AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Phy 101 Assignment GROUP 1

NAME:
REG. NO:
DEPT:
DATE: S/No.

1. The forces, which meet at one point but their lines of action do not lie in
one plane, are called?
2. (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ) × (𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗) equals? ANS: −𝟐(𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
3. A force of 2 newton acting on a certain mass for 6 second gives it a velocity
of 6 m s –1 . The mass is equal to? ANS: 2 kg.
4. Derive the dimensional formula for the following physical quantities: Work,
Power, and Energy
5. On applying brakes, an automobile stops after 5 second covering 25 m with
uniformly retarded motion. Calculate the initial speed of the automobile.
ANS: 10 m s–1
𝑔𝑥2
6. If 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − represent the equation of a projectile, find the angle of
2
projection. ANS: 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = √𝟑
7. What is dimensional formula of kinetic energy?
8. How far a stone shall free-fall in 1 second if released from rest? ANS: 4.9 m
9. The force acting on a body of mass 5 kg is (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂) N. What is the
magnitude of acceleration of the body? ANS: 1 m s–2
10. A stone thrown ver tically upwards attains a maximum height of 45 m. In
what time, the velocity of stone become equal to one-half the velocity of
throw? ANS: 1.5 S

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 9

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
Phy 101 (Mechanics) LECTURE NOTE

1.0 Introduction  Magnitude only (scalar): - e.g Mass,

1.1 Units and Dimension charge, current, time, e.t.c
Recall that physics is defined as the branch of  Magnitude and direction (Vector) e.g
science in which we observe, measure and Torque, acceleration, Displacement, e.t.c
describe natural phenomenon related to matter in Fundamental quantities are physical quantities that
relation to energy. At ‘A’ level, physics has the do not depend upon other quantities. The seven
following branches: Mechanics, Heat and fundamentals quantities and their units are
temperature, Electricity and magnetism, Waves, Quantity Unit(S.I)
and Modern physics. Length/distance(L) Meter(m)
1.2 Mechanics: - is the branch of physics which Mass(M) Kilogram(kg)
deals with motion of particles/bodies in space Time(T) Second(s)
and time. Current Ampere(A)
1.2.1 Statics: - deals with the force and their Temperature Degree-Kelvin(0 K)
effect while acting upon a body at rest. Luminous intensity Candela(Cd)
1.2.2 Dynamics: - deals with the force and their Amount of substance Mole(mole)
effect while acting upon a body in motion. N.B: The Radian and steradian are sometimes
The aspect of dynamics which is referred to as supplementary units on the S.I
concerned with the body in motion due to system. On the other hand, derived quantities are
application of force is known as Kinetics; physical quantities that depend upon the
while kinematics is concerned with the fundamental quantities.
body in motion without any reference to Exercise 1: Give 10 derived quantities, their
the force which are responsible for the formula and S.I unit.
motion. 1.4 Systems of Units
1.3 Fundamental and Derived units A complete set of units, both fundamental and
Quantities which can be measured directly or derived for all kind of physical quantities is
indirectly are called physical quantities. E.g Time, called a system of units. There are only four
Momentum, Distance, e.t.c. Physical quantity is system of units commonly used & universally
completely specified if it has the followings: accepted for describing measurements
 Numerical value only (ratio) e.g  CGS (Centimeter-gram-second) unit, Also
Refractive index, dielectric constant, e.tc known as Gaussian system of unit. In it,

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 1

 Length, Mass, and Time are fundamental Uses/important of dimension
quantities measured in centimeter, gram 1. To check the dimensional correctness of a
and second; while force in dyne, work/ given physical equation.
energy in erg. 2. To establish the relation among various
 FPS (Foot-pound-system), also known as physical quantities.
British system of unit, uses foot, pound 3. To change/convert units from one unit to
and second, for length, mass and time. another.
The derived quantity e.g force in poundal. Limitations of dimension
 MKS unit: - uses meter, kilogram, and 1. The dimensional and proportionality
second for length, mass and time as constants cannot be determined.
fundamental quantity, while all others are 2. Does not apply to equations containing
derived in terms of these fundamental trig., exponential, and logarithm function.
quantities. 3. Not useful to express a quantity that is the
 International system unit (S.I Units) is an sum or difference of 2 or more other
extended MKS system applied to the physical quantities.
whole of physics. 4. It gives no information that a quantity is a
N.B: there are also some other practical scalar of vector.
units which are frequently used for small Principle of homogeneity: - states that the
and large lengths, such as: dimensions of all the terms in any physical
fermi(1fm)=10-13 m expressions should be the same.
X-ray unit (1XU) =10-13 m
Angstrom (1 𝐴̇) =10-10 m Example 2. Check the accuracy of the equations:
Micron (1µm) = 10-6 m 1 𝑓
(a). 𝑛 = √ , where L=length, m=mass per unit
11 2𝑙 𝑚
Astronomical unit (1 AU) = 1.49×10 m
length, f=force, n= frequency of vibration.
1.5 Dimension Analysis
1
Is the study of the relationship between physical (b). 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , (3). 𝐹 = 𝐾𝜂 𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑣 𝑐 &
2

quantities based on their units and dimensions. 𝑚𝑣2

(4). 𝐹 = , all symbols retain their usual meanings.
𝑟2
Dimension of length/distance [𝐿] , Mass[𝑀],Time
2.0 Scalars and vectors
[𝑇],current [𝐴 ],Temperature [0𝐾 ].
Any physical quantity is either a scalar or vector.
Example 1. Find the dimension of:- Area,  Scalar quantities are those that have only
Velocity, Work/Energy, power, impulse, potential magnitude(size) but no direction. E.g mass,
energy, SHC, Gas constant, coefficient of thermal time, distance, tempt. Power, Current, etc.
conductivity, Planck’s constant. Addition, subtraction, division or

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 2

 multiplication of scalars can be done N.B: i. null vector has no specified direction
according to the ordinary rules of algebra. ii. null vectors are only of mathematical
 Vector (carriers) quantities are those that have importance.
magnitude, direction and obey the law of 4. Equal vectors:- vectors are said to be equal if
parallelogram addition e.g: Velocity, they have the same magnitude and direction.
displacement, acceleration, linear momentum, 5. Parallel vectors:- have the same direction.
Torque, weight(force), etc. 6. Unlike vectors/ anti-parallel vectors:- Act in
 E.g 2𝑘𝑚 + 3𝑘𝑚 = 5𝑘𝑚 opposite directions.
 But 2𝑘𝑚 − 𝑁0𝑟𝑡ℎ + 3𝑘𝑚 − 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡 ≠ 5𝑘𝑚 7. Negative vectors:- Have equal magnitude but
B/C vectors have both magnitude and direction; opposite direction.
addition of vectors can be done either by scale 8. Concurrent/co-initial vectors:- have the same
drawing (graphical) or by calculation (analytical). initial point.
N.B:𝐴⃗ = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴, |𝐴| = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠/𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐴 9. Coplanar vectors:- Are vectors lying in the
Definition of terms same plane.
1. Angle between 2 vectors: 10. Orthogonal vectors:- two vectors whose angle
between them is 900 .
B
A 2.1 Vector algebra
0 θ A 2.1.1 Multiplication and Division of vectors by scalars
0 B
Tail must meet tail
α
If |𝐴⃗|𝑚 = 𝑚𝐴⃗ , m=scalar
C
B And (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝐴⃗ + 𝑛𝐴⃗, 𝑚 & 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
→ 1
0 θ A Or 𝑚 (𝑛𝐴⃗) = 𝑛(𝑚𝐴⃗) = (𝑚𝑛)𝐴⃗, Also 𝐴
= 𝐴⃗.
𝑚 𝑚
Heat & heart is not 105°
resolvable 2.1.2 Addition and subtraction of vectors
Θ = 180 - 105
a. Addition of two vectors
2. Unit vector (𝑛̂):- A dimensionless vector with
i. Parallelogram law:- Let R be the resultant of
unit magnitude. 𝑛̂ is used to convert a scalar
→ two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ , according to //gram law of
quantity to a vector. Thus 𝐴̂ = |𝐴
𝐴
|
. Its purpose is to
vector addition, the resultant R is the diagonal of
describe a direction in space. Unit vector along the //gram of which 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ are adjacent sides.
𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 directions are: 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ respectively. See diagram
If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ , then | 𝐴⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
3. Zero/null vector: - is a vector having zero 𝐵 sin𝜃
𝑅 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃, tan 𝛼 = &
𝐴+𝐵 cos𝜃
magnitude. 𝐴 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛽 = .
𝐵+𝐴cos𝜃

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 3

ii. Triangular law:- According to this law, if the E.g of. Dot product e.g of vector product
tail of one vector be placed at the head of the other, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

their sum/resultant R is drawn from the tail end of 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑀𝑜𝑚 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑀𝑜𝑚
the first to the head end of the other. See diagram 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜
iii. Polygon law of vector addition of more than
two vectors:- States that if a vector polygon be
5. The area of triangle bounded by two
drawn, placing the tail end of each succeeding 1
vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|
vector at the head or the arrow end of the 2

preceding one, their resultant R is drawn from the 6. The area of //gram bounded by vectors

tail end of the first to the head or the arrow end of 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|

the last. See diagram. 7. If 3 vectors are coplanar, their scalar triple
b. Subtraction of vectors product 𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 × 𝐵). 𝐶 = 𝐵. (𝐴 × 𝐶 ) = 0
8. The volume of a parallelopipe bounded by
For 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗ , 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗) is the vector
3 vectors equals their scalar triple product.
addition of 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗.
EXAMPLES
Thus 𝑆 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
2. If 𝐴⃗ = 2i − 3𝑗 + 7𝐾 , ⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 &
𝐵
Example 1. Find A+B, A-B in the diagram shown.
𝐶⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝐾.
c. Product of two vectors
i. Show that 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ are coplanar
i. Scalar/Dot product:- for any two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗
having 𝜃 between them, 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 ii. Find 2𝐴⃗+4(𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) & iii. 2𝐴⃗ (𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ ).

ii. Vector/Cross product:- 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵sin 𝜃 3. Find the torque as well as the work done
if 𝐹 = (2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝐾) 𝑁, 𝑟 = (3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝐾)𝑚.
N.B:
7 5
1. 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = −𝐵 × 𝐴 4. Given that 𝑃 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ( ), find
−4 6
𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐶 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
i. P+Q ii. Q-2P iii. 5P + 3
𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴2 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | 5. If 𝑃⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ , 𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 6𝑘̂ . Compute:
𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |𝑃⃗⃗|, |𝑄
⃗⃗ |, |𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑄
⃗⃗ |, 3𝑄
⃗⃗ . (𝑃⃗⃗ × 𝑄
⃗⃗ ).
3. 3.0 Motions
𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 & 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0
𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑗 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0, while A particle is said to be in motion if it continuously
𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 & 𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘, etc. changes its position with respect to a fix point.
Types of Motion
1. Translational motion:- e.g motion of a vehicle
on a straight line from point A to B. It can only go
horizontally.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 4

2. Rectilinear motion: it goes both vertical & vii. Uniform Acceleration:- a body is said to
horizontal. move with uniform acceleration when the time
3. Rotational motion: e.g motion of fan blades. rate of increase in velocity is constant. It is a
4. Vibrational / Oscillatory motion: (to & fro) e.g vector quantity also measured in ms-2 .
Simple Pendulum, human heart beat. viii. Retardation:- decrease in velocity with time.
5. Random (zig zag) e.g motion of smoke particle. ix. Uniform retardation:- A body is said to move
6. Projectile motion: e.g Javelin, shot put. with uniform retardation when the time rate of
7. Circular Motion: Motion of p lanet around the sun. decrease in velocity is constant.
*Assignment: What is the difference between 3.1 Equations of motion
circular motion and rotational motion. For one dimensional motion, acce = constant.
𝑑𝑣
Definition of Terms by definition,a = , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡, ∫ dv = a ∫ dt
𝑑𝑡
i. Distance:- is a measure of space between two At t = 0, velocity is u & at t = t, velocity is v
points. It is a scalar quantity measured in meters. 𝑣 𝑡
Hence, ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫0 𝑑𝑡 , [𝑉] 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑎 [𝑡] 𝑡0
ii. Displacement:- is a distance moved in a
v - u = a t, v = v + a t ------- (1)
specified direction. It is a vector quantity
v = final velocity, u = initial velocity,
measured in meter with direction stated. E.g 20km
a = acceleration t = time.
- North(displacement) while 20km (distance).
Equation (1) is called 1st equation of motion.
iii. Speed:- Distance Moved with time. It is a 𝑑𝑠
d Also, from 𝑣 = , 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
scalar quantity measured in ms Speed =
-1
. 𝑑𝑡
t
ds = (u + a t)dt. at t = 0, s = 0 & at t = t, the
iv. Average Speed:- is the total distance travelled 𝑠 𝑡
displacement S is ∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
per the total time for the journey.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠 1 1
i.e 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑟 = (𝑚𝑠 −1 ). Scalar quantity. [𝑠] = [𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ]
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 0 2 0
v. Velocity : -it is the distance moved with respect 1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ---------- (2)
2
to time in a specified direction or
By differentiation,
displacement ds
Velocity = , V = 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
time dt
a = = ∙ = 𝑣[ ]
vi. Uniform Velocity: - a body is said to be in 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

uniform velocity if the time rate of change of 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

𝑣 𝑠
displacement is constant. It is a vector quantity 𝑣2 𝑣 𝑠
∫ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 , [ ] = 𝑎 [𝑠]
𝑢 0 2 𝑢 0
measured in ms-1 . At uniform velocity,
𝑣2 𝑢2
acceleration is zero. Uniform velocity, a = 0 − = 𝑎 𝑠, 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
2 2
vii. Acceleration: - is the time rate of increase in
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 𝑎𝑠 ------- (3)
velocity dv
velocity. i.e acc = ,a = . N.B: When a body is thrown vertically upwards or
time dt

It is a vector quantity measured in ms -2 . dropped from a height, it moves in a straight line.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 5

Thus, the equations of motion are applicable & C. Find position of particle when it’s velocity is
a = g. Air resistance is negligible. zero.
v = u ± gt 2a. Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle
1
s = ut ± gt 2 a=g whose distance S is measured at any time given by:
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 ± 2𝑔𝑠 a = -g
𝑠 = 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 − 63𝑡 + 151, at t=2 S.
b. Determine the distance of the particle when
3.2 Graphical representation of motion
velocity is zero.
There are 3 types of graphs which can be used to
3. The velocity of a particle moving in a straight
describe the motion of a body. These are:
line is given as (v=10+2t+3t2 ) ms-1 . Find
1. Distance-time graph:- When the d/s moved by a
a. the displacement of the particle from the mean
body is plotted against time. The slope of such a
position at time t=1 S, given that the displacement
graph gives the speed of the motion.
is 20 m at t=0.
2. Displacement-time graph:- When a body moves
b. the acceleration-time equation.
along a straight line, graph of its displacement
4. A body at rest is given an initial uniform
against time is called displacement-time graph.
acceleration of 8ms-2 for 30s after which the
The slope gives velocity. If, however the graph is
acceleration is reduced to 5.0 ms-2 for the next 20s.
not straight, the gradient of the curve at any point
The body maintains the velocity attained for 60s
gives the velocity of the object at that instant.
after which it is brought to rest in 20s. Draw the v-t
3. Velocity-time graph:- is the graph of velocity
graph & use it to calculate: (a) maximum velocity
against time when a body moves along a straight
attained during the motion; (b) average retardation
line. The following information can be obtain on a
as the body is being brought to rest; (c) total
V - T graph. (1) Acceleration (2) Retardation and
distance and the average velocity.
(3) Total distance covered.
5. How far does a car moving at 88kmh-1 travel
N.B: in rectilinear motion, if S is the distance
forward during the 1sec time difference the driver
covered by an object moving along a straight line
taken to look at an accident on the side of the road?
at any time t, then the velocity and acceleration of
6. On seeing a stop road sign, a motorist traveling
the object at any time t is given by:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 at 60kmh-1 applies the brakes such that under
𝑣= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 constant deceleration, he stops at a junction 100 m
Examples ahead. Calculate the magnitude of the deceleration.
1. The displacement - time equation of a particle 7. A stone is projected vertically upward with a
3
moving along x - axis is x = 20 + t - 12t. velocity of 20ms-1 . Two seconds later, another
a. Find position & vector of the particle at t = 0 stone is projected vertically upward with the same
b. State whether mot ion is uniformly accelerated or not. velocity. When the 2 stones meet, the second
stone is raising at a velocity of 10ms-1 .

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 6

Neglecting air resistance, calculate the:- (a) length Properties of projectile motion
of time the 2nd stone is in motion before they meet. 1. Angle of projection (θ): - is the angle between
(b) velocity of the first stone when they meet. the velocity of projection and the horizontal.
3.3 Projectile Motion 2. Time of flight (T): - is the total time spent by
Is the motion of a body under the influence of its the projection in air. In this case, y = 0
1 1
weight only. Unlike in the previous motions, From 𝑆 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 2 , 0 = 𝑢sinθ × t − 𝑔 𝑡2 .
2 2
where the object moves only in one direction (x or 2usinθ
At t=T, T =
g
y-axis), in projectile motion, the object may move
3. Time to reach maximu m height : in this case,Vy = 0
in both x & y axes simultaneously.
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡, 𝑡 =
𝑔
y
u 4. Maximum height (H):- at 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. ,𝑉 = 0
𝑢2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Sy So that 𝐻 =
2𝑔

5. Range(R):- is the maximum horizontal

u cos t x
Sx displacement covered by the projectile in the time
of flight.
Because u is inclined at θ, we can resolve it into
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡
vertical and horizontal components.
ucosθ ×2usinθ u2 sin2θ)
If we neglect the effect of air resistance & the R = R =
g g
rotation of the earth does not affect the motion, 6. Special Projectile:-
then: 𝑎 𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑥 = 0. So that hori. Compt. U=0
𝑎 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 & 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡 ….. (1)
h
For vertical component Θ=0
1
a y= - g, vy=u sin θ –gt & S y= u sinθ t - 2 𝑔𝑡 2 … (2)
R
Put (1) into (2) 1 1 2h
from S = ut + gt 2 , h = gt 2 , T = √ … ∗
2 2 g
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑠𝑥 1 𝑠𝑥 2
𝑠𝑦 = × − 𝑔( ) which finally Equation * is the time of flight for special projectile
1 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 2 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑔𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2θ 2h
gives y = x tanθ − − − − (3) while: R = 𝑢cosθ × 𝑡, R = U × √ …**
2𝑢2 g
Equation (3) is the trajectory equation of a Equation ** is the horizontal range.
parabola for a projectile motion.
Use/Application of projectile
Also, the resultant velocity from the diagram
1. In sports e.g Throwing of javelin, shot put, etc.
1
v = {vx2 + vy2 }2, 2. In warfare e.g in shooting bullet, arrow, spear,
1 etc.
v = {(ucosθ) 2 + (usinθ − gt) 2 }2
vy
And direction of v is α = tan−1 ( ).
vx

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 7

Example It is important to note that
1. A stone is projected horizontally with a speed 1. When 2 bodies / masses are connected by a
-1
of 14.7ms . Find the horizontal and vertical string, there distances, velocity and acceleration
displacement of the stone from the point of are equal.
projectile after 2s. How far is the stone from the 2. In motion of connected bodies, string, are
point of projection. considered to be light and inextensible.
2. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a 3. When the surface is smooth, it is assumed that
it offers no resistance to the motion of a body
velocity of 100ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the
across it.
horizontal from the top of a tower of height 100m
& hits the ground at point Q. calculate the: Example
maximum height above the ground, time of flight 1. Two bodies of masses 6kg & 2kg are connected
& horizontal range. by a light inextensible string which passes over a
4.0 Laws of Motion smooth fixed pulley. With the masses hanging
1. Newton’s 1st law:- States that a body continues vertically, the system is released from rest, find
in its initial state of rest or motion with uniform the acceleration of the system and the distance
velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced external moved by the 6kg mass in the first 2s of motion.
force. 2. A lift of 750kg is carrying passengers whose
2. Newton’s 2nd law:- The acceleration of a body total mass is 250kg.
is inversely proportional to its mass and directly i. The lift is ascending at uniform speed, find the
proportional to the resultant external force acting tension on the cable and the vertical force exerted
F net
on it. i.e. Fnet = 𝑚 𝑎 or a = on the woman by the floor of the lift.
𝑚
ii. The lift descending with downward exerted
3. Newton’s 3rd law:- Forces always occur in
acceleration of 2ms-2 , calculate tension on the
pairs. If body A exerts a force on body B, an equal
cable & the vertical force exerted on the woman
but opposite force is exerted by body B on body A.
by the floor of the lift.
Linear Momentum(P):- Product of mass of a body
3. A body P rests on a horizontal table. Two
and its velocity. i.e p = mv or P = √2𝐾𝐸 M .
bodies of mass 2kg & 10kg, hanging freely are
For a body of mass m, initial velocity u, final
attached to P by strings which pass over smooth
velocity v that moves for time t.
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
pulleys at the edges of the table. The 2 strings are
Rate of change in 𝑃 = , but according to
𝑡 taut. When the system is released from rest, it
mv −mu
Newton’s 2 law of motion, F ∝
nd
, accelerates at 2ms-2 . Calculate the mass of p.
t

Ft = k(mv - mu) ------- (2) is called impulse (J).

𝑑𝑣 d 𝑑𝑝
F = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = (𝑚𝑣) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 =
𝑑𝑡 dt 𝑑𝑡

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 8

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Phy 101 Assignment GROUP 3

NAME:
REG. NO:
DEPT:
DATE: S/No.

1. The engine of a car produces an acceleration of 6 m s –2 in the car. If this car pulls another
car of the same mass, what would be the acceleration? ANS: 3 m s–2
2. Conservation of linear momentum is equivalent to which Newton’s law of motion?
3. [M1 L1 T–1 ] is the dimensional formula of which physical quantity?

4. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m s –1 . What will be the
time taken for the stone to rise to its maximum height? ANS: 3.1 s
5. The initial velocity of a particle is 10ms -1 and its retardation is 2 m s –2 . Find the distance
moved by the particle in 5th second of its motion. ANS: 1 m
6. Why does an athlete have to run some distance before taking a long jump?
7. Two bodies of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are connected by a light, inextensible string which
passes over a frictionless pulley. If the pulley is moving upward with uniform
𝟒𝒎 𝒎
acceleration 𝑔, what is the tension in the string? ANS: 𝟏 𝟐 𝒈
𝒎𝟏+𝒎𝟐
8. A stone thrown vertically upwards attains a maximum height of 45 m. At what time does
its velocity become equal to one-half the velocity of throw? ANS: 1.5 s
̂ + 4𝑗̂) .
9. The adjacent sides of a parallelogram is represented by vectors (2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂) and ((𝑖
Find the area of the parallelogram. 𝑨𝑵𝑺: 𝟓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 .
10. The velocity-time graph of a moving train is depicted in Figure below. Find the total
distance covered to the nearest hundred. ANS: 1900 m

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 9

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Phy 101 Assignment GROUP 2

NAME:
REG. NO:
DEPT:
DATE: S/No.

1. Two bodies of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are connected by a light, inextensible string which
passes over a frictionless pulley. If the pulley is moving upward with uniform
𝟒𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
acceleration 𝑔, calculate the tension in the string. ANS: 𝒈
𝒎𝟏+𝒎𝟐

2. Given : 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 5𝑘̂ . Find the magnitude of their scalar product. ANS:
20
8𝑡3
3. A particle moves along a straight line. Its position at any instant is given by 𝑥 = − +
3
32t , where 𝑥 is in metre and 𝑡 in seconds. What is the acceleration of the particle at the
instant when particle is at rest. ANS: −𝟑𝟐𝒎𝒔 −𝟐
4. A rider on a horse back falls forward when the horse suddenly stops. This is due to ?
5. A ball is projected with a velocity 20𝑚𝑠 −1 at an angle to the horizontal. In order to have
the maximum range. What must be its velocity at the highest position? ANS: 𝟏𝟖𝒎𝒔 −𝟏
6. A NAF 361 aircraft flying horizontally with a velocity of 60 km h –1 and at a height of 490
m dropped a missile on an enemy post. At the time of dropping the bomb, how far the
aircraft should be from the enemy post so that the bomb may directly hit the target ?
ANS: 167 m

7. A stone is projected from the ground at an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Calculate the
ratio of the maximum height attained by it to its horizontal range. ANS: √𝟑 ∶ 𝟒

8. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity √2𝑔ℎ from the top of a tower of height h. It
strikes the level ground through the foot of the tower at a distance 𝑥 from the tower.
Find the value of 𝑥. 𝑨𝑵𝑺: 𝟐𝒉
9. Two concurrent forces, each of magnitude 5 N, act at an angle of 120°. Compute the
magnitude of their resultant. ANS: 5 N
𝑔𝑥2
10. If 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − represent the equation of a projectile, find the angle of projection.
2
ANS: 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = √𝟑

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 9

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
Phy 101 (Mechanics) LECTURE NOTE

1.0 Introduction  Magnitude only (scalar): - e.g Mass,

1.1 Units and Dimension charge, current, time, e.t.c
Recall that physics is defined as the branch of  Magnitude and direction (Vector) e.g
science in which we observe, measure and Torque, acceleration, Displacement, e.t.c
describe natural phenomenon related to matter in Fundamental quantities are physical quantities that
relation to energy. At ‘A’ level, physics has the do not depend upon other quantities. The seven
following branches: Mechanics, Heat and fundamentals quantities and their units are
temperature, Electricity and magnetism, Waves, Quantity Unit(S.I)
and Modern physics. Length/distance(L) Meter(m)
1.2 Mechanics: - is the branch of physics which Mass(M) Kilogram(kg)
deals with motion of particles/bodies in space Time(T) Second(s)
and time. Current Ampere(A)
1.2.1 Statics: - deals with the force and their Temperature Degree-Kelvin(0 K)
effect while acting upon a body at rest. Luminous intensity Candela(Cd)
1.2.2 Dynamics: - deals with the force and their Amount of substance Mole(mole)
effect while acting upon a body in motion. N.B: The Radian and steradian are sometimes
The aspect of dynamics which is referred to as supplementary units on the S.I
concerned with the body in motion due to system. On the other hand, derived quantities are
application of force is known as Kinetics; physical quantities that depend upon the
while kinematics is concerned with the fundamental quantities.
body in motion without any reference to Exercise 1: Give 10 derived quantities, their
the force which are responsible for the formula and S.I unit.
motion. 1.4 Systems of Units
1.3 Fundamental and Derived units A complete set of units, both fundamental and
Quantities which can be measured directly or derived for all kind of physical quantities is
indirectly are called physical quantities. E.g Time, called a system of units. There are only four
Momentum, Distance, e.t.c. Physical quantity is system of units commonly used & universally
completely specified if it has the followings: accepted for describing measurements
 Numerical value only (ratio) e.g  CGS (Centimeter-gram-second) unit, Also
Refractive index, dielectric constant, e.tc known as Gaussian system of unit. In it,

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 1

 Length, Mass, and Time are fundamental Uses/important of dimension
quantities measured in centimeter, gram 1. To check the dimensional correctness of a
and second; while force in dyne, work/ given physical equation.
energy in erg. 2. To establish the relation among various
 FPS (Foot-pound-system), also known as physical quantities.
British system of unit, uses foot, pound 3. To change/convert units from one unit to
and second, for length, mass and time. another.
The derived quantity e.g force in poundal. Limitations of dimension
 MKS unit: - uses meter, kilogram, and 1. The dimensional and proportionality
second for length, mass and time as constants cannot be determined.
fundamental quantity, while all others are 2. Does not apply to equations containing
derived in terms of these fundamental trig., exponential, and logarithm function.
quantities. 3. Not useful to express a quantity that is the
 International system unit (S.I Units) is an sum or difference of 2 or more other
extended MKS system applied to the physical quantities.
whole of physics. 4. It gives no information that a quantity is a
N.B: there are also some other practical scalar of vector.
units which are frequently used for small Principle of homogeneity: - states that the
and large lengths, such as: dimensions of all the terms in any physical
fermi(1fm)=10-13 m expressions should be the same.
X-ray unit (1XU) =10-13 m
Angstrom (1 𝐴̇) =10-10 m Example 2. Check the accuracy of the equations:
Micron (1µm) = 10-6 m 1 𝑓
(a). 𝑛 = √ , where L=length, m=mass per unit
11 2𝑙 𝑚
Astronomical unit (1 AU) = 1.49×10 m
length, f=force, n= frequency of vibration.
1.5 Dimension Analysis
1
Is the study of the relationship between physical (b). 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , (3). 𝐹 = 𝐾𝜂 𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑣 𝑐 &
2

quantities based on their units and dimensions. 𝑚𝑣2

(4). 𝐹 = , all symbols retain their usual meanings.
𝑟2
Dimension of length/distance [𝐿] , Mass[𝑀],Time
2.0 Scalars and vectors
[𝑇],current [𝐴 ],Temperature [0𝐾 ].
Any physical quantity is either a scalar or vector.
Example 1. Find the dimension of:- Area,  Scalar quantities are those that have only
Velocity, Work/Energy, power, impulse, potential magnitude(size) but no direction. E.g mass,
energy, SHC, Gas constant, coefficient of thermal time, distance, tempt. Power, Current, etc.
conductivity, Planck’s constant. Addition, subtraction, division or

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 2

 multiplication of scalars can be done N.B: i. null vector has no specified direction
according to the ordinary rules of algebra. ii. null vectors are only of mathematical
 Vector (carriers) quantities are those that have importance.
magnitude, direction and obey the law of 4. Equal vectors:- vectors are said to be equal if
parallelogram addition e.g: Velocity, they have the same magnitude and direction.
displacement, acceleration, linear momentum, 5. Parallel vectors:- have the same direction.
Torque, weight(force), etc. 6. Unlike vectors/ anti-parallel vectors:- Act in
 E.g 2𝑘𝑚 + 3𝑘𝑚 = 5𝑘𝑚 opposite directions.
 But 2𝑘𝑚 − 𝑁0𝑟𝑡ℎ + 3𝑘𝑚 − 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡 ≠ 5𝑘𝑚 7. Negative vectors:- Have equal magnitude but
B/C vectors have both magnitude and direction; opposite direction.
addition of vectors can be done either by scale 8. Concurrent/co-initial vectors:- have the same
drawing (graphical) or by calculation (analytical). initial point.
N.B:𝐴⃗ = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴, |𝐴| = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠/𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐴 9. Coplanar vectors:- Are vectors lying in the
Definition of terms same plane.
1. Angle between 2 vectors: 10. Orthogonal vectors:- two vectors whose angle
between them is 900 .
B
A 2.1 Vector algebra
0 θ A 2.1.1 Multiplication and Division of vectors by scalars
0 B
Tail must meet tail
α
If |𝐴⃗|𝑚 = 𝑚𝐴⃗ , m=scalar
C
B And (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝐴⃗ + 𝑛𝐴⃗, 𝑚 & 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
→ 1
0 θ A Or 𝑚 (𝑛𝐴⃗) = 𝑛(𝑚𝐴⃗) = (𝑚𝑛)𝐴⃗, Also 𝐴
= 𝐴⃗.
𝑚 𝑚
Heat & heart is not 105°
resolvable 2.1.2 Addition and subtraction of vectors
Θ = 180 - 105
a. Addition of two vectors
2. Unit vector (𝑛̂):- A dimensionless vector with
i. Parallelogram law:- Let R be the resultant of
unit magnitude. 𝑛̂ is used to convert a scalar
→ two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ , according to //gram law of
quantity to a vector. Thus 𝐴̂ = |𝐴
𝐴
|
. Its purpose is to
vector addition, the resultant R is the diagonal of
describe a direction in space. Unit vector along the //gram of which 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ are adjacent sides.
𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 directions are: 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ respectively. See diagram
If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ , then | 𝐴⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
3. Zero/null vector: - is a vector having zero 𝐵 sin𝜃
𝑅 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃, tan 𝛼 = &
𝐴+𝐵 cos𝜃
magnitude. 𝐴 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛽 = .
𝐵+𝐴cos𝜃

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 3

ii. Triangular law:- According to this law, if the E.g of. Dot product e.g of vector product
tail of one vector be placed at the head of the other, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

their sum/resultant R is drawn from the tail end of 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑀𝑜𝑚 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑀𝑜𝑚
the first to the head end of the other. See diagram 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜
iii. Polygon law of vector addition of more than
two vectors:- States that if a vector polygon be
5. The area of triangle bounded by two
drawn, placing the tail end of each succeeding 1
vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|
vector at the head or the arrow end of the 2

preceding one, their resultant R is drawn from the 6. The area of //gram bounded by vectors

tail end of the first to the head or the arrow end of 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|

the last. See diagram. 7. If 3 vectors are coplanar, their scalar triple
b. Subtraction of vectors product 𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 × 𝐵). 𝐶 = 𝐵. (𝐴 × 𝐶 ) = 0
8. The volume of a parallelopipe bounded by
For 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗ , 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗) is the vector
3 vectors equals their scalar triple product.
addition of 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗.
EXAMPLES
Thus 𝑆 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
2. If 𝐴⃗ = 2i − 3𝑗 + 7𝐾 , ⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 &
𝐵
Example 1. Find A+B, A-B in the diagram shown.
𝐶⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝐾.
c. Product of two vectors
i. Show that 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ are coplanar
i. Scalar/Dot product:- for any two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗
having 𝜃 between them, 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 ii. Find 2𝐴⃗+4(𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) & iii. 2𝐴⃗ (𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ ).

ii. Vector/Cross product:- 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵sin 𝜃 3. Find the torque as well as the work done
if 𝐹 = (2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝐾) 𝑁, 𝑟 = (3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝐾)𝑚.
N.B:
7 5
1. 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = −𝐵 × 𝐴 4. Given that 𝑃 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ( ), find
−4 6
𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐶 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
i. P+Q ii. Q-2P iii. 5P + 3
𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴2 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | 5. If 𝑃⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ , 𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 6𝑘̂ . Compute:
𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |𝑃⃗⃗|, |𝑄
⃗⃗ |, |𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑄
⃗⃗ |, 3𝑄
⃗⃗ . (𝑃⃗⃗ × 𝑄
⃗⃗ ).
3. 3.0 Motions
𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 & 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0
𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑗 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0, while A particle is said to be in motion if it continuously
𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 & 𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘, etc. changes its position with respect to a fix point.
Types of Motion
1. Translational motion:- e.g motion of a vehicle
on a straight line from point A to B. It can only go
horizontally.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 4

2. Rectilinear motion: it goes both vertical & vii. Uniform Acceleration:- a body is said to
horizontal. move with uniform acceleration when the time
3. Rotational motion: e.g motion of fan blades. rate of increase in velocity is constant. It is a
4. Vibrational / Oscillatory motion: (to & fro) e.g vector quantity also measured in ms-2 .
Simple Pendulum, human heart beat. viii. Retardation:- decrease in velocity with time.
5. Random (zig zag) e.g motion of smoke particle. ix. Uniform retardation:- A body is said to move
6. Projectile motion: e.g Javelin, shot put. with uniform retardation when the time rate of
7. Circular Motion: Motion of p lanet around the sun. decrease in velocity is constant.
*Assignment: What is the difference between 3.1 Equations of motion
circular motion and rotational motion. For one dimensional motion, acce = constant.
𝑑𝑣
Definition of Terms by definition,a = , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡, ∫ dv = a ∫ dt
𝑑𝑡
i. Distance:- is a measure of space between two At t = 0, velocity is u & at t = t, velocity is v
points. It is a scalar quantity measured in meters. 𝑣 𝑡
Hence, ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫0 𝑑𝑡 , [𝑉] 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑎 [𝑡] 𝑡0
ii. Displacement:- is a distance moved in a
v - u = a t, v = v + a t ------- (1)
specified direction. It is a vector quantity
v = final velocity, u = initial velocity,
measured in meter with direction stated. E.g 20km
a = acceleration t = time.
- North(displacement) while 20km (distance).
Equation (1) is called 1st equation of motion.
iii. Speed:- Distance Moved with time. It is a 𝑑𝑠
d Also, from 𝑣 = , 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
scalar quantity measured in ms Speed =
-1
. 𝑑𝑡
t
ds = (u + a t)dt. at t = 0, s = 0 & at t = t, the
iv. Average Speed:- is the total distance travelled 𝑠 𝑡
displacement S is ∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
per the total time for the journey.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠 1 1
i.e 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑟 = (𝑚𝑠 −1 ). Scalar quantity. [𝑠] = [𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ]
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 0 2 0
v. Velocity : -it is the distance moved with respect 1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ---------- (2)
2
to time in a specified direction or
By differentiation,
displacement ds
Velocity = , V = 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
time dt
a = = ∙ = 𝑣[ ]
vi. Uniform Velocity: - a body is said to be in 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

uniform velocity if the time rate of change of 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

𝑣 𝑠
displacement is constant. It is a vector quantity 𝑣2 𝑣 𝑠
∫ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 , [ ] = 𝑎 [𝑠]
𝑢 0 2 𝑢 0
measured in ms-1 . At uniform velocity,
𝑣2 𝑢2
acceleration is zero. Uniform velocity, a = 0 − = 𝑎 𝑠, 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
2 2
vii. Acceleration: - is the time rate of increase in
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 𝑎𝑠 ------- (3)
velocity dv
velocity. i.e acc = ,a = . N.B: When a body is thrown vertically upwards or
time dt

It is a vector quantity measured in ms -2 . dropped from a height, it moves in a straight line.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 5

Thus, the equations of motion are applicable & C. Find position of particle when it’s velocity is
a = g. Air resistance is negligible. zero.
v = u ± gt 2a. Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle
1
s = ut ± gt 2 a=g whose distance S is measured at any time given by:
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 ± 2𝑔𝑠 a = -g
𝑠 = 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 − 63𝑡 + 151, at t=2 S.
b. Determine the distance of the particle when
3.2 Graphical representation of motion
velocity is zero.
There are 3 types of graphs which can be used to
3. The velocity of a particle moving in a straight
describe the motion of a body. These are:
line is given as (v=10+2t+3t2 ) ms-1 . Find
1. Distance-time graph:- When the d/s moved by a
a. the displacement of the particle from the mean
body is plotted against time. The slope of such a
position at time t=1 S, given that the displacement
graph gives the speed of the motion.
is 20 m at t=0.
2. Displacement-time graph:- When a body moves
b. the acceleration-time equation.
along a straight line, graph of its displacement
4. A body at rest is given an initial uniform
against time is called displacement-time graph.
acceleration of 8ms-2 for 30s after which the
The slope gives velocity. If, however the graph is
acceleration is reduced to 5.0 ms-2 for the next 20s.
not straight, the gradient of the curve at any point
The body maintains the velocity attained for 60s
gives the velocity of the object at that instant.
after which it is brought to rest in 20s. Draw the v-t
3. Velocity-time graph:- is the graph of velocity
graph & use it to calculate: (a) maximum velocity
against time when a body moves along a straight
attained during the motion; (b) average retardation
line. The following information can be obtain on a
as the body is being brought to rest; (c) total
V - T graph. (1) Acceleration (2) Retardation and
distance and the average velocity.
(3) Total distance covered.
5. How far does a car moving at 88kmh-1 travel
N.B: in rectilinear motion, if S is the distance
forward during the 1sec time difference the driver
covered by an object moving along a straight line
taken to look at an accident on the side of the road?
at any time t, then the velocity and acceleration of
6. On seeing a stop road sign, a motorist traveling
the object at any time t is given by:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 at 60kmh-1 applies the brakes such that under
𝑣= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 constant deceleration, he stops at a junction 100 m
Examples ahead. Calculate the magnitude of the deceleration.
1. The displacement - time equation of a particle 7. A stone is projected vertically upward with a
3
moving along x - axis is x = 20 + t - 12t. velocity of 20ms-1 . Two seconds later, another
a. Find position & vector of the particle at t = 0 stone is projected vertically upward with the same
b. State whether mot ion is uniformly accelerated or not. velocity. When the 2 stones meet, the second
stone is raising at a velocity of 10ms-1 .

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 6

Neglecting air resistance, calculate the:- (a) length Properties of projectile motion
of time the 2nd stone is in motion before they meet. 1. Angle of projection (θ): - is the angle between
(b) velocity of the first stone when they meet. the velocity of projection and the horizontal.
3.3 Projectile Motion 2. Time of flight (T): - is the total time spent by
Is the motion of a body under the influence of its the projection in air. In this case, y = 0
1 1
weight only. Unlike in the previous motions, From 𝑆 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 2 , 0 = 𝑢sinθ × t − 𝑔 𝑡2 .
2 2
where the object moves only in one direction (x or 2usinθ
At t=T, T =
g
y-axis), in projectile motion, the object may move
3. Time to reach maximu m height : in this case,Vy = 0
in both x & y axes simultaneously.
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡, 𝑡 =
𝑔
y
u 4. Maximum height (H):- at 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. ,𝑉 = 0
𝑢2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Sy So that 𝐻 =
2𝑔

5. Range(R):- is the maximum horizontal

u cos t x
Sx displacement covered by the projectile in the time
of flight.
Because u is inclined at θ, we can resolve it into
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡
vertical and horizontal components.
ucosθ ×2usinθ u2 sin2θ)
If we neglect the effect of air resistance & the R = R =
g g
rotation of the earth does not affect the motion, 6. Special Projectile:-
then: 𝑎 𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑥 = 0. So that hori. Compt. U=0
𝑎 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 & 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡 ….. (1)
h
For vertical component Θ=0
1
a y= - g, vy=u sin θ –gt & S y= u sinθ t - 2 𝑔𝑡 2 … (2)
R
Put (1) into (2) 1 1 2h
from S = ut + gt 2 , h = gt 2 , T = √ … ∗
2 2 g
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑠𝑥 1 𝑠𝑥 2
𝑠𝑦 = × − 𝑔( ) which finally Equation * is the time of flight for special projectile
1 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 2 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑔𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2θ 2h
gives y = x tanθ − − − − (3) while: R = 𝑢cosθ × 𝑡, R = U × √ …**
2𝑢2 g
Equation (3) is the trajectory equation of a Equation ** is the horizontal range.
parabola for a projectile motion.
Use/Application of projectile
Also, the resultant velocity from the diagram
1. In sports e.g Throwing of javelin, shot put, etc.
1
v = {vx2 + vy2 }2, 2. In warfare e.g in shooting bullet, arrow, spear,
1 etc.
v = {(ucosθ) 2 + (usinθ − gt) 2 }2
vy
And direction of v is α = tan−1 ( ).
vx

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 7

Example It is important to note that
1. A stone is projected horizontally with a speed 1. When 2 bodies / masses are connected by a
-1
of 14.7ms . Find the horizontal and vertical string, there distances, velocity and acceleration
displacement of the stone from the point of are equal.
projectile after 2s. How far is the stone from the 2. In motion of connected bodies, string, are
point of projection. considered to be light and inextensible.
2. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a 3. When the surface is smooth, it is assumed that
it offers no resistance to the motion of a body
velocity of 100ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the
across it.
horizontal from the top of a tower of height 100m
& hits the ground at point Q. calculate the: Example
maximum height above the ground, time of flight 1. Two bodies of masses 6kg & 2kg are connected
& horizontal range. by a light inextensible string which passes over a
4.0 Laws of Motion smooth fixed pulley. With the masses hanging
1. Newton’s 1st law:- States that a body continues vertically, the system is released from rest, find
in its initial state of rest or motion with uniform the acceleration of the system and the distance
velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced external moved by the 6kg mass in the first 2s of motion.
force. 2. A lift of 750kg is carrying passengers whose
2. Newton’s 2nd law:- The acceleration of a body total mass is 250kg.
is inversely proportional to its mass and directly i. The lift is ascending at uniform speed, find the
proportional to the resultant external force acting tension on the cable and the vertical force exerted
F net
on it. i.e. Fnet = 𝑚 𝑎 or a = on the woman by the floor of the lift.
𝑚
ii. The lift descending with downward exerted
3. Newton’s 3rd law:- Forces always occur in
acceleration of 2ms-2 , calculate tension on the
pairs. If body A exerts a force on body B, an equal
cable & the vertical force exerted on the woman
but opposite force is exerted by body B on body A.
by the floor of the lift.
Linear Momentum(P):- Product of mass of a body
3. A body P rests on a horizontal table. Two
and its velocity. i.e p = mv or P = √2𝐾𝐸 M .
bodies of mass 2kg & 10kg, hanging freely are
For a body of mass m, initial velocity u, final
attached to P by strings which pass over smooth
velocity v that moves for time t.
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
pulleys at the edges of the table. The 2 strings are
Rate of change in 𝑃 = , but according to
𝑡 taut. When the system is released from rest, it
mv −mu
Newton’s 2 law of motion, F ∝
nd
, accelerates at 2ms-2 . Calculate the mass of p.
t

Ft = k(mv - mu) ------- (2) is called impulse (J).

𝑑𝑣 d 𝑑𝑝
F = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = (𝑚𝑣) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 =
𝑑𝑡 dt 𝑑𝑡

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 8

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Phy 101 Assignment GROUP 1

NAME:
REG. NO:
DEPT:
DATE: S/No.

1. The forces, which meet at one point but their lines of action do not lie in
one plane, are called?
2. (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ) × (𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗) equals? ANS: −𝟐(𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
3. A force of 2 newton acting on a certain mass for 6 second gives it a velocity
of 6 m s –1 . The mass is equal to? ANS: 2 kg.
4. Derive the dimensional formula for the following physical quantities: Work,
Power, and Energy
5. On applying brakes, an automobile stops after 5 second covering 25 m with
uniformly retarded motion. Calculate the initial speed of the automobile.
ANS: 10 m s–1
𝑔𝑥2
6. If 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − represent the equation of a projectile, find the angle of
2
projection. ANS: 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = √𝟑
7. What is dimensional formula of kinetic energy?
8. How far a stone shall free-fall in 1 second if released from rest? ANS: 4.9 m
9. The force acting on a body of mass 5 kg is (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂) N. What is the
magnitude of acceleration of the body? ANS: 1 m s–2
10. A stone thrown ver tically upwards attains a maximum height of 45 m. In
what time, the velocity of stone become equal to one-half the velocity of
throw? ANS: 1.5 S

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 9

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
Phy 101 (Mechanics) LECTURE NOTE

1.0 Introduction  Magnitude only (scalar): - e.g Mass,

1.1 Units and Dimension charge, current, time, e.t.c
Recall that physics is defined as the branch of  Magnitude and direction (Vector) e.g
science in which we observe, measure and Torque, acceleration, Displacement, e.t.c
describe natural phenomenon related to matter in Fundamental quantities are physical quantities that
relation to energy. At ‘A’ level, physics has the do not depend upon other quantities. The seven
following branches: Mechanics, Heat and fundamentals quantities and their units are
temperature, Electricity and magnetism, Waves, Quantity Unit(S.I)
and Modern physics. Length/distance(L) Meter(m)
1.2 Mechanics: - is the branch of physics which Mass(M) Kilogram(kg)
deals with motion of particles/bodies in space Time(T) Second(s)
and time. Current Ampere(A)
1.2.1 Statics: - deals with the force and their Temperature Degree-Kelvin(0 K)
effect while acting upon a body at rest. Luminous intensity Candela(Cd)
1.2.2 Dynamics: - deals with the force and their Amount of substance Mole(mole)
effect while acting upon a body in motion. N.B: The Radian and steradian are sometimes
The aspect of dynamics which is referred to as supplementary units on the S.I
concerned with the body in motion due to system. On the other hand, derived quantities are
application of force is known as Kinetics; physical quantities that depend upon the
while kinematics is concerned with the fundamental quantities.
body in motion without any reference to Exercise 1: Give 10 derived quantities, their
the force which are responsible for the formula and S.I unit.
motion. 1.4 Systems of Units
1.3 Fundamental and Derived units A complete set of units, both fundamental and
Quantities which can be measured directly or derived for all kind of physical quantities is
indirectly are called physical quantities. E.g Time, called a system of units. There are only four
Momentum, Distance, e.t.c. Physical quantity is system of units commonly used & universally
completely specified if it has the followings: accepted for describing measurements
 Numerical value only (ratio) e.g  CGS (Centimeter-gram-second) unit, Also
Refractive index, dielectric constant, e.tc known as Gaussian system of unit. In it,

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 1

 Length, Mass, and Time are fundamental Uses/important of dimension
quantities measured in centimeter, gram 1. To check the dimensional correctness of a
and second; while force in dyne, work/ given physical equation.
energy in erg. 2. To establish the relation among various
 FPS (Foot-pound-system), also known as physical quantities.
British system of unit, uses foot, pound 3. To change/convert units from one unit to
and second, for length, mass and time. another.
The derived quantity e.g force in poundal. Limitations of dimension
 MKS unit: - uses meter, kilogram, and 1. The dimensional and proportionality
second for length, mass and time as constants cannot be determined.
fundamental quantity, while all others are 2. Does not apply to equations containing
derived in terms of these fundamental trig., exponential, and logarithm function.
quantities. 3. Not useful to express a quantity that is the
 International system unit (S.I Units) is an sum or difference of 2 or more other
extended MKS system applied to the physical quantities.
whole of physics. 4. It gives no information that a quantity is a
N.B: there are also some other practical scalar of vector.
units which are frequently used for small Principle of homogeneity: - states that the
and large lengths, such as: dimensions of all the terms in any physical
fermi(1fm)=10-13 m expressions should be the same.
X-ray unit (1XU) =10-13 m
Angstrom (1 𝐴̇) =10-10 m Example 2. Check the accuracy of the equations:
Micron (1µm) = 10-6 m 1 𝑓
(a). 𝑛 = √ , where L=length, m=mass per unit
11 2𝑙 𝑚
Astronomical unit (1 AU) = 1.49×10 m
length, f=force, n= frequency of vibration.
1.5 Dimension Analysis
1
Is the study of the relationship between physical (b). 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 , (3). 𝐹 = 𝐾𝜂 𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑣 𝑐 &
2

quantities based on their units and dimensions. 𝑚𝑣2

(4). 𝐹 = , all symbols retain their usual meanings.
𝑟2
Dimension of length/distance [𝐿] , Mass[𝑀],Time
2.0 Scalars and vectors
[𝑇],current [𝐴 ],Temperature [0𝐾 ].
Any physical quantity is either a scalar or vector.
Example 1. Find the dimension of:- Area,  Scalar quantities are those that have only
Velocity, Work/Energy, power, impulse, potential magnitude(size) but no direction. E.g mass,
energy, SHC, Gas constant, coefficient of thermal time, distance, tempt. Power, Current, etc.
conductivity, Planck’s constant. Addition, subtraction, division or

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 2

 multiplication of scalars can be done N.B: i. null vector has no specified direction
according to the ordinary rules of algebra. ii. null vectors are only of mathematical
 Vector (carriers) quantities are those that have importance.
magnitude, direction and obey the law of 4. Equal vectors:- vectors are said to be equal if
parallelogram addition e.g: Velocity, they have the same magnitude and direction.
displacement, acceleration, linear momentum, 5. Parallel vectors:- have the same direction.
Torque, weight(force), etc. 6. Unlike vectors/ anti-parallel vectors:- Act in
 E.g 2𝑘𝑚 + 3𝑘𝑚 = 5𝑘𝑚 opposite directions.
 But 2𝑘𝑚 − 𝑁0𝑟𝑡ℎ + 3𝑘𝑚 − 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡 ≠ 5𝑘𝑚 7. Negative vectors:- Have equal magnitude but
B/C vectors have both magnitude and direction; opposite direction.
addition of vectors can be done either by scale 8. Concurrent/co-initial vectors:- have the same
drawing (graphical) or by calculation (analytical). initial point.
N.B:𝐴⃗ = 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴, |𝐴| = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠/𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐴 9. Coplanar vectors:- Are vectors lying in the
Definition of terms same plane.
1. Angle between 2 vectors: 10. Orthogonal vectors:- two vectors whose angle
between them is 900 .
B
A 2.1 Vector algebra
0 θ A 2.1.1 Multiplication and Division of vectors by scalars
0 B
Tail must meet tail
α
If |𝐴⃗|𝑚 = 𝑚𝐴⃗ , m=scalar
C
B And (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝐴⃗ = 𝑚𝐴⃗ + 𝑛𝐴⃗, 𝑚 & 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
→ 1
0 θ A Or 𝑚 (𝑛𝐴⃗) = 𝑛(𝑚𝐴⃗) = (𝑚𝑛)𝐴⃗, Also 𝐴
= 𝐴⃗.
𝑚 𝑚
Heat & heart is not 105°
resolvable 2.1.2 Addition and subtraction of vectors
Θ = 180 - 105
a. Addition of two vectors
2. Unit vector (𝑛̂):- A dimensionless vector with
i. Parallelogram law:- Let R be the resultant of
unit magnitude. 𝑛̂ is used to convert a scalar
→ two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ , according to //gram law of
quantity to a vector. Thus 𝐴̂ = |𝐴
𝐴
|
. Its purpose is to
vector addition, the resultant R is the diagonal of
describe a direction in space. Unit vector along the //gram of which 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ are adjacent sides.
𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 directions are: 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂ respectively. See diagram
If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ , then | 𝐴⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
3. Zero/null vector: - is a vector having zero 𝐵 sin𝜃
𝑅 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃, tan 𝛼 = &
𝐴+𝐵 cos𝜃
magnitude. 𝐴 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛽 = .
𝐵+𝐴cos𝜃

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 3

ii. Triangular law:- According to this law, if the E.g of. Dot product e.g of vector product
tail of one vector be placed at the head of the other, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝. 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

their sum/resultant R is drawn from the tail end of 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑀𝑜𝑚 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑀𝑜𝑚
the first to the head end of the other. See diagram 𝐿𝑖𝑛. 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 × 𝐴𝑛𝑔. 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜
iii. Polygon law of vector addition of more than
two vectors:- States that if a vector polygon be
5. The area of triangle bounded by two
drawn, placing the tail end of each succeeding 1
vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|
vector at the head or the arrow end of the 2

preceding one, their resultant R is drawn from the 6. The area of //gram bounded by vectors

tail end of the first to the head or the arrow end of 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗ is |𝐴 × 𝐵|

the last. See diagram. 7. If 3 vectors are coplanar, their scalar triple
b. Subtraction of vectors product 𝐴. (𝐵 × 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 × 𝐵). 𝐶 = 𝐵. (𝐴 × 𝐶 ) = 0
8. The volume of a parallelopipe bounded by
For 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗ , 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + (−𝐵
⃗⃗) is the vector
3 vectors equals their scalar triple product.
addition of 𝐴⃗ & -𝐵
⃗⃗.
EXAMPLES
Thus 𝑆 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = √𝐴 2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
2. If 𝐴⃗ = 2i − 3𝑗 + 7𝐾 , ⃗⃗ = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 &
𝐵
Example 1. Find A+B, A-B in the diagram shown.
𝐶⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝐾.
c. Product of two vectors
i. Show that 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ are coplanar
i. Scalar/Dot product:- for any two vectors 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵
⃗⃗
having 𝜃 between them, 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 ii. Find 2𝐴⃗+4(𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) & iii. 2𝐴⃗ (𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ ).

ii. Vector/Cross product:- 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵sin 𝜃 3. Find the torque as well as the work done
if 𝐹 = (2𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 4𝐾) 𝑁, 𝑟 = (3𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝐾)𝑚.
N.B:
7 5
1. 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = −𝐵 × 𝐴 4. Given that 𝑃 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = ( ), find
−4 6
𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐶 𝐴 × (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
i. P+Q ii. Q-2P iii. 5P + 3
𝐴. 𝐴 = 𝐴2 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 | 5. If 𝑃⃗⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ , 𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 6𝑘̂ . Compute:
𝑎 2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |𝑃⃗⃗|, |𝑄
⃗⃗ |, |𝑃⃗⃗ + 𝑄
⃗⃗ |, 3𝑄
⃗⃗ . (𝑃⃗⃗ × 𝑄
⃗⃗ ).
3. 3.0 Motions
𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 & 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0
𝑖 × 𝑖 = 𝑗 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0, while A particle is said to be in motion if it continuously
𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 & 𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘, etc. changes its position with respect to a fix point.
Types of Motion
1. Translational motion:- e.g motion of a vehicle
on a straight line from point A to B. It can only go
horizontally.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 4

2. Rectilinear motion: it goes both vertical & vii. Uniform Acceleration:- a body is said to
horizontal. move with uniform acceleration when the time
3. Rotational motion: e.g motion of fan blades. rate of increase in velocity is constant. It is a
4. Vibrational / Oscillatory motion: (to & fro) e.g vector quantity also measured in ms-2 .
Simple Pendulum, human heart beat. viii. Retardation:- decrease in velocity with time.
5. Random (zig zag) e.g motion of smoke particle. ix. Uniform retardation:- A body is said to move
6. Projectile motion: e.g Javelin, shot put. with uniform retardation when the time rate of
7. Circular Motion: Motion of p lanet around the sun. decrease in velocity is constant.
*Assignment: What is the difference between 3.1 Equations of motion
circular motion and rotational motion. For one dimensional motion, acce = constant.
𝑑𝑣
Definition of Terms by definition,a = , 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡, ∫ dv = a ∫ dt
𝑑𝑡
i. Distance:- is a measure of space between two At t = 0, velocity is u & at t = t, velocity is v
points. It is a scalar quantity measured in meters. 𝑣 𝑡
Hence, ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫0 𝑑𝑡 , [𝑉] 𝑣𝑢 = 𝑎 [𝑡] 𝑡0
ii. Displacement:- is a distance moved in a
v - u = a t, v = v + a t ------- (1)
specified direction. It is a vector quantity
v = final velocity, u = initial velocity,
measured in meter with direction stated. E.g 20km
a = acceleration t = time.
- North(displacement) while 20km (distance).
Equation (1) is called 1st equation of motion.
iii. Speed:- Distance Moved with time. It is a 𝑑𝑠
d Also, from 𝑣 = , 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
scalar quantity measured in ms Speed =
-1
. 𝑑𝑡
t
ds = (u + a t)dt. at t = 0, s = 0 & at t = t, the
iv. Average Speed:- is the total distance travelled 𝑠 𝑡
displacement S is ∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
per the total time for the journey.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠 1 1
i.e 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑟 = (𝑚𝑠 −1 ). Scalar quantity. [𝑠] = [𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ]
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 0 2 0
v. Velocity : -it is the distance moved with respect 1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 ---------- (2)
2
to time in a specified direction or
By differentiation,
displacement ds
Velocity = , V = 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
time dt
a = = ∙ = 𝑣[ ]
vi. Uniform Velocity: - a body is said to be in 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

uniform velocity if the time rate of change of 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑠

𝑣 𝑠
displacement is constant. It is a vector quantity 𝑣2 𝑣 𝑠
∫ 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 , [ ] = 𝑎 [𝑠]
𝑢 0 2 𝑢 0
measured in ms-1 . At uniform velocity,
𝑣2 𝑢2
acceleration is zero. Uniform velocity, a = 0 − = 𝑎 𝑠, 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
2 2
vii. Acceleration: - is the time rate of increase in
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 𝑎𝑠 ------- (3)
velocity dv
velocity. i.e acc = ,a = . N.B: When a body is thrown vertically upwards or
time dt

It is a vector quantity measured in ms -2 . dropped from a height, it moves in a straight line.

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 5

Thus, the equations of motion are applicable & C. Find position of particle when it’s velocity is
a = g. Air resistance is negligible. zero.
v = u ± gt 2a. Find the velocity and acceleration of a particle
1
s = ut ± gt 2 a=g whose distance S is measured at any time given by:
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 ± 2𝑔𝑠 a = -g
𝑠 = 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 − 63𝑡 + 151, at t=2 S.
b. Determine the distance of the particle when
3.2 Graphical representation of motion
velocity is zero.
There are 3 types of graphs which can be used to
3. The velocity of a particle moving in a straight
describe the motion of a body. These are:
line is given as (v=10+2t+3t2 ) ms-1 . Find
1. Distance-time graph:- When the d/s moved by a
a. the displacement of the particle from the mean
body is plotted against time. The slope of such a
position at time t=1 S, given that the displacement
graph gives the speed of the motion.
is 20 m at t=0.
2. Displacement-time graph:- When a body moves
b. the acceleration-time equation.
along a straight line, graph of its displacement
4. A body at rest is given an initial uniform
against time is called displacement-time graph.
acceleration of 8ms-2 for 30s after which the
The slope gives velocity. If, however the graph is
acceleration is reduced to 5.0 ms-2 for the next 20s.
not straight, the gradient of the curve at any point
The body maintains the velocity attained for 60s
gives the velocity of the object at that instant.
after which it is brought to rest in 20s. Draw the v-t
3. Velocity-time graph:- is the graph of velocity
graph & use it to calculate: (a) maximum velocity
against time when a body moves along a straight
attained during the motion; (b) average retardation
line. The following information can be obtain on a
as the body is being brought to rest; (c) total
V - T graph. (1) Acceleration (2) Retardation and
distance and the average velocity.
(3) Total distance covered.
5. How far does a car moving at 88kmh-1 travel
N.B: in rectilinear motion, if S is the distance
forward during the 1sec time difference the driver
covered by an object moving along a straight line
taken to look at an accident on the side of the road?
at any time t, then the velocity and acceleration of
6. On seeing a stop road sign, a motorist traveling
the object at any time t is given by:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 at 60kmh-1 applies the brakes such that under
𝑣= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 constant deceleration, he stops at a junction 100 m
Examples ahead. Calculate the magnitude of the deceleration.
1. The displacement - time equation of a particle 7. A stone is projected vertically upward with a
3
moving along x - axis is x = 20 + t - 12t. velocity of 20ms-1 . Two seconds later, another
a. Find position & vector of the particle at t = 0 stone is projected vertically upward with the same
b. State whether mot ion is uniformly accelerated or not. velocity. When the 2 stones meet, the second
stone is raising at a velocity of 10ms-1 .

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 6

Neglecting air resistance, calculate the:- (a) length Properties of projectile motion
of time the 2nd stone is in motion before they meet. 1. Angle of projection (θ): - is the angle between
(b) velocity of the first stone when they meet. the velocity of projection and the horizontal.
3.3 Projectile Motion 2. Time of flight (T): - is the total time spent by
Is the motion of a body under the influence of its the projection in air. In this case, y = 0
1 1
weight only. Unlike in the previous motions, From 𝑆 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑔 𝑡 2 , 0 = 𝑢sinθ × t − 𝑔 𝑡2 .
2 2
where the object moves only in one direction (x or 2usinθ
At t=T, T =
g
y-axis), in projectile motion, the object may move
3. Time to reach maximu m height : in this case,Vy = 0
in both x & y axes simultaneously.
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
From 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡, 𝑡 =
𝑔
y
u 4. Maximum height (H):- at 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥. ,𝑉 = 0
𝑢2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Sy So that 𝐻 =
2𝑔

5. Range(R):- is the maximum horizontal

u cos t x
Sx displacement covered by the projectile in the time
of flight.
Because u is inclined at θ, we can resolve it into
𝑆𝑥 = 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡
vertical and horizontal components.
ucosθ ×2usinθ u2 sin2θ)
If we neglect the effect of air resistance & the R = R =
g g
rotation of the earth does not affect the motion, 6. Special Projectile:-
then: 𝑎 𝑦 = −𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑥 = 0. So that hori. Compt. U=0
𝑎 𝑥 = 0, 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 & 𝑆𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑡 ….. (1)
h
For vertical component Θ=0
1
a y= - g, vy=u sin θ –gt & S y= u sinθ t - 2 𝑔𝑡 2 … (2)
R
Put (1) into (2) 1 1 2h
from S = ut + gt 2 , h = gt 2 , T = √ … ∗
2 2 g
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑠𝑥 1 𝑠𝑥 2
𝑠𝑦 = × − 𝑔( ) which finally Equation * is the time of flight for special projectile
1 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ 2 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑔𝑥 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2θ 2h
gives y = x tanθ − − − − (3) while: R = 𝑢cosθ × 𝑡, R = U × √ …**
2𝑢2 g
Equation (3) is the trajectory equation of a Equation ** is the horizontal range.
parabola for a projectile motion.
Use/Application of projectile
Also, the resultant velocity from the diagram
1. In sports e.g Throwing of javelin, shot put, etc.
1
v = {vx2 + vy2 }2, 2. In warfare e.g in shooting bullet, arrow, spear,
1 etc.
v = {(ucosθ) 2 + (usinθ − gt) 2 }2
vy
And direction of v is α = tan−1 ( ).
vx

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 7

Example It is important to note that
1. A stone is projected horizontally with a speed 1. When 2 bodies / masses are connected by a
-1
of 14.7ms . Find the horizontal and vertical string, there distances, velocity and acceleration
displacement of the stone from the point of are equal.
projectile after 2s. How far is the stone from the 2. In motion of connected bodies, string, are
point of projection. considered to be light and inextensible.
2. A particle is projected vertically upwards with a 3. When the surface is smooth, it is assumed that
it offers no resistance to the motion of a body
velocity of 100ms-1 at an angle of 300 to the
across it.
horizontal from the top of a tower of height 100m
& hits the ground at point Q. calculate the: Example
maximum height above the ground, time of flight 1. Two bodies of masses 6kg & 2kg are connected
& horizontal range. by a light inextensible string which passes over a
4.0 Laws of Motion smooth fixed pulley. With the masses hanging
1. Newton’s 1st law:- States that a body continues vertically, the system is released from rest, find
in its initial state of rest or motion with uniform the acceleration of the system and the distance
velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced external moved by the 6kg mass in the first 2s of motion.
force. 2. A lift of 750kg is carrying passengers whose
2. Newton’s 2nd law:- The acceleration of a body total mass is 250kg.
is inversely proportional to its mass and directly i. The lift is ascending at uniform speed, find the
proportional to the resultant external force acting tension on the cable and the vertical force exerted
F net
on it. i.e. Fnet = 𝑚 𝑎 or a = on the woman by the floor of the lift.
𝑚
ii. The lift descending with downward exerted
3. Newton’s 3rd law:- Forces always occur in
acceleration of 2ms-2 , calculate tension on the
pairs. If body A exerts a force on body B, an equal
cable & the vertical force exerted on the woman
but opposite force is exerted by body B on body A.
by the floor of the lift.
Linear Momentum(P):- Product of mass of a body
3. A body P rests on a horizontal table. Two
and its velocity. i.e p = mv or P = √2𝐾𝐸 M .
bodies of mass 2kg & 10kg, hanging freely are
For a body of mass m, initial velocity u, final
attached to P by strings which pass over smooth
velocity v that moves for time t.
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
pulleys at the edges of the table. The 2 strings are
Rate of change in 𝑃 = , but according to
𝑡 taut. When the system is released from rest, it
mv −mu
Newton’s 2 law of motion, F ∝
nd
, accelerates at 2ms-2 . Calculate the mass of p.
t

Ft = k(mv - mu) ------- (2) is called impulse (J).

𝑑𝑣 d 𝑑𝑝
F = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = (𝑚𝑣) 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 =
𝑑𝑡 dt 𝑑𝑡

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 8

 AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, KADUNA
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Phy 101 Assignment GROUP 2

NAME:
REG. NO:
DEPT:
DATE: S/No.

1. Two bodies of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are connected by a light, inextensible string which
passes over a frictionless pulley. If the pulley is moving upward with uniform
𝟒𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
acceleration 𝑔, calculate the tension in the string. ANS: 𝒈
𝒎𝟏+𝒎𝟐

2. Given : 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗⃗ = 2𝑖̂ + 5𝑘̂ . Find the magnitude of their scalar product. ANS:
20
8𝑡3
3. A particle moves along a straight line. Its position at any instant is given by 𝑥 = − +
3
32t , where 𝑥 is in metre and 𝑡 in seconds. What is the acceleration of the particle at the
instant when particle is at rest. ANS: −𝟑𝟐𝒎𝒔 −𝟐
4. A rider on a horse back falls forward when the horse suddenly stops. This is due to ?
5. A ball is projected with a velocity 20𝑚𝑠 −1 at an angle to the horizontal. In order to have
the maximum range. What must be its velocity at the highest position? ANS: 𝟏𝟖𝒎𝒔 −𝟏
6. A NAF 361 aircraft flying horizontally with a velocity of 60 km h –1 and at a height of 490
m dropped a missile on an enemy post. At the time of dropping the bomb, how far the
aircraft should be from the enemy post so that the bomb may directly hit the target ?
ANS: 167 m

7. A stone is projected from the ground at an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Calculate the
ratio of the maximum height attained by it to its horizontal range. ANS: √𝟑 ∶ 𝟒

8. A ball is thrown horizontally with a velocity √2𝑔ℎ from the top of a tower of height h. It
strikes the level ground through the foot of the tower at a distance 𝑥 from the tower.
Find the value of 𝑥. 𝑨𝑵𝑺: 𝟐𝒉
9. Two concurrent forces, each of magnitude 5 N, act at an angle of 120°. Compute the
magnitude of their resultant. ANS: 5 N
𝑔𝑥2
10. If 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − represent the equation of a projectile, find the angle of projection.
2
ANS: 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = √𝟑

AFIT/PH YSICS /PHY101 Lecture note/Hussaini, S.M. (2024). Page 9