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CURVES
Introduction.

Curve ranging is an important aspect in providing the
smoothness or gradual change in direction due to nature of
terrain, cultural features and other unavoidable reasons.

The smoothness is necessary to break the monotony in driving

on long straight routes to avoid accidents.

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Types of curves
There are two types of curves:
1. Horizontal curves
2. Vertical curves

Horizontal curves
1. Simple circular curves-constant radius
2. Compound curves-constant radius
3. Reverse curves-constant radius
4. Transition curves-varying radius

Vertical curves
1. Summits
2. Sags

3 Fig 1. Simple circular curve 4

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1. Simple circular curves

Consider two straights AI and IB connected by circular curve of
constant radius R.
-Point of curvature (commencement) PC or T1 which connects the
straight and curve.
-Point of Intersection PI or I which is the intersection of two
straights
-Point of Tangency PT or T2 which connects the curve and the
straight.
-The radius R and center of radius O.
-Angle Δ is called intersection or deflection angle
-Angle φ is called apex angle but little used in computations.
-The distance E of the midpoint of the curve from I is called the
external distance.

Fig 2. Simple circular curve 5 6

1. Simple circular curves 1. Simple circular curves

-The arc length from T1 to T2 is the length of curve. Design and setting out circular curves
The following formulae are used.
-The chord T1T2 is called the long chord.
Tangent length (T) = R tan ∆/2

-The distance M between the midpoints of the curve and the long
Length of curve (l) = (πR∆)/180
chord, is called the mid-ordinate.

Long chord (L) = 2R sin ∆/2
-The distance T1I which is equal to the distance IT2, is called the tangent
length.
External or apex distance (E)= R sec( ∆/2 -1)

-The tangent AI is called the back tangent
Mid-ordinate or rise (M) = R(1-cos ∆/2 )

-The tangent A
IBtypical section of
is the forward a Benchmark
tangent.
Chainage of T1 = Chainage of P.I. – T

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l.

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Simple circular curves Simple circular curves

 Through chainage
 Radius calculation
Through chainage is the horizontal distance from the
start of a scheme for route construction.
 Curves are designated either by their radius (R) or

Consider figure bellow.
their degree of curvature (D◦).
 The degree of curvature is defined as the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of 100 m.
 Thus (D/100)=(3600/2 πR)
 R=(5729.578/D rad).
 Thus a 10o curve has 572.9578m radius

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 Through chainage Simple circular curves

If the distance from the start of the route (Chn 0.00 m) to
 Setting out circular curves
the tangent point T1 is 2115.50 m, then it is said that the
chainage of T1 is 2115.50 m, written as (Chn 2+115.50 m).
This is the process of establishing the centre-line of the curve

If the route centre-line is being staked out at 20-m chord on the ground by means of pegs at 10m to 30m intervals.
intervals, then the peg immediately prior to T1 must have a
This can be done by setting the correct positions of tangent
chainage of 2100 m (an integer number of 20 m intervals). and intersection points on the ground first.

The next peg on the centre-line must therefore have a
Procedures.
chainage of 2120 m. It follows that the length of the first
sub-chord on the curve from T1 must be – Design the straights on a plan say T1I, T2I etc.
(2120 − 2115.50) = 4.50 m. – Design the appropriate curves to connect the straights.

Similarly, if the chord interval had been 30 m, the peg – Fix the tangent points of the curves making sure that the
chainage prior to T1 must be 2100 m and the next peg (on tangents are equal in lengths say T1I= T2I.
the curve) 2130 m, thus the first sub-chord will be (2130 −
2115.50) = 14.50 m.
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Simple circular curves Simple circular curves

 procedures  Methods of setting out curves
– Scale the coordinates of the origin and all the intersection
points from the plan. 1. Using theodolite and tape (Deflection angel method).
– Compute the bearing of the straights using the scaled 2. Setting out using two theodolites.
coordinates and hence compute the coordinates of tangent 3. Setting out using EDM
points using tangent lengths. 4. Setting out using coordinates (most common nowadays).
– The difference of the bearings of the straights provides the 5. Setting out with two tapes (offset method).
deflection angles (Δ) of the curves which, combined with the
6. Setting out by offsets with sub-cords.
tangent length, enables computation of the curve radius,
through chainage and all setting-out data. 7. Setting out with inaccessible intersection point.
– The tangent and intersection points are then set out from 8. Setting out with theodolite at an intermediate point on
existing control survey stations and the curves ranged the curve.
between them are set using setting out methods.

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 Methods of setting out curves Theodolite and tape (Deflection angel method).

9. Setting out with an obstruction on the curve.

Example 01
10. Passing a curve through a given point

The centre-line of two straights is projected forward to
1. Using theodolite and tape (Deflection meet at I, the deflection angle being 30◦. If the straights
angel method). are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 200 m,
tabulate all the setting-out data, assuming 20-m chords
on a through chainage basis, the chainage of I being
The following method of setting out curves is the most 2259.59 m.
popular and it is called Rankine’s deflection or solution.
tangential angle method, the latter term being more
– Tangent length = R tan(Δ /2 )= 200 tan 15◦ = 53.59 m
definitive.
– Chainage of T1 = 2259.59 − 53.59 = 2206 m
– 1st sub-chord = 14m
– Length of circular arc=R Δ=(200x30◦xπ)/180 = 104.72 m
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Example 01 cont.. Example 01 cont..

– 1st sub-chord = 14 m Deflection angles:

For 1st sub-chord = 28.6479 *(14/200) = 2◦ 00’19’’
– 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th chords = 20 m each. Standard chord = 28.6479 *(20/200) = 2◦ 51’53’’
Final sub-chord = 28.6479 *(10.72/200 )= 1◦ 32’08’’
– Final sub-chord = 10.72m.
Check: The sum of the deflection angles = ∆ /2 = 14◦ 59’ 59’’ ≈ 15◦
– Total = 104.72 m (Check)
– Chainage of T2 = 2206 m + 104.72 m = 2310.72 m
Deflection angles:
For 1st sub-chord (degree) = 28.6479 x chord
R

For 1st sub-chord (mins) = 1718.873 x chord

R

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Setting out using coordinates) 2. Compound curves

A compound curve is the one with two or more circular

This is most common used method today.
curves contained between two main straights.

It uses the theory of EDM.

The setting out data are mostly obtained by scaling
from a lay-out plan in hard copy or soft copy.

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2. Compound curves cont… 2. Compound curves cont…

Smooth driving characteristics require that the larger radius
Lengths of curves.
be more than 1 times larger than the smaller radius.

The elements of compound curve are:
Tangent lengths.

Where ∆= ∆L+ ∆s

Chainages.

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Reverse curves cont…

3. Reverse curves

A reverse curve is one with two circular curves of same or
different radii with their centre of curvature on the opposite
sides of the common tangent.

Two straights to which a reverse curve connects, may be
parallel or non-parallel.

A reverse curve
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Reverse curves cont…

Reverse curves cont…
Case-1:

Non-parallel straights when
R1 = R2 = R, and ∆2 > ∆1 (∆ = ∆2 – ∆1) given ∆1, ∆2, d, and
chainage of I

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4. Transition curves
SHORT AND/OR SMALL-RADIUS CURVES

Transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius
with gradual introduction of superelevation.
Short and/or small-radius curves such as for kerb lines,
Super elevation is the rise of the height of the outer edge of
bay windows or for the construction of large templates the horizontal road over the inner by small amount.
may be set out by the following methods.

Transition curve can also be introduced between two
circular curves of different radii.
1. Offsets from the tangent
2. Offsets from the long chord
The radius of transition curve at its junction with the

3. Halving and quartering straight is infinity (r=∞) and the final radius is that of the
curve R.

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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

A vehicle travelling at speed (V) along a straight will have
the following forces:

Transition and circular curves Centrifugal force Super-elevation

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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

Super-elevation is maximum at minimum radius R. e = Super elevation rate

Hence it requires a length of spiral curve to permit the gradual g = Normal cross slope or
introduction of super-elevation, from zero at the start of the cross-fall
transition to maximum at the end, where the radius is the A to D = Axis of rotation
minimum safe radius R.
Principle of the transition
i. Achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight
(radius∞) to the curve (radius R).
ii. Permit the gradual application of super-elevation to counteract
centrifugal force and minimize passenger discomfort.
iii. Banking of curve,
iv. Retard sliding,
v. Allow more uniform speed,
vi. To allow the use of smaller radii curves (less land)
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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

Properties of transition curve or Clothoid.
Thus; rl =c

A clothoid is a curve whose radius decreases linearly from
∴ l/c = l/r
infinity to zero. It fulfils the following condition of an ideal
transition curve, rl =c= constant = RL = K where R or r is
the radius of the clothoid and L or l is length of the clothoid.

The basic requirement of the ideal transition curve is
that its radius should decrease uniformly with distance
along it.

Consider an infinitely
small portion tt1 of a
transition δl of radius r;

The above expressions are for the clothoid curve, sometimes

called the Euler spiral, which is the one most used in road design.

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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

Curve design
Deflection angles of TC
The basic requirements in the design of transition curves are:
(1) The value of the minimum safe radius (R), and
(2) The length (L) of the transition curve. (See slide 37 - 41)

The value R may be found using either of the approaches Slides
38 through 41.

The deflection angles for these curves may be obtained as

θ1/θ = l12/L2, where l is the chord/arc length

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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

Rate of Change of Radial Acceleration
Offset from tangent.
The centrifugal force P acting on a vehicle of weight W
moving at a velocity of V on a curve is given by:

y ≈ l, x = l3/6RL (cubic spiral).
WV 2
P=
gR

x= y3/6RL (cubic parabola). P V2

Centrifugal ratio = =
W gR

Shift of circular curve S = L2/24R V2

The radial acceleration (g)=
R

This changes as the vehicle moves along the curve due to

Tangent length IT1 = (R+S)tan/2 +L/2 change in radius.

For a constant velocity v the rate of change of radial
(θ − 2φ )πR 2 3 3

Arc length of circular curve Lc =
180
acceleration (assumed uniform) is α = v / R = v = v3
L/v RL 3.6 RL
where v is the design speed in m/s, g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
and R is the minimum safe radius in metres..
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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

Coefficient of friction (µ)

When V is expressed in km/h, the expression becomes:
Consider the forces on a super-elevated road.
P/W = V2/127R

Commonly used values for centrifugal ratio are:
0.21 to 0.25 on roads, 0.125 on railways

Thus, if a value of P/W = 0.25 is adopted for a design
speed of V = 50 km/h, then
50 2
R= = 79m
127 x 0.25

Thus the minimum safe radius R may be set either equal
to or greater than this value.

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Transition curves cont… Transition curves cont…

F/N must be greater than the coefficient of friction µ between tyre and
road.The Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) quote value for µ
of 0.15, whilst 0.18 may be used up to 50 km/h, thus:

V2/127R ≯ tan θ + μ

For example, if the design speed is to be 100 km/h, super-elevation
limited to 7% and µ = 0.15, then: 1002 /127R = 0.07 + 0.15
R = 360 m
Rate of application of super-elevation
It is recommended that super-elevation should be applied at a rate of:
i. 0.5% on motorways
ii. 1% on all purpose roads and
iii. 0.2% on railways
The amount of super-elevation is obtained as follows:

tan θ = V2/Rg = 1/H = 1 in H

thus H = Rg/V2 = 127R/V2, where V is in km/h

The percentage super-elevation (or crossfall), S may be found
41 from: S = V2/2.828R 42

Transition curves cont…

The Highways Agency recommend the cross-fall should never be
Radius Calculation
greater than 7%, or less than 2.5%, to allow rainwater to run off the
road surface. Rmin = ___V2______

It is further recommended that adverse camber should be replaced
by a favourable crossfall of 2.5% when the value of V2/R is greater 15(e + f)
than 5 and less than 7.

Hence the rate of crossfall, combined with the road width, allows
Where:
the amount of super-elevation to be calculated. V = velocity (mph)

Its application at the given rate produces the length L of transition
required. e = superelevation
Driver studies have shown that whilst super-elevation is


instrumental to driver comfort and safety, it need not be applied
f = friction (15 = gravity and unit
too rigidly. Thus for sharp curves in urban areas with at-grade conversion)
junctions and side access, super-elevation should be limited to 5%.

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Radius Calculation
Max e

Rmin related to max. f and max. e allowed
Controlled by 4 factors:

Rmin use max e and max f (defined by AASHTO, DOT, and
graphed in Green Book) and design speed
◦ Climate conditions (amount of ice and snow)

f is a function of speed, roadway surface, weather condition, tire ◦ Terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous)
condition, and based on comfort – drivers brake, make sudden
lane changes and changes within a lane when acceleration around
◦ Frequency of slow moving vehicles which
a curve becomes “uncomfortable” might be influenced by high superelevation

AASHTO: 0.5 @ 20 mph with new tires and wet pavement to rates
0.35 @ 60 mph

f decreases as speed increases (less tire/pavement contact)
◦ Highest in common use = 10%, 12% with no
ice and snow on low volume gravel-surfaced
roads
◦ 8% is logical maximum to minimized slipping
by stopped vehicles

Transition curves cont…

Radius Calculation (Example) Example 01. Part of a motorway scheme involves the design
and setting out of a simple curve with cubic spiral
transitions at each end. The transitions are to be
designed such that the centrifugal ratio is 0.197, whilst
5729.578 the rate of change of centripetal acceleration is
Da = 0.45m/s3 at a design speed of 100 km/h. If the chainage
R of the intersection to the straights is 2154.22m and the
angle of deflection 50◦, calculate:
a) The length of transition to the nearest 10 m.

730000(e + f ) b) The chainage at the beginning and the end of the total
D= composite curve.
V2 c) The setting-out angles for the first three 10-m chords
on a through chainage basis.

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Transition curves cont…

Transition curves cont…
 Solution.
- Centrifugal ratio P/W = V2/127R
- R =1002/127 × 0.197 = 400 m
- Rate of change of centripetal acceleration=
a=V3/3.63RL
a) L =1003/(3.63 × 400 × 0.45) = 120 m
b) Calculating chainage: S =L2/24R =1202/24 × 400 = 1.5 m
Tangent length = (R + S) tanD/2 + L/2=
= (400 + 1.5) tan 25◦ + 60 = 247.22 m
Chainage at T1 = 2154.22 − 247.22 = 1907 m

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Summery for horizontal curves Summery on horizontal curves

Purpose: Simple circular curves

To provided for smooth or gradual change in direction Formula in designing and setting out:
due the nature of terrain, cultural features, or other
Tangent length (T) = R tan Δ/2
unavoidable reasons.
Length of curve (l) = (πRΔ)/180

To break the monotony in driving on long straight route

Long chord (L) = 2R sin Δ/2
to avoid accidents.

External or apex distance (E)= R sec( Δ/2 -1)
Types:

Mid-ordinate or rise (M) = R(1-cos Δ/2 )

Simple circular curves

Compound curves
Chainage of T1 = Chainage of P.I. – T

Reverse curves
Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T1 + l.

Transition curves

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Simple circular curves Compound curves

Methods for setting out:
Elements of compound curves:
1. Perpendicular Offsets from Tangent
(exact) Length of Tangents: Length of Curves:
or (appr)
2. Radial Offsets
(exact)
or (appr)
3. Offsets from Long Chord

where a = the measured distance from D along the long

chord.
4. Offsets from Chords Produced Chainages:
Offset from tangent
Offset from chords produced
5. Rankin’s Method or Deflection Angle Method
Tangential angle Where:
C=Chord lenght L= Large radius curve and S= Small radius curve
Deflection angles
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Reverse curves Reverse curves

Case-1: Non-parallel straights: Case-2: Non-parallel straights:

Case-3: Non-parallel straights:

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Reverse curves
Transition curves
Case-4: Non-parallel straights:
-Permit gradual change of direction from straight to curve and vice-versa,

-Gradual introduction of cant or super-elevation (raising of the outer edge

over the inner).

-Required to be introduced between two circular curves of different radii.

-The radius of transition curve at its junction with the straight is infinity,
i.e., that of the straight, and at the junction with the circular curve .

A clothoid is a curve whose radius decreases linearly from infinity to zero.

It fulfills the condition of an ideal transition curve:

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Transition curves Transition curves

For a transition curve: Rate of Change of Radial Acceleration :

The centrifugal force P acting on a vehicle moving at a velocity of V on a
curve having weight W is given by

Being known as the centrifugal ratio

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Transition curves

Rate of Change of Radial Acceleration :

By lifting the outer edge of the road or rail, the resultant can be made to act
perpendicular to the running surface. In practice to avoid large super-
elevations, for the amount by which the outer edge is raised, an allowance
(fB) for friction is made. In the case of transition curve, radial acceleration
given by expression The next section is on Vertical curves
changes as the vehicle moves along the curve due to change in radius. For
a constant velocity v the rate of change of radial acceleration (assumed
uniform) is

where v is in m/s.

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