
Let us assume a function y = f (x) be defined on an open interval (a, b) . It's derivative, if it
f  (t) g  (t) − g  (t) f  (t)
= exists on (a, b) , is a certain function f  (x)  or (dy / dx) or y   is called the first derivative
 f  (t)
of y w.r.t. x . If it occurs that the first derivative has a derivative on (a, b) then this derivative
is called the second derivative of y w.r.t. x is denoted by f  ( x) or ( d 2 y / dx 2 ) or y  .
4.5 Derivative of a Function w.r.t. another Function
d3 y d  d 2 y 
dy dy / dx f  (x) Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t. x , if it exists, is defined by =   it is
Let y = f (x); z = g (x) then = = dx dx  dx 2 
dz dz / dx g  (x)
also denoted by f  (x) or y Some Standard Results :

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 dn m! f  ( x ) g  ( x ) h ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x )
(i) (ax + b)m =  a n  (ax + b) m−n , m  n
dx n (m − n)! F ( x ) = ( x ) m ( x ) n ( x ) +  ( x ) m ( x ) n ( x )


dn n u ( x) v( x) w( x) u ( x) v( x) w( x)
(ii) x = n!
dx n f ( x ) g ( x ) h( x )
d n mx
(iii)
dx n
( )
e = mn  emx , m  R + ( x ) m( x ) n ( x )
u  ( x) v ( x) w ( x)
dn  n 
(iv) (sin(ax + b)) = a n sin  ax + b + , n  N
dx n  2 

dn  n  7. L' Hospital’s Rule

(v) (cos(ax + b)) = a n cos  ax + b + , n  N
dx n  2 
If f ( x) and g ( x) are functions of x such that :
dn
 
(vi) n eax sin(bx + c) = r n  eax  sin(bx + c + n ), n  N
dx (i) lim f ( x) = 0 = lim g ( x) or lim f ( x) =  = lim g ( x) f ( x) and
x→a x→a x→a x→a

where r = (a 2
)
+ b2 ,  = tan −1 (b / a) (ii) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are continuous at x = a and

d n ax (iii) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable at x = a and

(vii)
dx n
 
e  cos(bx + c) = r n  eax  cos(bx + c + n ), n  N
f ( x) f  ( x) f  ( x)
(iv) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are continuous at x = a , Then lim = lim  = lim  & so
(a )
x →a g ( x) → g ( x) → g ( x)
where r =
x a x a
2
+ b2 ,  = tan −1 (b / a)
on, till determinant form vanishes.

■■.
6. Differentiation Of Continuity and Differentiability

f (x) g (x) h(x)

If F (X) = (x) m(x) n(x)
u (x) v(x) w(x)

where f , g , h, , m, n, u, v, w are differentiable function of x then

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