International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025

International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews

Journal homepage: www.ijrpr.com ISSN 2582-7421

A Comprehensive Review of Pesticide Removal from Contaminated

Water

Ammara Khan1, Eman Tariq2, Khushboo Ziyad3, Asra Mazhar4, Huma Gul5
1,2,3,5
Women University Swabi
4
Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi

ABSTRACT:

This is the literature review to address the human exposure due to the higher use and contamination of pesticides and summarizes the data studied recently in
Pakistan. Widespread use of pesticides results in contamination of ground and surface water, soil/sediments, air, feed which has adverse impactson human, animals,
plants and atmosphere due to their toxic nature. Authors have conducted data from different areas of Pakistan and concluded that Organochlorins pesticides (OCPs)
are more common in different provinces of Pakistan.The trends of detected OCPs in soil/sediments followed the pattern as: dieldrin > heptachlor > b-HCH >
DDE.The trends of detected contaminants in air followed the pattern as: ∑DDTs > ∑HCHs > ∑endosulfan> ∑HCB > ∑Chlordane > ∑Heptachlor. There is
significant data about pesticide contaminations, shows that farmers are indiscriminately used pesticides mainly in cotton-growing areas which not only affect the
field of workers but affects the entire environment. In this review the authors also recommend that pesticides must be used safely and suggest that the proper laws
and policies should be followed according to health and food safety communities in Pakistan to reduce the contaminations and exposure of pesticides in the
environment.

Introduction:

Pesticides or agrochemicals are the chemical substances that are widely used in agriculture for killing, avoiding, combating a variety of pests such as
insects, weeds, fungi and rodents etc (Ismail et al., 2014). The worldwide consumption of pesticide is about two million tons per year, of which 69 % is
used up by USA and Europe and only 31 % is consumed in the rest of the world (Abhilash and Singh., 2009).The economy of Pakistan is largely
dependent on agriculture because this segment produces 20.9% of its gross product (GDP) .The agriculture is direct or indirect source of income living
in rural areas and supports 67.5% of the total population (Tariq et al., 2007).It was estimated that by using pesticides approximately one-third of the
agricultural products are produced, so its use is essential in crop production (Liu et al., 2002; Zhang et al., 2011).The loss of cereals, vegetables and fruits
without the use of pesticide may reaches 32% ,54% and 78% (Cai., 2008).However when pesticides are used the crop loss due to pest injury declined to
an extent of about 35% to 42% (Pimentel., 1997).

Out of total pesticides used only 0.1% reaches to the target pests, the remaining 99.9 % pesticides dispersed through air, surface and ground water and
soil (Pimentel., 1995; Este´vez et al., 2008) by flow, leaching, pulverisation processes (Nsibande and Forbes., 2016), hence contaminate the
environment(Taha et al., 2014). Furthermore, pesticide exposure occurs through contact of air, inhalation and ingestion results in heath related issues.
The negative health effects such as gastrointestinal, carcinogenic, respiratory, neurological, reproductive, and endocrine effects have been associated with
chemical pesticides. It has been estimated that death and hospitalization also occur due to high accidental, occupational or intentional exposure to
pesticides (Nicolopoulou-Stamati et al., 2016). (WHO., 1990; FAO., 2000) reported that around the world, each year 3 million people are poisoned and
200,000 died from pesticide poisoning.

Pesticides vary in their physical and chemical properties, so they can be classified on the basis of chemical composition, toxicity, target organism, mode
of action, mode of entry, how and when they work and their source of origin (Akashe et al., 2018). . On the basis of chemical composition, the four main
groups of pesticides include organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates and pyrethroids (kaur et al., 2019). According to Drum (1980), the three
most widespread method of pesticide classification comprises: (i) classification based on the chemical composition (ii) classification based on the mode
of entry and (iii) classification based on pesticide function and the pest organism they kill.

Table: 1 Classification based on pesticide function and the pest organism they kill.

(Modified after Akashe et al, Fishel and Ferrell, Yadav and Devi)

Type of pesticide Target pests/Function Examples

 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3462

Insecticides Pesticides used to kill insects and other Aldicarb, DDT, chlorpyrifos, malathion, etc
arthropods

Fungicides Chemicals which are used to prevent, cure cymoxanil, thiabendazole, Azoxystrobin
eradicate the fungi (including blights, mildews,
molds and rust

Bactericides Kill bacteria or acts against bacteria Copper complexes, Streptomycin, tetracycline,
etc

Herbicides Substances that are used to kill weeds and other Alachlor, Atrazine
plants, or to inhibit their growth or development.

Acaricides Substances that are used to kill mites that feed DDT,Bifenazate, dicofol, chlorpyrifos,
on plants and animals

Rodenticides Substances used to kill rats and related animals Warfarin, Strychnine, zinc phosphide, etc.

Algaecides Substances that are used to Control or kill Copper sulfate, oxyfluorfen, diuron, etc
growth of algae

Larvicides Inhibits growth of larvae Methoprene

Repellents Repel pests by its taste or smell Methiocarb, Diazinon etc

Desiccants Act on plants by drying their tissues Boric acid

Ovicides Inhibits the growth of eggs of insects and mites Benzoxazin

Virucides An agent having capacity to destroy or inactivate Ribavirin ,Scytovirin

viruses

Molluscicides Substances used to kill slugs and snails, usually Metaldehyde, thiadicarb, etc.

disturbing growth of plants or crops.

Nematicides Kill nematodes that act as parasites of plants Aldicarb, Carbofuron, chlorpyrifos, methyl
bromide, etc.

Avicides Chemicals that are used to kill birds Strychnine, Avitro, fenthion etc

Piscicides Act against fishes Rotenone

Lampricides Target larvae of lampreys which are jawless Nitrophenol Trifluoromethyl

fish like vertebrates in the river

Antifeedants Chemicals which are used to prevent an insect or Azadirachtin, Chlordimeform, etc
other pest from feeding

Moth balls Stop any damage to cloths by moth larvae Dichlorobenzene

or moulds

Silvicides Acts against woody vegetation Tebuthiuron

Termiticides Kills termites Fipronil

Chemosterillant Chemicals that render an insect infertile and thus Diflubenzuron

prevent it from reproducing.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3463

Pesticide use:

In 1600s, for the control of various types of ants a mixture of arsenic and honey was used. In 1800, certain chemicals such as nicotine sulphate, sulphur,
calcium arsenate were used by the farmers of USA for controlling various pests, but due to primitive use their efforts were unproductive (Delaplane.,
2000). After and around World War-II, the major innovation occurred in pesticide development where numerous cheap and effective pesticides were
produced and synthesized such as dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and Aldrin in 1993, Chlordane and Endrin ,Dieldrin, β- Benzene Hexachloride
(BHC) and 2,4- Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (Jabbar and Mallick., 1994; Delaplane., 2000).In 1874, the first organochlorine pesticide which was
prepared in the laboratory is dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). It is a crystalline and colorless solid used as insecticide, accumulates in fats as
bio-accumulative toxin and enters the foodchain(Brevik et al., 1996). In 1970, it was banned in the European countries (i.e. Norway and Sweden) and in
1972 in the United Sates due to its hazardous effects (Lallanilla., 2017). After 1886, first reported chemicals which were used as fungicides and weedicide
are hydrocyanic acid, arsenicals and carbon bisulfide (Aktar et al., 2009). In 1960, their restriction to use were also reported in technically advanced
countries (NRC., 2000).

In Pakistan, the use of pesticides is being experienced since centuries however they were introduced in 1954 for the first time with the import of 254
metric tons of formulation (Baloch., 1985). About74 % of insecticides, 14 % of herbicides, 9% of fungicides, 2 % of acaricides and 1% fumigant were
used earlier in Pakistan (khan., 1998) . Currently more than 108 various types of insecticides, 39 types of herbicides, , 30 types of fungicides, 6 types of
rodenticides and 5 different types of acaricides are used for pest control, safety and weed eradication (Zia et al., 2009; Anwar et al., 2011).According
to Khan et al (2010), the higher percentage of pesticides being applied in four provinces are; 88.3% in Punjab province , 8.2 % in Sindh, 2.8 % in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) and 0.76% in Balochistan. In Pakistan, pesticide used mostly on cotton crops (61.92%), 11.9% on vegetables and fruits, 11.86% on
rice, 6.14% on sugarcane ,4.83% on maize and 2.21% on oilseeds as shown in table 2.( Khan et al.,2010)

Table: 2. Use of pesticides on crops of Pakistan.

In province of Panjab and Sindh, the use of pesticides is maximum on cotton and rice followed by vegetables and fruits. On the other hand, in KPK and
Balochistan the use of pesticides is mostly on fruits and vegetables followed by rice and cotton in Balochistan and maize in KPK (Table.3) ( Khan et
al.,2010).

Table: 3. Province wise share of pesticides on crops.

 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3464

Pesticides contamination:

1. Soil contamination:

Farmers use different agrochemicals to control the pests, weeds, insects and pathogens of plants in Pakistan ( Khan,M.I et al., 2020). Pathogenic organisms
like pesticides are the serious pollutants in terms of human health worldwide. Soil is recognized one of the potential way to contaminate plants, water,
air, and food which ultimately affects human (Abrahams, 2002) by direct application of pesticides to soil or through indirect resources such as accidental
leakage, run-off through plant surface, undergo microbial decomposition, plant uptake or adsorption, chemical degradation, photodecomposition and
volatilization (Bailey and White, 1970; Rashid et al., 2010). Pesticides degradations in soil are also the sources of contaminations in the environment
(Stephenson and Solomon, 1993). Fig 1 show the process of pesticides degradation in the environment (photo: slideshare.net). The contaminants
transported in the soil superficially and thus enter into the food chain rapidly and in case of soil permeability the contaminations also enters into the
ground water, may spread through the soil matrix, results in water contamination (Castelo-Grande et al., 2013).

Fig 1: Degradation process of Pesticides

In Pakistan, Bano and Siddique (1991) conducted their first systematic study about contamination of Organochlorins (OCPs) pesticide in the surface
sediment/soil with concentrations. The trends of detected OCPs with their concentrations in sediments of coastal area followed the pattern as: dieldrin >
heptachlor > b-HCH > DDE. The same results were reported by Jabbar et al. (1993) in cropland soil collected from Faisalabad (Punjab). Several other
research studies for detecting the pesticide in soils (Tehseen et al., 1994; Sanpera et al., 2002; Tariq et al., 2006; Syed et al., 2013; Syed et al., 2014;
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3465

Bajwa et al., 2016; Aamir et al., 2017) were conducted from different areas in Pakistan, showing quite similar results reported by the researchers from
the developed world (Masiá et al., 2015; Chakraborty et al., 2015; Sánchez-Osorio et al., 2017). Table 4 (a, b) summarize the detection of chlorinated
pesticides in soil or sediments with their hazardous classes. Recently Baqar et al. (2018) reported the higher concentration of OCPs contamination in
surface sediments collected from River Ravi and its three northern tributaries (Nullah Bein, Nullah Basanter and Nullah Deg), Pakistan. Thus the reported
data concluded higher risk to ecological and human health and suggested main sources associated to contamination in the environment due to
indiscriminate use, agricultural runoff and industrial activities.

Table 4a: Detection of pesticides contamination with their hazardous classes in soil/sediment collected from different areas of Pakistan.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3466

Table 4b: Detection of pesticides contamination with their hazardous classes in soil/sediment collected from different areas of Pakistan.

GC (ECD): Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector, GC (MS): Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, CASRN: Chemical Abstracts Service
Registry Number, NA: Not available, KPK: Khyber PukhtunKhwa

2. Surface water and ground water contamination:

The excessive use of pesticides has adverse impacts on the environment thus the benefits of chemistry turned into disadvantages by interfering and
adding pesticides contaminants mainly in drinking water source (Tariq et al., 2003) due to anthropogenic activities (Hussain and Asi, 2008). According
to Castelo-Grande et al. (2013), scientists were interested in contamination of ground water only, state regulatory agencies and environmental protection
agency (EPA) regarding pesticides. But recently higher use of pesticides due to the escalating demands yielding higher crop production the concentration
of pesticides in water increased (Gurr, 2016) therefore, contamination of pesticides in different types of water come of interest to researchers. The
following increasing order show pesticides contents in different types of water: cropland water > field ditch water > runoff > pond water > groundwater
> river water > deep groundwater > sea water (Zhang et al., 2011)

In Pakistan, the quality of water is decreasing rapidly in most cities and unfortunately due to contaminated water about 50% of diseases and 40% of deaths
reported in health community of Pakistan.

According to Parveen and Masud (1988a) first report about organochlorin pesticides showed contamination in cattle drinking water of Karachi, Pakistan.

According to FK Bangash and SU Khan. (2001), In Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (KPK) above 80% of people are using fresh water for drinking because water
that comes from surface water sources are uncontaminated in KPK while the colour of ground water is blackish due to contamination.

Some sources i.e. point (municipal and industrial wastes) and nonpoint or natural agents (erosion, seepage and runoff) are used to control pesticides
contamination in both surface and ground water (Tankiewicz et al., 2010). The environment generally surface water is affected by nonpoint sources that
sustain the pesticides contamination, results in polluting rivers, sea and lakes that causes the adverse effects on aquatic life (Helfrich et al., 2009) and
human health (Lee et al., 2014).

The three factors determined the quantity or level of contamination are; (1) presence and levels of the pesticide, (2) mobility of pesticides in soil, and (3)
the carrying agents of pesticides especially water in the field (Mensah et al., 2014; Anderson et al., 2018).

In different areas of Pakistan, Some data reported the detection of different pesticides and/or presence of pesticides contaminations in ground water
(Jabbar et al., 1993; Ahad et al.,2000, 2001), surface water (Parveen and Masud, 1988b; Ahad et al., 2006), shallow water (Ali and Jabbar, 1992; Tariq
et al., 2004a; Muhammad et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2016) and in fresh water sources (Mahmood et al., 2014b; Mahboob et al., 2014; Ali et al., 2016),
summarized the complete data in table 5 (a, b). Heavily pesticides application has also been reported from plains of Sindh and southeastern Punjab cotton
areas (Ali and Jabbar, 1992; Sanpera et al. (2002); Baig et al. (2012).
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3467

Table 5a: Contamination of pesticides with their hazardous classes in surface/ground water collected from different areas of Pakistan.
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3468

Table 5b: Contamination of pesticides with their hazardous classes in surface/ground water collected from different areas of Pakistan.

GC (ECD): Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector, NPD: Nitrogen Phosphorous Detector, HPLC: High-Performance Liquid Chromatography,
GC-14A: Gas Chromatography series 2014, CASRN: Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Number, NA: Not available, GC/MS: Gas Chromatography-
Mass Spectrometry

The data is arranged in chronological order to show the changes in water resources historically. The pollution capabilities and contamination of pesticides
has been observed due to some factors like shallow water tables, soil characteristics and intensive spraying (Jabbar et al., 1993; Tariq et al., 2004a,b,
2006). The contamination of endosulphans pesticide in surface and ground water has also been reported by Tariq et al. (2004) from agricultural areas;
Bhawalnagar, Rajanpur, Muzafarghar, and Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan. Additionally, runoff irrigation is also common in Pakistan, results in contamination
of groundwater (Flury et al., 1994) is usually associated with negative implications on aquatic environment. Other direct factors such as careless disposal
of empty containers, leaching, equipment washings etc are also the possible reasons to reach pesticides contaminants in the environment (Ahad et al.,
2000, 2001; Tariq et al., 2004a, 2006).

Fig 2. The study locations discussed in the article pertaining to pesticides contamination

In Rawal Lake Islamabad, fish killing disaster once became press news in Pakistan, which supplies drinking water after filtration to Rawalpindi city. Iram
et al. (2009) reported the higher concentrations of pesticide chemicals such as p, p 0 -DDT (0.96–2.87 lg/L) and DDD (0–2.5 lg/L) from the Simbly and
Rawal lakes in Islamabad. Some other researchers also found the higher concentrations of pyrethroid pesticide contaminations in lake water due to
intentionally thrown pesticides for catching the fishes (Ahad et al., 2006).
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3469

Ahad et al. (2000) conducted a study in the tobacco growing areas of Mardan district in KPK, which showed the relatively higher concentration of
different pesticides ranging from 0 to 0.45 lg/L in ground water samples. Among targeted pesticides in this study, only one organochlorine chemical
namely endosulphan was studied, which occurred in more than 30% of samples and ranged from 0.0 to 0.02 lg/L.

2. Air and feed contamination:

Pesticides contaminants at different intervals have been reported in air, feed, milk, cottonseed, fish meal, fruits and vegetables in Pakistan and worldwide
(Masud and Farhat, 1985; Cheema and Shah, 1987; Parveen and Masud, 1988a, b; Masud and Hasan, 1992; Parveen et al., 1996, 2004, 2005; Hussain et
al., 2002; Munshi et al., 2004; Saqib et al., 2005). The recent data (Table) summarize contamination of pesticides in air and feed samples collected from
different areas of Pakistan and shows that the majority of contaminations are due to the use of chlorinated pesticides, which can directly affects the living
organisms. Tropical and subtropical regions mostly contaminate air by using pesticides (Wania and Mackay, 1995) and due to the long-range
transportation in atmosphere these contaminants can distribute on global scale (Alegria et al., 2008; Park et al., 2011). Tons of compounds have been
observed in the ecosystems through atmospheric transportation (McConnell et al., 1998).

Table 4: Detection of pesticides contamination with their hazardous classes in feed and air of Pakistan.

Year Area Location Service Detected Chemicals Concentration Classes Detection Reference

Technique

2001 Division in Multan Feed (Mango) Methamedophos 1.00 MRLs NA GC (NPD, Hussain et al.
Farm level ECD) (2002)
Cypermethrin 0.50 MRLs II

Monocrotophos 1.00 MRLs NA

Dieldrin 2.00 MRLs O

Cyfluthrin 0.50 MRLs NA

Methyl Parathian 1.00 MRLs NA

2000- Casual Selling Karachi Vegetable (27 Chlorpyrifos 9.00 MRLs NA HPLC, GC Parveen et al.
2002 points varieties) (FID) (2005)
Endosulfan 14.00 MRLs II

Dimethoate 16 MRLs II

Fenitrothion 5.00 MRLs NA

Ethion 6.00 MRLs NA

Methamidophos 45.00 MRLs NA

Profenofos 14.00 MRLs NA

Methyl parathion 5.00 MRLs NA

Bifenthrin 11.00 MRLs NA

Cypermethrin 32.00 MRLs II

Cyhalothrin 3.00 MRLs II

Fenpropathrin 12.00 MRLs NA

Deltamethrin 14.00 MRLs II

Fenvalerate 15.00 MRLs II

Carbosulfan 10.00 MRLs NA

Carbofuron 19.00 MRLs NA

Abamectin 10.00 MRLs NA

Benomyl 5.00 MRLs NA

Acetamiprid 8.00 MRLs NA

Carbendazim 10.00 MRLs NA

 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3470

Benomyl 5.00 MRLs NA

Thiabendazole 10.00 MRLs NA

Metalaxyl 14.00 MRLs NA

2004 Coast Karachi Feed (Fish ΣDDT 81.15 µg/g II GC (ECD) Munshi et al.
tissues) (2004)
ΣPCB 78.35 µg/g NA

HCB 0.70 µg/g NA

HCH 5.85 µg/g II

2005 Lakes of Sindh Feed (Fish DDT Not II GC (ECD) Saqib et al.
Thatta Tissue) (2005)
Aldrin mentioned O
(Kalri and
DDE II
Haleji)
Dieldrin O

Deltamethrin NA

2013 Sheikhupura, Shadra, Air ΣPCBs 34 – 390pg/m3 NA GC (ECD) Syed et al.

Mianchanu, Lahore, contaminated (2013)
Cheechawatni Faisalabad, samples

(Punjab)

2014 River Chenab Punjab Air ΣPCBs 41 – 299pg/m3 NA GC–ECNI– Mahmood et

contaminated MS al. (2014a)
samples

2014 Hyderabad Sindh Air pg/m3 GC (ECD) Alamdar et al.

city areas contaminated (2014)
ΣDDT 1850 – 90700 II

ΣChlordane 91 – 188 II

ΣHCH 1500 – 97400 II

Heptachlor 54 - 620 O

2016 Taunsa, Punjab and Air ΣEndosulfan 87 II GC (MS) Bajwa et al.

Mithan, Kot Sindh contaminated (2016)
HCH 34 – 119 O
Sukkur and
Guddu p’-p’DDE 65 – 515 NA

p’-p’ DDT 14 - 205 NA

Heptachlor 20 O

GC (ECD): Gas Chromatography-Electron Capture Detector, GC–ECNI–MS: Gas Chromatography Electron Capture Negative Ion Mass Spectrometry,
GC(MS): Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, MRLs: Maximum residue levels, NA: Not available.

Recently, Anjum et al. (2017) reported contaminants of organo-thiophosphate insecticides especially chlorpyrifos in air of Arctic region, Pakistan. The
presence of OCPs in air was observed by Bajwa et al. (2016). The data conducted by the researchers pointed out that the concentration (147.4 pgm-3) of
the ∑DDTs chemicals was higher in the air of Pakistan than other developed countries such as UK and Spain ranged from 6 to 83 pgm-3. The trends of
detected contaminants in air followed the pattern as: ∑DDTs > ∑HCHs > ∑endosulfan > ∑HCB > ∑Chlordane > ∑Heptachlor (Sultana et al., 2014).

The same experiment was conducted by Sultana et al. (2014), but collected samples from different locations near center of Indus Basin and observed
different trend of OCPs contaminants in air, followed the order: ΣDDTs> ΣHCHs> ΣChlordanes> ΣEndosulfans> HCB> Heptachlor. Various food
communities of Pakistan also reported OCPs contaminations in feed including milk (Parveen and Masud 1988b), fruits and vegetables (Masud and Hassan
1995; Hussain et al. 2002).

Some data also detected OCPs residues in blood serum and fat samples in people of Punjab Provinces and Balochistan, Sindh (Naqvi and Jahan 1999;
Parveen and Masud 2001), which may results in higher risk of cancer rate during the years 1994–2002 in Pakistan. Ahmad et al. (2002) has reported 370
pesticide victims patients (73% males and 27% females), that were registered in Pesticide Poisoning Center, Nishtar Hospital, Multan, Pakistan. The
contamination of organochlorines in the muscle, liver, and gills of the fish (three Labeo species) have also been reported by Saqib et al. (2005), collected
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3471

samples from Kalri and Haleji lakes, Pakistan. Other studies found the percentage of contaminations in fruit samples collected from Nawab Shah 8.0%,
Karachi 36.0% and Hyderabad 12.5% (Faheem et al., 2015).

Syed et al., 2014 reported the high level of pesticide residues in 105 food items however; the policies of Pakistan related to the food items lacking
regularity in measurement, around 40 years old.

Pesticides in environment and Human exposure:

The misappropriation uses of pesticides are relatively high in Pakistan because of lack of awareness about safe use of pesticides, illiteracy and farmers
do not understand the language because broacher’s awareness about pesticides are written in English. (Tariq et al., 2004a)Agriculture workers expose to
pesticides because of their occupation. They are working in open fields, greenhouses, exterminators of house and pesticides industry (Van der Werf et
al.1996, Tisdell et al.2001,Pimentel et al.2005,Maroni et al.2006,Soareset al.2009,Atreya et al.2008, Tariq et al.2007,Valenzuela, C et al.2009). Women
are at much high risk of pesticides exposure in fields specially in cotton field this is because 90 percent women work in cotton picking field according to
SDPI (sustainable Development policy Institution) (Khwaja, 2001).Women working in the cotton field as compared to men so they face many difficulties
such as headache [26%], nausea [12%], skinirritation [27%] and gastroenteritis effect. The further serious health problems they face during cotton bloom
late being sprayed, in the adjacent field women picking cotton are seriously exaggerated. None of the study has been conducted in Pakistan where a huge
amount of pesticide is being used. One can’t estimate the exact picture of pesticide exposure in the population. In Quetta city province of Baluchistan the
20 fat tissues and organochlorin pesticide i-e DDT, HCH 21 and DDE blood samples had monitored by Krawinkel et al. (1989). In blood due to high
concentration of DDT/DDE, fats also contained high concentration of DDT/DDE. It has been also observed that during the monitoring study of cotton
growing areas of Multan the organochlorine (OC), organophosphate (OP), and synthetic pyrethroids (SP) pesticides found in 85 % blood samples (
Parveen and Masud (2001). Pesticides like 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)-ethane (DDT), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), tetrachloride-p-
dioxin (TCDD), butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), triazines, Di-(2-ethylhexyl)- phthalate (DEHP), tributyltin (TBT) are banned in Pakistan by higher
authorities but still use illegally Ejaz et al (2004). Due to the toxicity of pesticides reproductive hormones i-e luteinizing hormones, follicle stimulation
hormones, oestradiol, blood plasma level of ache in women working as pickers and progesterone are badly affected Ahmad et al (2004). On the basis of
this study in female the slight changes were observed FSH and LH and considerable difference was recorded in case of married workers. Due to the
Exposure of polytron-C, monocrotophos, cypermethrin, diazinon, deltamethrin, DDE and DDT were testified in 14 workers blood by usage of fruit and
vegetable located farms in Gadap, Pakistan (Karachi). Enzyme secretions like glutamate pyruvate transaminase (GPT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and
glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) are also exposed due to pesticides. Out of 247 blood samples 78 samples was detected high level of these
enzymes this is due to the genetic mutation to detoxify the pesticides (Azmi et al., 2006). 80 – 90 % atmospheric processes accounted the total loading
to the world’s oceans according to the one estimation but none of the study has been conducted in Pakistan on the issue where huge amount of pesticides
is used and also transport organic pollutant is not newly introduced. This is the basic reason one can’t estimate the actual picture of atmospheric exposure
in the environment (Duce et al., 1991). In Pakistan Multan district Punjab in pesticide industry the genotoxic effects of pesticides on workers has been
observed liver enzymes, serum cholinesterase (SChE) micronucleus assay and some hematological parameters as biomarkers have monitored. Genotoxic
exposure on the basis of significant decrease in the level of SChE in 35 male workers who have been exposed by researchers in documents (Bhalli et al.,
2006).

Table 5: In Pakistan pesticide poisoning:

Patients Percent Exposed person pesticides Influence References

affected

Hospital patients 100 Suicidal accidental Organo-phosphate 15deaths out of total 53 registered Jamil et al.(1977)
(Karachi) cases

Farm worker and 60 to 70 Occupational Methyl parathion Feeling dizziness chest pressure eye Shihab (1976),
during pesticides tearing and change in defecation
Baker et al. (1978)
formulation

Malaria control 40 Occupational Parathion 5 died and 2800 affected severe Shihab (1976)
program spray depression of red blood and cell
men and person cholinesterase activity appeared
associated with
job

Quetta 100 non occupational DDT,DDE,HCH Blood and fat concentration of Krawinkei et
Baluchistan pesticides were significantly higher al.(1989)
hospital patient amongst 21 blood samples and 20fat
tissues of the patients
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Multan (Punjab) 100 non occupational General Among 88 female 1 had a sufficiently Masud and Baig
female and male low Ache level 74% had moderate (1992)
cotton pickers pesticides poisoning while ¼ of the
sample had dangerous level.

Cotton pickers Non occupational General Nausea ,abdominal Baloch (1985),

pain ,headache ,cough throat
Khwaja(20001)
diarrhea, ,wheezing dizziness

Hospital patients 100 Non occupational General Low AchE level Naqvi and jahan
(Karachi) (1999).

Fruit and 100 Occupational Cypermethrin, Significant increase in enzyme level Azmi et al. (2005)
vegetables farm deltamethrin, polytrin- of glutamate oxaloacetate
station workers C, diazinon, transaminase (GOT), glutamate
Gadap Karachi monocrotophos, DDT pyruvate transaminase (GPT) and
and DDE alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Suffering
hepatitis, dyspnea and burning
sensation in urine

In Nowshera Not specified Spilled of obsolete Intestinal, eye and lung diseases; Environmental
population of pesticides in 1995 especially amongst the children News service 1998
khawara
valley(kpk
province)

Birds(oriental Population Non occupational DDT and less well Renal failure Gilbert et al.(2002)
whit backed declines 34- known persistent
Oaks et al. (2004)
vulture ) 95% subadult organic pollutants
mortality(5- (diclofenac)
86%)

Cotton picker 18.42 (22.22% Occupational General Amongst 38 female 42.86% and AchE Ahmad et al.
female in Multan for married level at alarming situation while (2004)
Pakistan whereas 9.09% 52.63% participants were in
unmarried) dangerous situation.

Fish (labeo)tissues 40% Non occupational DDT, DDE, aldrin, Significant increase in enzyme level Saqib et al. (2005)
contaminated dieldrin and of GPT, GOT and ALP
mussel ,liver deltamethrin
and fat tissues

Cotton pickers 18.42(22.22% Non occupational DDT, DDE, aldrin, Amongst 34 female workers, a Rizwan et al.(2005)
females in for married /occupational dieldrin and significant increase was recorded in
Khairpur (Sindh) whereas 9.09% deltamethrin, reproductive hormones (LH and FSH,
for unmarried ) cypermethrin, endone, PG and estradiol) both in cotton
Aldrin pickers and non-pickers

Industrial worker Occupational A significant genotoxic on the basis of Bhalli et al.(2006)

of pesticides male significant (Pb0.001) decrease in the
Multan (Punjab) level of SChE in 35 industrial worker

Table 5: Pesticides exposure in Pakistan: A review

Pesticide poisoning:

Human being, birds and aquatic life exposed to pesticide poisoning in Pakistan have been documented as shown in Table 5 (Shihab., 1976; Baker et al.,
1978). Methyl parathion poisoning in rural area have been documented i-e chest pressure, dizziness, cramps in limbs, change in defecation and eye
tearing. 40 % of spray worker of malaria have also reported acute Malathion poisoning during 70s. It has been clearly reported severe depressions of
red blood, cell cholinesterase and deaths of five men have appeared among 2800 affected people.Mostly environmental problems are caused by toxic
chemicals spread by birds. For local economics and biodiversity these episode can be disastrous. Birds are often good indicators to through chemicals far
away.Organochlorin pesticide causing poisoning in female and child farm labours have documented (Krawinkel et al., 1989; Ahmad et al., 2002b; Ejaz
 International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, Vol 6, no 1, pp 3461-3478 January 2025 3473

et al., 2004). The pesticide poisoning symptoms on farm workers are headache, abdominal pain, cough, eye irritation, diarrhoea and tiredness (Baloch.,
1985; Khwaja., 2001). The other non-occupational pesticide exposure due to pesticides left on home germicides, toilet cleaners, germicides and toilet
cleaner (Krawinkel., 1989; Ahmad et al., 2002b). In 1984 the procedure for disposal of pesticides has been notified but because of their high amount has
created problem for agencies to through and it is a biggest threat for environment. According to biological monitoring it is clear that pesticides exposure
take place in Pakistan because of unawareness about the safe use mostly field workers and women population living in rural areas are uneducated. TV,
radio, lady health workers, school and best management practice in present scenario strongly recommended awareness for the save use of pesticides
agriculture staff of the province also aware the farmers. Authors also guided about epidemiological studies of pesticide so, on the basis of these biological
indices pesticides must be used safely to avoid from exposure of pesticides (Maroni et al., 2000).

Conclusion and Recommendation for future:

The farmers are uses pesticides indiscriminately because they have no knowledge about the safe use of pesticides, may cause several diseases and even
deaths. According to WHO and NEQs the water of Pakistan is highly contaminated and very dangerous for drinking, due to which soil, air and feed is
contaminated. According to studies the microbial pathogens found in mostly sample drinking water is full of organic contaminants. All pesticides need
to be studied in the groundwater, soil, food and air of Pakistan and organochlorin pesticides need more attentions because it has served effects. Many
pesticides found drinking water contaminants with high concentration while little deficiency of pesticides in some region of Pakistan and prorate is
alarming while pesticides in ions exceed the safe limit. Improper disposal of industries and domestic waste by human activities cause many diseases.
Waterborne diseases in Pakistan are due to the presence of chemical and microbial contaminants in the environment. In urban areas of the country, the
water supply system was once efficiently working; however, old supply schemes need to be reconstructed. A new water supply network based on new
infrastructure and construction designs is required to provide water to everyone. The installation of centralized filtration plants at water storage tanks is
a suitable solution to provide safe drinking water; it could be more economical than to install filtration units for individual water connection. In order to
maintain the proportion of finances in long term, some resources must be specified for development of low cost but effective water purifier.

Once a low cost solution will be developed, it can support the provision of safe water for all.

The disposal of industrial effluents into water bodies should be monitored and industries should be forced to follow effluent discharge standards. In
Pakistan, all related industries are located in a small or large industrial estate; thus, a centralized waste/effluent treatment plant would be the preferable
and economical option for industries. Similarly, domestic waste must be treated and it should be necessary for all communities to install a treatment plant
for their domestic waste.

Public awareness about safe drinking water is most important, especially for people more prone to water contamination. Women, children, and farmers
need to be aware about the water management and safe quality. Women and children should be aware of the consequences of wasting water resources
and diseases due to pesticides contaminations and about proper waste disposal. Agriculturalists need to be well aware about the proper and safe use of
pesticides by following precautions to minimize chances of pesticides contamination due to anthropogenic activities.

All actions on the government and individual levels, if properly taken from now on, have potential to achieve a safe and affordable drinking water quality
for all, as a result of reduced contaminations and exposure of pesticides in the environment.

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