Oscillations

1. Periodic Motion and its Classification:

If the motion of a particle or the system is such that

s.
the motion repeats in a regular time interval then

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that motion of that particle or that system is called

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periodic motion and that time interval for the

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repetition of the motion is called time period of the
motion. This periodic motion has four distinct types
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which are
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a) Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) b) Damped Harmonic Vibration (DHV) c) Forced
Oscillation (FO) d) Coupled Oscillation (CO)
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2. SHM and its Characteristics:

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For the periodic motion of the particle or the system if except restoring force, no other
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force acts on the particle then that type of periodic motion is called simple harmonic
motion as abbreviated by SHM.
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Here restoring force means that type of force which will always act on the oscillating
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particle in the direction

towards the midpoint or the
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central mean position of the

motion and the magnitude of
the force will be proportional
to the instantaneous
displacement of the particle.

Here we now consider a particle executing periodic motion along X axis with origin as the
midpoint of the motion. If 𝐱 be the instantaneous position of the particle with respect to
the midpoint or origin then for the restoring force 𝐅𝟏 acting on that oscillating particle we
should have 𝐅𝟏 ∝ 𝐱 ⟹ 𝐅𝟏 = −𝐤𝐱 .

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Here 𝐤 is a proportional constant called stiffness constant. The main characteristics of this
simple harmonic vibration are

a) for this periodic motion no other force except linear restoring force will act on the
system b) it is a continuous and never ending motion c) the instantaneous acceleration of
the oscillating particle will be also directly proportional to the instantaneous position of
the particle and also it will be directed always towards the central mean position of the
motion d) the conservation of energy will always hold at every instance of this oscillation.

s.
3. Equation of Motion for SHM:

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Here for a particle of mass m oscillating simple harmonically under linear restoring force

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along X axis if 𝐎𝐏 = 𝐱 be the instantaneous position of the particle then we have from

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Newton’s second law of motion

𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐤 𝐝𝟐 𝐱
+ 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 = 𝟎
𝐦𝐚 = 𝐅𝟏 = −𝐤𝐱 ⟹ 𝐦
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
= −𝐤𝐱 ⟹ +
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐦
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𝐱 = 𝟎 ⟹
𝐝𝐭 𝟐
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This is a second order homogeneous differential equation which is the equation of motion
𝐤
of simple harmonic vibration. Here 𝛚𝐨 = is the angular frequency for SHM.
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4. Instantaneous Displacement of the Particle executing SHM:

n,

𝐝𝟐 𝐱
+ 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 = 𝟎.
tio

We know that for SHM, the equation of motion of the particle is given by 𝐝𝐭 𝟐
By solving this equation, one can show that the instantaneous displacement of that
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oscillating particle is given by 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 + 𝛗 Or 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 + 𝛗 which is a

periodic function of time t.
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Here A is called amplitude of oscillation which is actually

the maximum displacement and 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 + 𝛗 is the
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instantaneous phase of the motion where 𝛗 is the initial

phase, called epoch. By choice if we take 𝛗 = 𝟎 then we
have the displacement equation for SHM as 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐨 𝐭
Or 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 .

Here we should note that during SHM of the oscillating

particle, if the time counting be started from the midpoint
of the motion the displacement will be the sinusoidal
function of time and also if the time counting be started
from the end position of the particle then the cosine function should be taken in the
representation of the displacement of the particle.

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5. Instantaneous Velocity and Velocity-Displacement Relation for SHM:

Now if we consider the instantaneous displacement of the vibrating particle as

𝐱 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 then the instantaneous velocity of that oscillating particle will be
𝛛𝐱
𝐯= = 𝐀𝛚𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐨 𝐭 = 𝐯𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐨 𝐭 .
𝛛𝐭

So the velocity is also the periodic function of time and the displacement – velocity phase
𝛑
difference will be . For this velocity we write
𝟐

𝐯 = 𝐯𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐨 𝐭 = ±𝐯𝐨 𝟏 − 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 = ±𝐀𝛚𝐨 𝟏 − 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 = ±𝛚𝐨 𝐀𝟐 − 𝐀𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭

s.
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Or 𝐯 = ±𝛚𝐨 𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 . This is velocity – displacement relation and from this relation we

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can write down that at 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ±𝐀 , 𝐯 = 𝐯𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟎 and also at 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟎 ,
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ±𝐀𝛚𝐨 .

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6. Expression of Total Energy and Energy Conservation in SHM:
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If KE and PE be the respective kinetic and potential energy of the particle executing SHM
then we should have the total energy of that vibrating particle
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𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐄 = 𝐊𝐄 + 𝐏𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 + 𝐏𝐄 . But here 𝐊𝐄 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
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And also
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𝐱 𝐱 𝟏 𝟏
𝐔=𝐖= 𝐝𝐖 = 𝐅 𝐝𝐱
𝟎 𝟏
= 𝟎
𝐤𝐱𝐝𝐱 = 𝟐
𝐤𝐱 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 𝟐
tio

Thus the total energy expression will be

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𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐄 = 𝐊𝐄 + 𝐏𝐄 = 𝟐
𝐦𝐯 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 +
𝟏 𝟏
𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 .
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𝟐 𝟐

Here we see that the total energy will remain conserved

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during SHM of the oscillating particle.

7. Nature of Velocity – Displacement Graph for

SHM:
For a particle oscillating SHM, we have from velocity-
displacement relation
𝐯𝟐 𝐱𝟐
𝐯 = ±𝛚𝐨 𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 ⟹ + = 𝟏.
𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝐀𝟐

It is an equation of an ellipse. So the nature of Velocity

– Displacement Graph for SHM will be elliptic.

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8. Displacement-Time Graph for SHM:

We know that for SHM, the instantaneous displacement of the particle is given by
𝐱 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐨 𝐭.

From this equation we can say

𝐓 𝛑
𝐱 = 𝟎 at 𝐭 = 𝟎; 𝐱 = 𝐀at 𝐭 = = 𝟐𝛚 𝐱 = 𝟎 at
𝟒 𝐨
𝐓 𝟐𝛑 𝟑𝐓 𝟑𝛑
𝐭 = 𝟐 = 𝟐𝛚 ; 𝐱 = −𝐀 at 𝐭 = = 𝟐𝛚 ;𝐱=𝟎
𝐨 𝟒 𝐨

s.
𝟒𝛑 𝟓𝐓 𝟓𝛑
at 𝐭 = 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛚 𝐱 = 𝐀 at 𝐭 = = 𝟐𝛚 ; 𝐱 = 𝟎
𝐨 𝟒 𝐨

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𝟔𝛑
at 𝐭 = 𝟐𝛚 ………….etc.
𝐨

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So for SHM, displacement – time graph will be sinusoidal. This graphical plot is shown in

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figure and from this plot we have the time period of simple harmonic oscillation

𝟒𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐦
𝐓 = ∆𝐭 = 𝟐𝛚𝐨
−𝟎= 𝛚𝐨
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– 𝟎= 𝛚𝐨
= 𝟐𝛑 𝐤
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9. Simple Harmonic Oscillation of a Uniform Cylinder when Floating in Liquid:
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We now take a uniform cylinder having cross section 𝛂

and it is now floating in a liquid of density 𝛒 . Now by
the condition of floatation the weight of that cylinder
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will be equal to the buoyancy on the cylinder and in

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that case if the cylinder be further depressed slightly

within the liquid by the amount x then the effective
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force on that cylinder will be the excess buoyancy and it

is given by
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𝐅 = 𝐁 = 𝐕𝛒𝐠 = 𝐱𝛂 𝛒𝐠 = 𝛂𝛒𝐠 𝐱 = 𝐤𝐱 .
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Here we see that this effective force on the floating cylinder is a restoring force and thus
𝐦 𝐦
the oscillation of the floating cylinder will be 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑 = 𝟐𝛑
𝐤 𝛂𝛒𝐠

10. Simple Pendulum and its Simple Harmonic Motion:

If a small object be suspended by a string from a support and then is allowed to oscillate
in vertical plane then that system is called pendulum. A pendulum is called simple
pendulum if the oscillation of that pendulum be simple harmonic.

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For the requirement of simple harmonic motion of a pendulum, the pendulum and hence
the simple pendulum should have a few characteristics which are

i) The bob of the pendulum should be point mass having negligible volume ii) The mass of
the suspension thread must be zero iii) The pendulum should oscillate in free space in
absence of air iv) The angular amplitude of pendulum oscillation should be less than 4o

With all these boundary conditions we get the oscillation of pendulum simple harmonic.
Here we have from figure; the only force which is effective

s.
for pendulum oscillation is the tangential component of the
weight of the bob. Thus this force is given by

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𝐱 𝐦𝐠

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𝐅𝟏 = −𝐦𝐠𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 = −𝐦𝐠 = − 𝐱 = −𝐤𝐱
𝐥 𝐥

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𝐦𝐠
when 𝐤 = .
𝐥
It is a restoring force and hence the oscillation of pendulum
es
will be simple harmonic with time period of oscillation
𝐦 𝐦 𝐥
𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑 = 𝟐𝛑 𝐦𝐠 = 𝟐𝛑 .
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𝐤 𝐠
𝐥

Also for this pendulum oscillation at a certain angular

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position, we get from the basic law of mechanics that the

effective torque acting on the bob of the pendulum
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𝐝𝟐 𝛉
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𝟐
𝐈𝛂 = 𝛕 = 𝐅𝟏 𝐥 = −𝐦𝐠𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐥 ⟹ 𝐦𝐥 𝟐
= −𝐦𝐠𝐥𝛉 𝛉 → 𝟎 , 𝛉 < 𝟒𝐨 , 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 ≈ 𝛉
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝟐 𝛉 𝐠 𝐝𝟐 𝛉
⟹ 𝟐+ 𝛉=𝟎 ⟹ + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝛉 = 𝟎
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𝐝𝐭 𝐥 𝐝𝐭 𝟐

→This is homogeneous second order differential equation which is the equation of motion
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for SHM. Thus again we get simple harmonic oscillation of simple pendulum. Thus the
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𝟐𝛑 𝐥
time period of this simple pendulum will be 𝐓 = 𝛚 = 𝟐𝛑
𝐨 𝐠

11. Equivalency between SHM and Uniform Circular

Motion:

Here we consider a particle of mass m which is rotating

along a circle of radius A with uniform angular speed
𝛚 = 𝛚𝐨 . P is the instantaneous position of the particle at
instantaneous angular position 𝛉 .

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Now if we draw a perpendicular PM from the position P on the diameter of the circle then
the foot of perpendicular M will execute periodic motion during the complete circular
motion of the particle.

Thus for such periodic motion of the foot of perpendicular we have 𝐎𝐌 = 𝐱 and
𝐎𝐌 𝐱 𝛉
𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 = = ⟹ 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 and since 𝛚𝐨 = ⟹ 𝛉 = 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 we get 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐨 𝐭 .
𝐎𝐏 𝐀 𝐭

This is the displacement equation of simple harmonic vibration. So we can conclude that
the uniform circular motion is equivalent to simple harmonic vibration.

s.
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pt
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n,
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sc
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12. Time Averaged Value of Kinetic and Potential Energy for SHM:

For a particle executing SHM we know that the kinetic energy of that particle is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐦(𝐀𝛚𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐨 𝐭)𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 . Thus the time averaged value of
𝟐
this kinetic energy over the whole period is

s.
𝐓
𝟏 𝟏 𝐓𝟏 𝟏 𝐓
𝐊𝐄 = 𝐊𝐄 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐨 𝐭 𝐝𝐭

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𝐓 𝟎 𝐓 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒𝐓 𝟎
𝟏

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= . 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐
𝟒

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Similarly the time averaged value of potential energy will be

𝟏 𝐓
𝟏 𝐓𝟏
es 𝟏 𝐓
𝐏𝐄 = 𝐏𝐄 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐨 𝐭 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐨 𝐭 𝐝𝐭
𝐓 𝟎 𝐓 𝟎 𝟐 𝟒𝐓 𝟎
av
𝟏
= 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐
𝟒
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𝟏
Thus we get 𝐊𝐄 = 𝐏𝐄 = 𝟒 . 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐 and then the time averaged value of total energy
𝟏
for that particle executing SHM will be 𝐄 = 𝐊𝐄 + 𝐏𝐄 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐀𝟐
n,
tio

13. Damped Harmonic Oscillation:

For periodic oscillation of a particle or system if medium opposing force or medium
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damping be present along with the restoring force then under combined influence of the
restoring force and medium opposition is
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called damped harmonic oscillation.

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Here the medium damping force will be

effective due to the viscous nature of the
medium and thus it will be proportional to
the instantaneous velocity of the oscillating
particle.

Hence if 𝐅𝟐 be that damping force then mathematically 𝐅𝟐 ∝ 𝐯 ⟹ 𝐅𝟐 = −𝐑𝐯. Here 𝐑 is

resistive constant and here we take negative sign because the force opposes the motion
of the particle. Thus for such periodic oscillation of particle under restoring force and
medium damping force, we have from Newton’s law of motion

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 𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐑 𝐝𝐱 𝐤
𝐦 𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏 + 𝐅𝟐 = −𝐤𝐱 + −𝐑𝐯 = −𝐤𝐱 − 𝐑 ⟹ 𝟐+ + 𝐱=𝟎
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝐦 𝐝𝐭 𝐦

𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐑
⟹ + 𝟐𝐛 𝐝𝐭 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 = 𝟎 where 𝐛 = 𝟐𝐦= damping factor.
𝐝𝐭 𝟐

This equation is also second order homogeneous differential equation which is the
equation of motion of damped harmonic vibration. Now by solving this equation we get
the instantaneous displacement of oscillatory particle.

From this solution we see that 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐞−𝐛𝐭 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗 and the amplitude of oscillation will

s.
decay exponentially with time. Thus at 𝐭 → ∞ , 𝐀𝐞−𝐛𝐭 → 𝟎 i.e.the amplitude will be zero

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and the motion will be stopped. For this damped harmonic vibration we also see that the
frequency of vibration is given by 𝛚 = 𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐛 𝟐 < 𝛚𝐨 i.e. the frequency of damped

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harmonic vibration will be less than that of SHM.

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14. Forced Oscillation: Transient and Steady State:
es
During periodic motion of a particle or the system under linear restoring force and also in
presence of medium damping force if an additional external periodic force or driving force
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acts of that vibrating system then the motion will be forced oscillation. The basic
characteristic of such forced oscillation is that the oscillation will be completely controlled
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by the external driving force and the frequency of oscillation will be equal to the
frequency of the external periodic force. If such applied periodic force be 𝐅𝟑 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭
then we have for this force oscillation
n,

𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐝𝟐 𝐱
tio

𝐝𝐱 𝐑 𝐝𝐱 𝐤 𝐅𝟎
𝐦 𝐝𝐭 𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏 + 𝐅𝟐 + 𝐅𝟑 = −𝐤𝐱 − 𝐑 𝐝𝐭 + 𝐅𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭 ⟹ + + 𝐱= 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐦 𝐝𝐭 𝐦 𝐦
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𝐝𝟐 𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐅𝟎
⟹ + 𝟐𝐛 𝐝𝐭 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭 ----------------- (1)
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐦
sc

To solve this differential equation, let us first consider that the applied periodic force is
given by 𝐅𝟑 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 . Then for trial solution we now take 𝐱 = 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 . Then we have
.O

𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝟐 𝐱
= 𝐢𝐩𝐀𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 and𝐝𝐭 𝟐 = −𝐩𝟐 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 .
𝐝𝐭

𝐅𝟎
So from the above equation we get 𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐩𝟐 + 𝟐𝐢𝐛𝐩 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 = 𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭
𝐦

𝐅𝟎 𝟏 𝐅𝟎 𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 −𝟐𝐢𝐛𝐩

And we get the amplitude of vibration 𝐀 = . = and
𝐦 𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 +𝟐𝐢𝐛𝐩 𝐦 [(𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 ]

𝐅𝟎 𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 𝟐𝐛𝐩

we can write down that 𝐀 = −𝐢
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

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 𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 𝟐𝐛𝐩
Let us now consider = 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 and = 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 . So we get
(𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐
𝐅𝟎
the amplitude 𝐀= 𝐞−𝐢𝛉 and the corresponding displacement for
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

forced oscillation will be

𝐅𝟎 𝟐𝐛𝐩
𝐱 = 𝐀𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 = 𝐞𝐢 𝐩𝐭−𝛉 when 𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ----------------- (2)
𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

But we should note that the actual periodic force or driven force for this forced oscillation

s.
was 𝐅𝟑 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐅𝟎 𝐞𝐢𝐩𝐭 . Thus the actual solution of the equation should be

ic
pt
𝐅𝟎 𝐅𝟎
𝐱 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐞𝐢 𝐩𝐭−𝛉 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉) ---------------- (3)
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

,O
Here we should also note that since the equation (1) is a 2nd order inhomogeneous
es
differential equation, the solution as given by equation (3) should be taken as Particular
Integral (𝐱 𝟐 ) of the solution. But the actual solution of equation (1) should be
av

𝐝𝟐 𝐱𝟏 𝐝𝐱𝟏
𝐱 = 𝐂𝐅 + 𝐏𝐈 = 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 where for CF (𝐱 𝟏 ) we have + 𝟐𝐛 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐱 𝟏 = 𝟎 and the
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐝𝐭
W

𝐛 𝟐 −𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐭 − 𝐛 𝟐 −𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐭
solution of this equation will be 𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐞−𝐛𝐭 𝐂𝟏 𝐞 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞 --------------- (4)
n,

So the total solution i.e. the displacement expression for forced oscillation will be
tio

𝐛 𝟐 −𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐭 − 𝐛 𝟐 −𝛚𝟐𝐨 𝐭 𝐅𝟎
𝐱 = 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐞−𝐛𝐭 𝐂𝟏 𝐞 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐞 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉) ---- (5)
illa

𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

This is the transient solution for the displacement of the forced vibration.
sc

Now at 𝐭 → ∞ i.e. at the steady state we get 𝐞−𝐛𝐭 → 𝟎 and we get the steady state
.O

𝐅𝟎
solution of the forced vibration as 𝐱 → 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉) ------------- (6)
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

This is the Acceptable solution for the displacement of the particle executing forced
oscillation. And this displacement is given as
𝐅𝟎
𝐱 = 𝐁𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉) ---- (7) where the amplitude of the
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐
𝐅𝟎
forced vibration is 𝐁 = ------ (8)
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

9 / 89
15. Resonance of Forced Oscillation: Sharpness of Resonance, Power
Dissipation and Quality Factor:
Since we have the instantaneous displacement of particle executing forced oscillation is
𝐅𝟎
given by 𝐱 = 𝐁𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉 when amplitude of forced oscillation 𝐁 = ,
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

s.
the instantaneous velocity of the particle for forced oscillation will be

ic
𝐝𝐱 𝐅𝟎 𝐩𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐩𝐭−𝛉 𝐩𝐅𝟎
𝐯= = = 𝐯𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉 where 𝐯𝐨 = = amplitude
𝐝𝐭

pt
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐

of velocity. Here for this velocity amplitude, we can write down

,O
𝐩𝐅𝟎 𝐅𝟎
𝐯𝐨 = = .
𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 𝛚𝟐
es 𝐦 ( 𝐨 −𝐩)𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐
𝐩
av
𝛚𝟐
So obviously for ( 𝐩𝐨 − 𝐩)𝟐 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 = 𝟎, we have 𝐯𝐨 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱. This is called velocity
resonance for forced oscillation. Again for instantaneous power as delivered by external
W

driving force we have

n,

𝐏 = 𝐅𝟑 𝐯 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭 𝐯𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐩𝐭 − 𝛉 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐯𝟎 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐭. 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐭 + 𝐅𝟎 𝐯𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐩,

tio

We have the average power dissipation over the complete period

𝟏 𝟏 𝐩𝐅𝟎 𝟐𝐛𝐩
illa

𝐏 = 𝐅𝟎 𝐯𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝐅𝟎 . .
𝟐 𝟐 𝐦 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 (𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐
𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝐛𝐩𝟐
sc

= = 𝐦𝐁 𝟐 𝐛𝐩𝟐
𝐦[(𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 ]
.O

𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝐛 𝛚𝟐
We now have 𝐏 = 𝛚𝟐
and then for ( 𝐩𝐨 − 𝐩)𝟐 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 = 𝟎, we have
𝐦[( 𝐨 −𝐩)𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 ]
𝐩

𝐏 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱. This is called Power resonance for forced oscillation and it is in general
𝛚𝟐
resonance for forced oscillation. For this resonance ( 𝐩𝐨 − 𝐩)𝟐 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝐩 = 𝛚𝐨 i.e. for
frequency of applied periodic force or driven force equal to the natural frequency of the
system, the power resonance for forced oscillation will occur.

10 / 89
At this resonance, the maximum or resonant value of power will be

𝐅𝐨𝟐
𝐏 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐏 𝐫𝐞𝐬 =
𝟒𝐛𝐦

Basically for all types of resonance in forced vibration, the resonant frequencies are the
same which is given by 𝐩 = 𝛚𝐨 . Again for this resonance of forced vibration, if we now
take the graphical plot of the variation of average power with the frequency of the
applied periodic force then that graphical plot is called
Response Curve for forced oscillation.

s.
From this curve we see that there are another two
frequencies 𝐩𝟏 and 𝐩𝟐 at which the average power

ic
𝟏
will be 𝟐 of the maximum value at resonance. These

pt
frequencies are called half power frequencies and the
difference of these two half power frequencies is called

,O
Band Width, reciprocal of which is an estimation of the
sharpness of resonance.

To get a quantitative idea about the sharpness of

es
resonance let us calculate the bandwidth, which is defined as the frequency separation
av
𝐏 𝐦𝐚𝐱
between two half-power points. At half power frequencies, we have 𝐏 = 𝟐
W

𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝐛𝐩𝟐 𝟏 𝐅𝟐
And therefore 𝟐 = . 𝐨
𝐦[(𝛚𝐨 −𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 +𝟒𝐛 𝟐 𝐩𝟐 ] 𝟐 𝟒𝐛𝐦
n,

𝛚𝟐 𝛚𝟐𝐨
𝐢. 𝐞. (𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐩𝟐 )𝟐 = 𝟒𝐛𝟐 𝐩𝟐 ⇒ ( 𝐩𝐨 − 𝐩)𝟐 = 𝟒𝐛𝟐 ⇒ − 𝐩 = ±𝟐𝐛 ⇒ 𝐩𝟐 ± 𝟐𝐛𝐩 − 𝛚𝟐𝐨 = 𝟎 .
𝐩
tio

If 𝐩𝟏 and 𝐩𝟐 are two roots of this equation, we get by solving this quadratic equation,
illa

− ±𝟐𝐛 ± 𝟒𝐛 𝟐 +𝟒𝛚𝟐𝐨
𝐩= = ∓𝐛 ± 𝐛 𝟐 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 and since 𝐩𝟏 and 𝐩𝟐 both are positive, we get
𝟐
𝐩𝟏 = 𝐛 𝟐 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 − 𝐛 and 𝐩𝟐 = 𝐛 𝟐 + 𝛚𝟐𝐨 + 𝐛 (𝐩𝟐 > 𝐩𝟏 )
sc

𝐑
Therefore the bandwidth is 𝐁𝐖 = ∆𝐩 = 𝐩𝟐 − 𝐩𝟏 = 𝟐𝐛 = 𝐦 and the sharpness of
.O

𝟏 𝐦
resonance is then given by 𝐒 = 𝐁𝐖 = . Hence the 𝐐 – factor or the quality factor is given
𝐑
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐦𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎
by 𝐐 ≡ 𝐁𝐖 = = = and actually the 𝐐 -factor gives a measure of the
∆𝐩 𝐑 𝟐𝐛
sharpness of resonance. Higher is the value of 𝐐 smaller will be the value of ∆𝐩 and hence,
sharper will be the resonance curve.

This can be clearly understood by plotting 𝐏 as a function of 𝐩 . This 𝐐- factor is also

𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝
defined as 𝐐 = 𝟐𝛑 × 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 , so we get
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞

11 / 89
 𝟏 𝟏
𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐩𝟐 𝐁𝟐 𝐦𝐩𝟐 𝐁𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝐐 = 𝟐𝛑 × = 𝟐𝛑 × = 𝟐𝛑 × where 𝐓 is the time
𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐏𝐓 𝐦𝐁𝟐 𝐛𝐩𝟐 𝐓
period.
𝟏
𝟐𝛑 𝐩 𝐩 𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎
Since = 𝛚𝟎 = 𝐩 Thus we get 𝐐 = 𝟐𝐛 = 𝟐𝐛 = = = 𝐁𝐖 which is our previous well
𝐓 𝟐𝐛 ∆𝐩
known result for 𝐐 factor.

16. Average Input Power and Power Loss due to Damping for Forced
Oscillation:

s.
Here for applied driven force 𝐅 = 𝐅 𝐭 = 𝐅𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭, the average input power over the

ic
𝟏 𝐓
complete cycle, (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = 𝐓 𝟎
𝐏𝐝𝐭

pt
𝐝𝐱 𝐅𝐨
𝐁𝐮𝐭 𝐏 = 𝐅𝐯 = 𝐅𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭. 𝐝𝐭 = 𝐅𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 × 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 − 𝛗)

,O
𝐙

𝐤 𝟐
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧, 𝐙 = 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐦𝛚 − 𝛚 , 𝐑 = 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐊 = 𝐒𝐭𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 and velocity
es
𝐤
𝐅𝐎 𝐦𝛚−
−𝟏 𝛚
amplitude𝐯𝐎 = and also 𝛗 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 .
av
𝐙 𝐑

𝟏 𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝐓
W

Thus average input power (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = 𝐓 . 𝐎

𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝛗 𝐝𝐭
𝐙

𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝟏 𝐓 𝟏 𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝟏 𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝟏

. 𝐙 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛗 = 𝟐 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝐙 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛗
n,

⇒ (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = . 𝐓 . 𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛗 = 𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛗 = 𝟐

𝐙 𝐙 𝐙𝟐
tio

𝟏 𝐤 𝟐 𝐑
𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲 (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = 𝟐 𝐯𝟎𝟐 . 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐦𝛚 − 𝛚 ×
𝐤 𝟐
𝐑𝟐 + 𝐦𝛚−
illa

𝟏 𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑
⇒ (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = 𝟐 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝐑 = 𝟐 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝐦 𝐦 = 𝟐 𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝐦 … … … (𝟏) 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝛄 = 𝐦 = 𝐃𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐂𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭
sc

𝟏 𝐓 ′
On the other hand the average power lost for damping (𝐏 ′ )𝐚𝐯 = 𝐓 . 𝐑. 𝟎
𝐏 𝐝𝐭
.O

𝐅𝟐
𝐁𝐮𝐭 𝐏 ′ = 𝐃𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 × 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝐑𝐯 × 𝐯 = 𝐑(𝐯)𝟐 = 𝐑 𝐙𝐨𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝛗)

So we get the average loss in power for damping

𝟏 𝐅𝟐 𝐓 𝟏 𝐅𝐨𝟐 𝟏 𝐑 𝟏 𝐅𝐎
(𝐏 ′ )𝐚𝐯 = 𝐓 . 𝐑. 𝐙𝐨𝟐 . 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝛗) 𝐝𝐭 = 𝟐 𝐑 =𝟐 . 𝐦𝐯𝟎𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐫𝐦𝐯𝟎𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐯𝟎 =
𝟎 𝐙𝟐 𝐦 𝐙

𝟏
𝐇𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐰𝐞 𝐠𝐞𝐭 (𝐏 ′ )𝐚𝐯 = 𝛄 𝐦𝐯𝟎𝟐 … … … (𝟐)
𝟐
𝟏
Hence from equation (1) and (2) we get (𝐏)𝐚𝐯 = (𝐏 ′ )𝐚𝐯 = 𝟐 𝛄 𝐦𝐯𝟎𝟐

12 / 89
 Superposition of Collinear Harmonic Oscillations

1. Linearity and Superposition Principle:

By this principle if a no of oscillations or vibrations of equal or unequal frequencies be
superimposed with each other then the
disturbance of vibration occurred for resultant will

s.
be the algebraic sum of the all individual
disturbances of the oscillations before

ic
superposition and that will give the final locus of

pt
the resultant vibration. So if 𝐱 𝟏 and 𝐱 𝟐 represents
two oscillations with same frequency 𝛚 before

,O
superposition then for 𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭) and
𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗 we have by this principle the superposition

𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐢𝐧−𝟏 es 𝐱𝟏
𝐚𝟏
+𝛗
av
This is the locus of the resultant oscillation for two variables 𝐱 𝟏 and 𝐱 𝟐 after superposition.
W
n,

2. Superposition of Two Perpendicular Harmonic Oscillations: Graphical and

Analytical Methods: Lissajous Figures with Equal Frequency:
tio

As we have already mentioned in earlier chapter that by the principle of superposition that
illa

the resultant vibration will be the algebraic sum of the individual vibrations before
sc

superposition. Now we will discuss the nature of resultant vibration for the superposition of
two mutually perpendicular vibrations with same frequency.
.O

Let us consider such two mutual perpendicular vibrations occurring in X and Y directions with
frequency 𝛚 and respective amplitude 𝐚 and 𝐛 and 𝛅 is their phase difference. Here if 𝐱 and
𝐲 be their respective displacements then we have 𝐱 = 𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 , 𝐲 = 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛅)

𝐲 𝐲
Now we have 𝐲 = 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛅) ; = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛅) 𝐓𝐡𝐮𝐬 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛅
𝐛 𝐛

13 / 89
 𝐲 𝐱 𝐱𝟐 𝐲 𝐱 𝐱𝟐
𝐎𝐫, = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅 + 𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛅 𝐨𝐫, (𝐛 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅)𝟐 = ( 𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛅)𝟐
𝐛 𝐚 𝐚

𝐲𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝟐𝐱𝐲 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐 𝟐𝐱𝐲
𝐎𝐫, + 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛅 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅 = 𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛅 ⟹ + 𝐛𝟐 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛅
𝐛𝟐 𝐚𝐛 𝐚𝟐 𝐚𝐛

This is the elliptic locus of the resultant vibration. Now for this resultant vibration we should
now note that

s.
𝐢 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝛅 = 𝟎, 𝐲 = 𝐚 𝐱 ⟶ 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 (Linear vibration)

ic
𝐢𝐢 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝛅 = 𝛑,

pt
𝐛
𝐲 = − 𝐚 𝐱 ⟶ 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞

,O
(Linear vibration)

𝛑 𝛑
𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝛅 = 𝟐 , 𝐚 ≠ 𝐛, 𝛉 ≠ 𝟒 , 𝐚𝟐 + 𝐛𝟐 = 𝟏 ⟶
𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐

es
av
𝐄𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐢𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝛑 𝛑
, 𝐚 = 𝐛, 𝛉 = 𝟒 , 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 ⟶
W

𝐢𝐯 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝛅 = 𝟐

𝐂𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐮𝐬
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

Thus we see that on superposition of two such individual vibrations with same frequency, the
resultant vibration will have several geometric shape and these geometric figures of resultant
vibration is called Lissajous Figures. The figures are graphically shown below.

14 / 89
3. Superposition of Two Perpendicular Harmonic Oscillations: Graphical and
Analytical Methods: Lissajous Figures with Unequal Frequency:

a) Suppose that two simple harmonic vibrations of frequencies in the ratio 1: 2 and differing
in initial phase by 𝛟 are impressed simultaneously on a particle along 𝐗 and 𝐘 −axis
respectively. The component displacements can then be written as

𝐱 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐲 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟).

s.
We have

ic
pt
𝐲
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝐭 − 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟
𝐚𝟐

,O
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐱
= 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − 𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 . 𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

𝐎𝐫,
𝐲
𝐚𝟐
𝐱𝟐
− 𝟐 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 = −𝟐 𝐚
𝟏
es 𝐱
𝟏
𝐱𝟐
𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟.
𝟏
av
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐲 𝟐𝐱𝟐
Squaring we obtain 𝟒 𝐚𝟐 𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛟 = [𝐚 − − 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟]𝟐 ………….. (1)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟏
W

𝐲 𝟐𝐱𝟐
If 𝛟 = 𝟎, equation (1) becomes (𝐚 − + 𝟏)𝟐 = 𝟎 which gives two coincident parabolas
𝟐 𝐚𝟐𝟏
n,

𝐚𝟐
each of this is represented by 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐲 + 𝐚𝟐 . ………….. (2)
𝟐
tio

𝛑 𝐲𝟐 𝟒𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐
If 𝛟 = 𝟐, equation (1) reduces to 𝐚𝟐 + − 𝟏 = 𝟎 ………….. (3)
𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟏
illa

This equation (3) is one of

sc

fourth degree in 𝐱 and

represents a curve
.O

containing two loops as

shown. If the phase
difference 𝛟 is changed the
shape of the loops will
change.

b) Suppose that two simple harmonic oscillations of frequencies in the ratio of 1: 3 and having
an initial phase difference 𝛟 act simultaneously on a particle along the 𝐗 and the 𝐘 − axis,
respectively. The components displacements are then given by

15 / 89
 𝐱 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐲 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟑𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟).
𝐲
We have = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟
𝐚𝟐

= 𝟒𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟑 𝛚𝐭 − 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑 𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟

𝐱𝟑 𝐱 𝐱𝟐 𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝟑
= 𝟒 𝟑−𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − [𝟑(𝟏 − 𝟐 ) − 𝟒(𝟏 − 𝟐 )𝟐 ]𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟
𝟐
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟏

s.
𝐱𝟑 𝐱 𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐
= 𝟒 − 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 − (𝟏 − )(𝟒 − 𝟏) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛟.
𝐚𝟑𝟏 𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐚𝟐𝟏

ic
pt
𝐱𝟐 𝐱𝟐 𝐲 𝟒𝐱𝟑 𝟑𝐱
Transposing and squaring we get (𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 ) (𝟒 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟏)𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛟 = [𝐚 − ( 𝐚𝟑 − 𝐚 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟]𝟐 .
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

,O
𝐲 𝟑𝐱 𝟒𝐱𝟑 𝟐
From this equation, if 𝛟 = 𝟎, we get (𝐚 + 𝐚 − ) = 𝟎.
𝟐 𝟏 𝐚𝟑𝟏

es
This equation gives two coincident cubic curves.
av
𝛑 𝐱𝟐 𝟒𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
If 𝛟 = 𝟐, we also get (𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 ) ( 𝐚𝟐 − 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 = 𝟎 which is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
the equation of sixth degree in 𝐱 and represents a curve
W

having three loops. As the phase difference 𝛟 is changed,

the shape of the loops will change. All these figures are
n,

Lissajous figures in this case.

tio
illa
sc
.O

16 / 89
4. Superposition of Two Collinear Oscillations:

a) Superposition of Two Collinear Oscillations having Equal Frequencies:

s.
Let us now consider two simple harmonic motions be given by

ic
pt
𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 … … … (𝟏) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐 … … … (𝟐)

,O
where 𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 are the instantaneous displacements; 𝐚𝟏 , 𝐚𝟐 are the amplitudes; 𝛚 is the same
angular frequency for both oscillations; and 𝛂𝟏 , 𝛂𝟐 are the initial phase angles. The
instantaneous resultant displacement will then become

es
𝐱 = 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐
av
= 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 … … … (𝟑)
W

Let 𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛟 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟐 and𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛟 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟐 , where 𝐀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛟 are
another two constants and also
n,

𝐀𝟐 = (𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟐 )𝟐

tio

= 𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂𝟐 … … … (𝟒)

illa

𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟐
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = … … … (𝟓)
𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟐
sc

Therefore the above equation (3) can be written as 𝐱 = 𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟 … … … (𝟔)

.O

which shows that the resultant motion is also simple harmonic having the same frequency as
that of the individual vibrations.

The above analysis can also be taken and extended for superposition of more than two
collinear oscillations.

Let the individual vibrations be represented by

17 / 89
𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 = 𝐚𝟑 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟑 and so on. The
resultant motion is then given by

𝐱 = 𝐱𝟏 + 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐱𝟑 + ⋯ = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐 + 𝐚𝟑 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟑 + ⋯

= 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟐 + 𝐚𝟑 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟑 + ⋯ 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟐 + 𝐚𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟑 +

⋯ 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 = ( 𝐍𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝐢 )𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + ( 𝐍𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝐢 )𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭

𝐱 = 𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛟 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭 − 𝐀 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛟 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟 … … … (𝟕)

s.
where

ic
𝐍
𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛟 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟐 + 𝐚𝟑 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟑 + ⋯ = 𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝐢

pt
𝐍
And 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛟 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟐 + 𝐚𝟑 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝟑 + ⋯ = 𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝐢

,O
𝐍 𝟐 𝐍 𝟐
So that 𝐀𝟐 = 𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝐢 + 𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝐢 … … … (𝟖)

𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 =
𝐍

𝐍 es
𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂𝐢

𝐢=𝟏 𝐚𝐢 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝐢
… … … (𝟗)
av
Equation (7) shows that the resultant oscillation is simple harmonic in nature having a
W

frequency equal to that of each individual oscillation.

b) Superposition of N Collinear Harmonic Oscillations with same Amplitude and

n,

Frequency and Equal Phase Differences:

tio

Here as we have considered earlier, we now take 𝐍 individual vibrations be represented

illa

by𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐚 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑 = 𝐚 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟑 , and so on where their

phase difference is constant. That is we have 𝛂𝟐 − 𝛂𝟏 = 𝛂𝟑 − 𝛂𝟐 = ⋯ … . . = 𝛉 (say)
sc

For simplicity, if we now take 𝛂𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝛂𝟐 = 𝛉, 𝛂𝟑 = 𝟐𝛉, 𝛂𝟒 = 𝟑𝛉, … … . 𝛂𝐍 = (𝐍 − 𝟏)𝛉 . Thus

we get from previous section (a)
.O

𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛟 = 𝐚 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟏 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟐 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂𝐍

And 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛟 = 𝐚(𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟏 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟐 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝐍 )

And we get

𝐍𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝐍−𝟏
𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛟 = 𝐚 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟎 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉 + ⋯ + 𝐂𝐨𝐬(𝐍 − 𝟏)𝛉 = 𝐚 . 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝛉 𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐

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 𝐍𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛟 = 𝐚(𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟎 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉 + ⋯ + 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝐍 − 𝟏)𝛉) = 𝐚 𝟐 . 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐍 − 𝟏 𝛉
𝛉 𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐
Thus we get the square of amplitude of resultant vibration from equation (8) of previous
section (a) as

𝐍𝛉 𝐍𝛉 𝐍𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐍−𝟏 𝐍−𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝐀𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝟐
𝛉 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛉 + 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛉 = 𝐚𝟐 𝟐
𝛉 𝐎𝐫, 𝐀 = 𝐚 𝟐
𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

s.
𝐍𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐍−𝟏
𝟐
𝐚 .𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉

ic
𝛉 𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝐍−𝟏
And also from equation (9) of previous section (a) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = 𝐍𝛉 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐

pt
𝟐 𝐍−𝟏
𝐚 𝛉 .𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛉
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝟐

,O
𝐍−𝟏 𝐍−𝟏
That is we get 𝛟 = 𝛉= ×Constant Phase Difference
𝟐 𝟐

And the resultant equation of motion will be

𝐍𝛉
es
av
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝐍−𝟏
𝐱 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟 = 𝐚 . 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛉
𝛉 𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐
W

c) Superposition of Two Collinear Oscillations having Slightly Different

n,

Frequencies (Beats):
tio

Let the two harmonic motions have the angular frequencies 𝛚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (𝛚 − 𝚫𝛚) respectively. If
𝛂𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛂𝟐 are the initial phases, these two motions can be expressed as
illa

𝐱 𝟏 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬[ 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 [ 𝛚 − 𝚫𝛚 𝐭 + 𝛂𝟐 ]

sc

Now by considering 𝛂′𝟐 = 𝛂𝟐 − 𝚫𝛚 𝐭, we have 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂′𝟐

.O

And for the resultant displacement we have

𝐱 = 𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛂′𝟐 = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟 … … … (𝟏𝟎)

Where

𝐚 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂 +𝐚 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛂′
𝐀𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂′𝟐 … … … (𝟏𝟏) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = 𝐚 𝟏𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟏 +𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝟐′ … … … (𝟏𝟐)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐

19 / 89
Here the equations (11) and (12) are obtained respectively from equations (4) and (5) from
section (a) on replacing 𝛂𝟐 𝐛𝐲 𝛂′𝟐 . Now we have 𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂′𝟐 = 𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂𝟐 + 𝚫𝛚 𝐭 . So if
𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂𝟐 + 𝚫𝛚 𝐭 = (𝟐𝐩 + 𝟏)𝛑 where 𝐩 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … etc. equation (11) gives 𝐀 = 𝐚𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 .

On other hand, if 𝛂𝟏 − 𝛂𝟐 + 𝚫𝛚 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐩𝛑, we again have from equation (11) 𝐀 = 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐

Equation (10) shows that the resultant vibration has the angular frequency 𝛚. The amplitude
𝐀 of the resultant vibration is not a constant; it is time dependent in periodic manner.
Equation (11) confirms that 𝐀 changes with time between (𝐚𝟏 − 𝐚𝟐 ) and (𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 ) with an

s.
angular frequency 𝚫𝛚 and it is then called amplitude vibration.

ic
In case if 𝐚𝟏 = 𝐚𝟐 = 𝐚, the amplitude varies periodically

pt
between 0 and 2a. Note that the frequency of the

,O
amplitude variation is 𝚫𝛚 = 𝛚 − 𝛚 − 𝚫𝛚 = the
difference between the two component frequencies.

es
Thus when two simple harmonic motions of slightly different frequencies superimposes, the
amplitude of the resultant vibration changes regularly with time between a maximum and a
av
minimum. This phenomenon is called ‘beat formation’.
W

For a clear realization of beats, the frequency difference 𝚫𝛚 should be small and the
amplitudes 𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐚𝟐 should be equal or nearly so. The time (which is called beat period)
𝟐𝛑 𝟏
between two successive maxima or minima of amplitude is 𝚫𝛚 or, 𝚫𝐟 second, where 𝚫𝐟 is the
n,

linear frequency difference between the individual vibrations. So the number of beats per
tio

second i.e. the number of maxima or minima per second is 𝚫𝐟.

illa
sc
.O

20 / 89
 Wave Motion

1. Plane Progressive (Travelling) Waves: Wave Equation (Differential):

Wave motion is a process by which the energy will propagate from one point to another
point through the medium. There are two distinct classes of such wave motion which are
electromagnetic wave and elastic wave. For the propagation of electromagnetic wave,

s.
there is no requirement of the presence of the medium and this electromagnetic wave can
travel with maximum velocity through

ic
free space, but for the propagation of

pt
the elastic wave, the presence of the
medium is essential. Basically for elastic

,O
wave propagation, the oscillation of the
medium particles of medium layers will
es
help the wave to propagate through the
medium.
av

In present discussion we will be concern only to elastic wave propagation but not the
W

motion of electromagnetic wave. This elastic wave again can be classified in two types
which are progressive wave and standing or stationary wave. The progressive elastic wave
will propagate through the medium in a certain direction with a certain phase velocity,
n,

but the motion of so called standing or stationary wave seems to be confined within a
tio

certain region of the medium.

illa

Each progressive or stationary wave

further may be of two types which are
transverse wave and longitudinal wave. In
sc

case of transverse wave, the direction of

the wave propagation and the direction of
.O

the medium particle or medium layer

vibration will be mutually perpendicular to
each other whereas for longitudinal wave
these two directions are parallel to each
other.

For the propagation of plane progressive wave (say, one dimension) its equation of
𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
motion will be = where 𝐯 is the phase velocity of this wave propagation and
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
𝐊
𝐯 = 𝐯𝐩 = .The cause of it is that if we consider a part AB of the medium having unit
𝛒

21 / 89
cross section where the portion is closed by the two surfaces at the location 𝐱 and 𝐱 + 𝛅𝐱
the volume of that medium is 𝛅𝐱 × 𝟏 = 𝛅𝐱 .

For the propagation of this sound wave from the left if the excess pressure 𝐩 makes the
𝛛𝐲
displacement 𝐲 of the layer 𝐀 and 𝐱 + 𝛅𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱 will be the position of the layer
𝛛𝐲
𝐁 where the change of 𝐲 with respect of 𝐱 is 𝛛𝐱.

𝛛𝐲
Thus for 𝛅𝐱 the displacement of 𝐲 will be (𝐲 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱) . Again by the figure, under
𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐲
influence of wave pressure 𝐀 𝟏 𝐁𝟏 = 𝐱 + 𝛅𝐱 + 𝐲 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱 − 𝐱 + 𝐲 = 𝛅𝐱 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱 .

s.
𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐲
Thus the volume of the portion 𝐀 𝟏 𝐁𝟏 will be 𝛅𝐱 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱 × 𝟏 = 𝛅𝐱 + 𝛛𝐱 . 𝛅𝐱 where

ic
𝛛𝐲
𝛛𝐲 ∆𝐕 .𝛅𝐱 𝛛𝐲
𝛛𝐱

pt
the change of volume is . 𝛅𝐱 and bulk strain is = = 𝛛𝐱 . Hence bulk modulus
𝛛𝐱 𝐕 𝛅𝐱
of the medium will be

,O
𝐩 ∆𝐕 𝛛𝐲
𝐊 = − ∆𝐕 ⟹ 𝐩 = −𝐊 = −𝐊 where 𝐩 is excess pressure or change of initial
𝐕 𝛛𝐱
𝐕
es
pressure. This is called acoustic pressure. Now in simple harmonic wave the disturbance at
the location 𝐱 at time 𝐭 is
av

𝟐𝛑
𝐲 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 where 𝐀 = amplitude of the wave, 𝐯 = wave
𝛌
W

𝛛𝐲 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
phase velocity. So we get = −𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 and acoustic pressure will be
𝛛𝐱 𝛌 𝛌
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑𝐊𝐀
𝐩 = 𝐊𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 where the amplitude of the pressure is 𝐩𝟎 = 𝐊𝐀 =
n,

𝛌 𝛌 𝛌 𝛌
And here the effective force for pressure variation
tio

𝛛𝐲
𝛛𝐩 𝛛𝐩 𝛛 𝐊 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
𝛛𝐱
illa

𝐅= 𝛅𝐕 = 𝟏. 𝛅𝐱 = 𝛅𝐱 = 𝐊𝛅𝐱 .
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝟐
sc

Again if the density of the medium be 𝛒 then we have from Newton’s second law

𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛒 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
.O

𝐅 = 𝛅𝐦. 𝐚 ⟹ 𝐊𝛅𝐱 = 𝛅𝐦. 𝐚 = 𝛅𝐦. 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 𝛅𝐱 × 𝟏 𝛒 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 ⟹ 𝛛𝐱𝟐 =

𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐊 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
⟹ 𝛛𝐱𝟐 = ⟹ 𝛛𝐱𝟐 = .
(
𝐊 𝟐
) 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
𝛒

This is the general equation for the propagation of wave in one dimension where phase
𝐊
velocity of the wave propagation is 𝐯 = 𝐯𝐩 = .
𝛒

22 / 89
2. Particle and Wave Velocities:

Since we have the wave equation for one dimensional plane wave propagation is given
𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
by 𝛛𝐱𝟐 = , here the wave disturbance for one dimensional wave propagation is
𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
given by 𝒚 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) because here in this case we can now have

𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
= 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 −𝐤 ⟹ 𝛛𝐱𝟐 = −𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 −𝐤 −𝐤 = −𝐤 𝟐 𝐲 .
𝛛𝐱

In similar manner we also have

s.
𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
= 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝛚 ⟹ = −𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝛚 𝛚 = −𝛚𝟐 𝐲.

ic
𝛛𝐭 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

pt
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
Thus we finally get = ⟹ = 𝛚 .
𝐤 𝟐 𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝛚𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝛛𝐱 𝟐 ( )𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
𝐤

,O
𝛚 𝟐𝛑𝐧
But here we have = 𝟐𝛑 = 𝐧𝛌 = 𝐯 which gives the wave velocity or wave phase
𝐤
𝛌

velocity, so we get
𝛛𝟐 𝐲
=
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
es
. This is the equation of wave motion for one dimensional
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
wave propagation.
av

The wave disturbance for such one dimension plane wave propagation is also written as
W

𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐟𝟏 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 + 𝐁𝐟𝟐 (𝐯𝐭 + 𝐱) where 𝐀 and 𝐁 are constants

Here 𝐟𝟏 and 𝐟𝟐 are two functions and 𝐟𝟏 represent a plane wave moving in positive X
n,

direction where 𝐟𝟐 represents a plane wave moving in negative X direction with same
tio

phase velocity. Since 𝐟𝟏 and 𝐟𝟐 are two different functions, the wave forms of these two
waves need not be the same.
illa

For progressive wave propagation in one dimension, if x be the instantaneous position of

the wave propagation and y be the instantaneous position of medium particle or medium
sc

𝛛𝐱
layer oscillation then we have wave velocity 𝐯 = and the velocity of medium particle
𝛛𝐭
.O

𝛛𝐲
oscillation 𝐕 = . Now from wave disturbance equation we get
𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝐲
𝐲 = 𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 ⟹ 𝐕 = = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝛚 .
𝛛𝐭
𝛛𝐲 𝐕 𝛚 𝛛𝐲
Again = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 −𝐤 , thus we have 𝛛𝐲 = − = −𝐯 ⟹ 𝐕 = − 𝐯 i.e.
𝛛𝐱 𝐤 𝛛𝐱
𝛛𝐱

Particle velocity = - wave velocity x slope of the graph for wave propagation. This is the
relation between wave velocity and particle velocity for elastic wave propagation.

23 / 89
3. Pressure of a Longitudinal Wave:

We have from our previous discussion that since for wave propagation throughout the
medium, the pressure variation takes place for oscillation of medium layers, we have the
acoustic pressure at any wave position x in one dimension propagation

∆𝐕 𝛛𝐲
𝐩 = −𝐊 = −𝐊
𝐕 𝛛𝐱

s.
Now since for wave propagation taken to be ideal and sinusoidal without any distortion,

ic
the oscillation of the medium layers are taken to be simple harmonic for which we have
the wave disturbance at the location 𝐱 at time 𝐭 is

pt
,O
𝟐𝛑
𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) Or, 𝐲 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 where 𝐀 = amplitude of the
𝛌
𝛛𝐲 𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
wave, 𝐯 = wave phase velocity, we get = −𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱
𝛛𝐱
es 𝛌 𝛌

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
av
And acoustic pressure will be 𝐩 = 𝐊𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 where the amplitude of the
𝛌 𝛌
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑𝐊𝐀
pressure is 𝐩𝟎 = 𝐊𝐀 = . This is the formulation for acoustic pressure of
W

𝛌 𝛌

longitudinal wave propagation.

n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

24 / 89
4. Energy Transport:

We have already mentioned that wave motion or wave propagation is a process through
which the energy transmission takes place. Let us now consider that a plane harmonic
longitudinal wave is travelling in the positive X direction within a medium of density 𝛒 .

s.
The kinetic energy of a layer of the medium having thickness 𝛅𝐱 and a unit cross sectional

ic
area perpendicular to the direction of propagation is

pt
𝟏 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐲
𝛅𝐄𝐤 = 𝟐 𝛒𝛅𝐱( 𝛛𝐭 )𝟐 . But 𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱) and = 𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝛚 .

,O
𝛛𝐭

𝟏 𝛛𝐲 𝟏
So we get 𝛅𝐄𝐤 = 𝟐 𝛒𝛅𝐱( 𝛛𝐭 )𝟐 = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝛅𝐱𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 and the average value of this
𝟐
over a complete period is usually given by
es
av
𝟏 𝟏
𝛅𝐄𝐤 = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝛅𝐱 when 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 =𝟐
𝟒
W

𝛅𝐄𝐤 𝛅𝐄𝐤 𝟏
Thus the time average of the kinetic energy density is 𝐄𝐤 = = = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 and
𝛅𝐕 𝛅𝐱.𝟏 𝟒
we should note that this same result will be obtained if we take the space average.
n,

Now to obtain the average potential energy, since the increase in potential energy is equal
tio

to the work done in compressing the medium layer by an increase of the pressure from
say 𝐏𝐨 to 𝐏 where 𝐏𝐨 is the normal pressure without wave propagation through the
illa

𝐏
medium, we get 𝛅𝐄𝐏 = − 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐝𝐕 .
sc

∆𝐏 𝐝𝐏 𝐕𝐨
But for initial volume 𝐕𝐨 , we have 𝐊 = − ∆𝐕 = − 𝐕𝐨 ⇒ 𝐝𝐕 = − 𝐝𝐏
𝐝𝐕 𝐊
𝐕𝐨
.O

We get

𝐏 𝐏
𝐕𝐨 𝐕𝐨 𝐕𝐨
𝛅𝐄𝐏 = − 𝐏𝐝𝐕 = 𝐏 𝟐 − 𝐏𝐨𝟐 =
𝐏𝐝𝐏 = 𝐏 + 𝐏𝐨 𝐏 − 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝐊
𝐏𝐨 𝟐𝐊 𝟐𝐊
𝐕𝐨 𝐕𝐨
= 𝟐𝐏𝐨 + 𝐩 𝐩 = 𝟐𝐏𝐨 𝐩 + 𝐩𝟐
𝟐𝐊 𝟐𝐊
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
But we have the excess acoustic pressure 𝐩 = 𝐏 − 𝐏𝐨 = 𝐊𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 . So we
𝛌 𝛌
𝟏 𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝛑𝟐
must have the average value 𝐩 = 𝟎 and 𝐩𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐊 𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝛌𝟐
= 𝟐𝐊 𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝛌𝟐

25 / 89
So the average potential energy is given by

𝐕𝐨 𝐕𝐨 𝛑𝟐 𝛑𝟐
𝛅𝐄𝐏 = 𝟐𝐏𝐨 𝐩 + 𝐩𝟐 = 𝟐𝐊 𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐕𝐨 𝐊𝐀𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝐊 𝟐𝐊 𝛌 𝛌

𝐊 𝐯
But we also have phase velocity of the wave 𝐯 = 𝐯𝐩 = and 𝛚 = 𝟐𝛑𝐧 = 𝟐𝛑 𝛌 we
𝛒

finally get

𝛑𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝛚𝟐 𝟏
𝛅𝐄𝐏 = 𝐕𝐨 𝐊𝐀 𝟐 = 𝐕𝐨 𝛒𝐯 𝐀 𝟐
= 𝐕𝐨 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐
𝛌 𝟒𝐯 𝟒

s.
𝛅𝐄𝐏 𝟏
= 𝟒 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 and surprisingly

ic
And finally the average potential energy density 𝐄𝐏 = 𝐕𝐨
𝟏

pt
𝟐 𝟐
here we get 𝐄𝐤 = 𝟒 𝛒𝛚 𝐀 = 𝐄𝐏

,O
𝟏
Hence the average energy density is given by 𝐄 = 𝐄𝐤 + 𝐄𝐏 = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 . This is the
𝟐
average energy transportation through longitudinal wave propagation.
es
5. Intensity of Wave:
av

For energy transmission through wave propagation, the intensity of the wave is defined
by the amount of energy transmitted through unit cross section of the medium per unit
W

time. Thus if we consider the medium of unit cross section then since the wave
propagates through the distance 𝐯 in unit time where 𝐯 is the phase velocity of the wave
n,

propagation, we have the estimation of the wave intensity

tio

𝐈 = 𝐄 . 𝐕 where 𝐕 is the volume covered through wave propagation in unit time. Thus
we should have the intensity of the wave
illa

𝟏 𝟏
𝐈 = 𝐄 .𝐕 = 𝐄 𝐯 × 𝟏 = 𝐄 𝐯 = 𝛒𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 𝐯 = 𝛒𝐯𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 .
𝟐 𝟐
sc

This is intensity expression for progressive wave propagation. Thus we see that the
.O

acoustic intensity is clearly the average acoustic power flowing normally through a unit
area of the wave front. We have from our previous discussion that the maximum acoustic
pressure is given

𝟐𝛑
𝐩𝐨 = 𝐩𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐊𝐀 = 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 𝐀𝐤 = 𝐤𝐀𝛒𝐯 𝟐
𝛌

𝟎 𝐩𝟐
With respect to this acoustic pressure amplitude, the intensity of the wave is 𝐈 = 𝟐𝛒𝐯 .
𝐩𝐨
Here also we can say that the rms value of the acoustic pressure is 𝐩𝐫𝐦𝐬 = and thus
𝟐
𝐩𝟐𝟎 𝐩𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬
we get this intensity of the wave 𝐈 = 𝟐𝛒𝐯 = and again for particle velocity
𝛒𝐯

26 / 89
 𝛛𝐲
𝐕= = 𝐀𝛚𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱
𝛛𝐭
𝐕𝐨 𝐀𝛚
Since the rms value of this particle velocity is 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = = , we get
𝟐 𝟐

𝐩𝐨 𝛚𝐀 𝐤𝐀𝛒𝐯 𝟐 𝛚𝐀 𝟏 𝟏 𝛚 𝟏
𝐩𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = = = 𝛒𝐯𝛚𝐀𝟐 𝐤𝐯 = 𝛒𝐯𝛚𝐀𝟐 𝐤. = 𝛒𝐯𝛚𝐀𝟐 𝛚
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝐤 𝟐
𝟏
= 𝛒𝐯𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 = 𝐈
𝟐

Thus the acoustic intensity for a plane wave is the product of the rms sound pressure and

s.
𝐈
the rms particle velocity 𝐈𝐋 ≡ 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 , where 𝐈𝟎 is the reference intensity

ic
𝐈𝟎
corresponding to the threshold of audibility, i.e. 𝐈𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐖/𝐦𝟐 . since from previous

pt
𝐩𝟐 𝐩𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬
discussion we have the intensity 𝐈 is proportional to 𝐩𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬 [𝐛𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐞 𝐈 = 𝟐𝛒𝐯
𝟎
= ] we
𝛒𝐯

,O
𝐩𝟐𝐫𝐦𝐬
get 𝐈𝐋 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎
𝛒𝐯 𝐈𝟎
es
Note that for air 𝛒 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 and 𝐯 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟑 𝐦/𝐬. Using these values
together with the reference intensity 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐖/𝐦𝟐 , we obtain for the corresponding
av
reference rms acoustic pressure
W

𝐩𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐍/𝐦𝟐 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐏𝐚

𝐈𝐋 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟔𝟖𝟗 𝐝𝐁 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟔𝐁𝐞𝐥
n,

The significance of this intensity level is that

tio

it is a relative measurement of loudness of

sound wave. This loudness is that parameter
illa

which is only possible to realize by human

ear but it cannot be estimated absolutely.
sc

Loudness of sound wave is parameter which

is acceptable directly by hearing and also
.O

proportional to the intensity level of that

sound wave. Theoretically for initial intensity
𝐈 and intensity change 𝐝𝐈 , the change of
loudness will be

𝐋 𝐈
𝐝𝐈 𝐝𝐈 𝐈
𝐝𝐋 ∝ ⟹ ∆𝐋 = 𝐋 − 𝟎 = 𝐝𝐋 = 𝐤 = 𝐤𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞
𝐈 𝟎 𝐈𝟎 𝐈 𝐈𝐨
𝐈 𝐈
= 𝐤 × 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ∝ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ∝ 𝐈𝐋 .
𝐈𝐨 𝐈𝐨

27 / 89
So we see that this loudness is directly proportional to the intensity level. The practical
unit of this loudness is 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧 where if the intensity level of the wave is 𝐧 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐥 then
the corresponding loudness will be 𝐧 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧. This is Weber – Fechner law for loudness of
sound. At present another practical unit as considered for loudness is 𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐞 where the
loudness of a sound having frequency 1000 Hz and intensity level 𝟒𝟎 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐛𝐞𝐥 is 𝟏 𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐞 .

6. Plane and Spherical Wave:

We have already discussed about the propagation of plane wave when the wave front will
be plane. Already we have mentioned that the equation of such plane progressive wave is

s.
𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
= where 𝐯 is the phase velocity of the wave propagation and is given by for
𝛛𝐱 𝟐 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

ic
𝛚 𝐊
elastic plane wave propagation 𝐯 = = and the solution for wave disturbance is
𝐤 𝛒

pt
then given by 𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐀𝐟𝟏 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐱 + 𝐁𝐟𝟐 (𝐯𝐭 + 𝐱)

,O
Here if we now take this progressive wave
equation in three dimensions we get the
es
equation of motion for wave disturbance 𝐮(𝐫, 𝐭)
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐮
as 𝛁 𝟐 𝐮 = 𝐯𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 . Now for spherical wave
av

motion with propagation of spherical wave front

in 3 dimensions, we have for polar and
W

𝟏 𝛛 𝛛
azimuthal symmetry 𝛁𝟐 = 𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐫 and
𝐫𝟐 𝛛𝐫
n,

then the equation of motion for spherical wave

𝟏 𝛛 𝛛𝐮 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐮
propagation should be 𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐫 𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐫 = ……………………. (1)
tio

𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
𝐳 𝛛𝐮 𝟏 𝛛𝐳 𝐳
Let us now consider 𝐮 = 𝐫 and then 𝛛𝐫 = − 𝐫 𝟐 and
𝐫 𝛛𝐫
illa

𝟏 𝛛 𝟐 𝛛𝐮 𝟏 𝛛 𝛛𝐳 𝟏 𝛛𝐳 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐳 𝟏 𝛛𝐳 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐳
𝟐
𝐫 = 𝟐 𝐫 −𝐳 = + − =
𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐫 𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝟐 𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐫 𝐫 𝛛𝐫 𝟐
sc

𝛛𝟐 𝐮 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐳
And also = when 𝐫, 𝐭 are independent with each other. Thus from above
𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐫 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
.O

𝛛𝟐 𝐳 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐳
equation (1) we get = 𝐯𝟐 ……………. (2)
𝛛𝐫 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐

Here we see that the wave equation for spherical wave propagation reduces to equation
(2) which is basically one dimensional wave equation with respect to the radial variable 𝐫.
Thus usually the solution of this equation (2) can be written as
𝐳(𝐫, 𝐭) = 𝐀𝐟𝟏 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐫 + 𝐁𝐟𝟐 (𝐯𝐭 + 𝐫)
And finally the wave disturbance for three dimensional spherical wave propagation will be
𝐳 𝐫,𝐭 𝟏 𝟏
𝐮 𝐫, 𝐭 = = 𝐀 𝐫 𝐟𝟏 𝐯𝐭 − 𝐫 + 𝐁 𝐫 𝐟𝟐 (𝐯𝐭 + 𝐫)
𝐫

28 / 89
7. Wave Equation through Acoustic Pressure:
Here if 𝐩 be the excess pressure, the unbalanced force acting on a volume element 𝐝𝐕 in
the fluid is (𝛁𝐩)𝐝𝐕. By Newton’s second law of motion, this unbalanced force must be
equated to the time rate of change of momentum of the fluid in 𝐝𝐕, i.e.

s.
𝛛 𝛛 𝛛
− 𝛛𝐭 𝐯𝛒𝐝𝐕 = − 𝛛𝐭 𝐯𝛒 𝐝𝐕 . Hence 𝛁𝐩 𝐝𝐕 = − 𝛛𝐭 (𝐯𝛒)𝐝𝐕

ic
𝛛 𝛛
𝐎𝐫, 𝛁𝐩 = − 𝛛𝐭 𝛒𝐯 Or, 𝛁. 𝛁𝐩 = − 𝛛𝐭 (𝛁. 𝛒𝐯 )

pt
𝛛𝛒 𝛛𝟐 𝛒
But from equation of continuity we have 𝛁. 𝐉 = 𝛁. 𝛒𝐯 = − 𝛛𝐭 . So we get 𝛁 𝟐 𝐩 =

,O
.
𝛛𝐭 𝟐

Here if we consider the process through which the wave propagates is an isothermal
process then we have isothermal bulk modulus 𝐊 = 𝐩 = 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 .
es
𝛛𝟐 𝛒 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐩
Thus we get 𝛁 𝟐 𝐩 = ⇒ 𝛁 𝟐 𝐩 = 𝐯𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
av
𝛛𝐭 𝟐

This is the differential acoustic wave equation in three dimensions for the acoustic
W

pressure and it can also be taken as the wave equation for three dimensional wave
propagation.
n,

8. Gravity Waves:
tio

Gravity Waves are physical disturbance driven by the restoring force of gravity in a
planetary environment. In other words, gravity waves are specific to planetary
illa

atmospheres and bodies of

water. In the case of
atmosphere, as air blows
sc

across an ocean and then

.O

encounters an island, for

example, that air will be forced
to rise. Downwind from the
island, the air will be forced to
a lower altitude by gravity, but
its buoyancy will work against
gravity forcing it aloft again. The result is often a region of oscillating air in the
atmosphere that can produce clouds in the waves' crests (or highest points) as moisture
from lower altitude condenses.

29 / 89
Also in the case of oceans, surface gravity waves form at the atmosphere/water interface;
wind blows the surface out of equilibrium causing the restoring force of gravity to force
the surface back down, while the water's buoyancy pushes it back up. Wind-driven waves,
tides and tsunamis are all examples of gravity waves.

s.
ic
pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

30 / 89
 Superposition of Two Harmonic Waves

1. Standing (Stationary) Waves in a String: Analytical Treatment:

When two progressive waves of same amplitude, wavelength and frequency approaches
to each other after coming from opposite sense and
superimposes with each other in opposite phase then

s.
the resultant wave motion produced on superposition

ic
will be confined within a certain region of that
medium. This resultant wave is called stationary wave

pt
or standing wave. The basic characteristics of this

,O
standing or stationary wave are

a) Standing wave cannot be expressed by the equation of a single progressive wave

es
b) At some few points on this standing wave,
av
there occurs no vibration and then those
points are called nodes where as there exists
W

another few points on that wave motion at

which the amplitude of vibration of the
medium particle or medium layers is
n,

maximum and then those points are called

tio

antinodes
illa

c) For standing wave nodes and antinodes appears in alternate manner and the separation
𝛌
between one node position from its neighbour antinodes is 𝟒 .
sc

We now consider a wire of uniform cross section which is stretched horizontally at two
ends. The length of the wire is 𝐥 and the tension of the wire is 𝐓
.O

where as the mass per unit length is 𝐦.

Now if the wire is allowed to vibrate in transverse sense then it

can be assumed that a transverse wave is generated along the
length of the wire which reflects back from one end and
superimposes with the incoming wave in opposite phase and
finally a transverse standing wave will generated along the
length of the string.

For this transverse vibration of string if the string vibrates with

31 / 89
fundamental frequency then only one anti node will appear at the midpoint of the string
with two nodes at the end points. Hence if 𝐧𝟏 be the frequency of fundamental tone then
𝛌 𝛌 𝛌
we have from figure the length of the string is given by 𝐥 = + = ⟹ 𝛌 = 𝟐𝐥 and
𝟒 𝟒 𝟐
𝐯 𝐯
then 𝐧𝟏 = = .
𝛌 𝟐𝐥

Again it can be shown mathematically that the velocity of transverse wave due to string
𝐓
vibration is given by 𝐯 = . Hence the fundamental frequency of the string vibration
𝐦

𝟏 𝐓 𝟏
will be 𝐧𝟏 = . From this equation we can say that 𝐧𝟏 ∝ 𝐥 when T and m are

s.
𝟐𝐥 𝐦

constants. Again 𝐧𝟏 ∝ 𝐓 when 𝐦 and 𝐥 are constants.

ic
𝟏
Also again we have 𝐧𝟏 ∝ for 𝐓 and 𝐥 constants. These are known as laws of transverse
𝐦

pt
vibration of string.

,O
Now if the string be vibrated into two loops with an additional node position at the
midpoint of the string then the tone appears is called second overtones.
𝛌 𝛌
If 𝐧𝟐 be the frequency of second overtone then since we have 𝐥 = + = 𝛌 ⟹𝛌=𝐥
es 𝐯 𝐯 𝐯
𝟐 𝟐
we get the frequency of the second overtone 𝐧𝟐 = 𝛌 = = 𝟐 𝟐𝐥 = 𝟐𝐧𝟏 . Similarly for 3rd
𝐥
av
overtone we get 𝐧𝟐 = 𝟑𝐧𝟏 . Thus for p’th overtone the frequency will be
W

𝟏 𝐓
𝐧𝐩 = 𝐩𝐧𝟏 = 𝐩. 𝟐𝐥 .
𝐦
n,

Thus we see that all the overtones for the transverse vibration of string are harmonics.
tio

Let a string stretched between two fixed supports

lie at rest along the 𝐱 − 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬. When a portion of
illa

the string is drawn along the 𝐲 − 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐬 , i.e.

perpendicular to its length such that the amplitude
sc

of vibration is small, the tension of the string can

.O

be taken to be a constant in time as transverse

waves proceed along the string.

Suppose that 𝐚𝐛 is the stretched string in its

position of rest, and 𝐀𝐁(= 𝛅𝐥) is a small segment
of the string in the displaced position. The string
being perfectly flexible, the tension 𝐓 can be taken to be the same along the length of the
string, acting tangentially at every point.

32 / 89
 s.
ic
pt
,O
If 𝛉 is the angle made by the tangent at 𝐀 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐚𝐛, the transverse component of the
𝛛𝐲
tension will be 𝐓𝐯 = 𝐓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉. Since 𝛉 is small 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉 ≃ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝛛𝐱 .
es
𝛛𝐲
Hence 𝐓𝐯 = 𝐓 𝛛𝐱 Again vertical component of the tension at 𝐁 is
av

𝛛 𝛛 𝛛𝐲
W

𝐓𝐯 = 𝐓𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗 = 𝐓 𝐲 + 𝛅𝐲 = 𝐓 𝐲+ 𝛅𝐱
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱

So the resultant force on the element 𝐀𝐁 along the 𝐲 −direction is

n,

𝛛 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
tio

𝐓 𝐲+ 𝛅𝐱 − 𝐓 = 𝐓 𝟐 𝛅𝐱.
𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱 𝛛𝐱
illa

From Newton’s second law of motion this force must be equated to the product of the
mass of the element 𝐀𝐁 and its acceleration. If 𝐦 is the mass per unit length of the string,
sc

𝛛𝟐 𝐲
the mass of the element 𝐀𝐁 is 𝐦𝛅𝐱 and its acceleration is 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
.O

𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝐓 𝛛𝟐 𝐲 𝛛𝟐 𝐲
So 𝐓 𝛛𝐱𝟐 𝛅𝐱 = 𝐦𝛅𝐱 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐎𝐫, = = 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐱𝟐 . Thus we see that for such
𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐦 𝛛𝐱 𝟐
𝐓
transverse wave propagation the velocity of transverse wave propagation is 𝐯 = .
𝐦

2. Phase and Group Velocities: Changes with respect to Position and Time:

Actually the velocity of the wave propagation is called its phase velocity. Because
throughout the wave motion, it’s over all phase will remain constant and then in that case
we have

33 / 89
 𝐝𝐱
𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 = 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭. ⟹ 𝛚 − 𝐤 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝛚 − 𝐤𝐯 = 𝟎
𝐝𝐭
𝛚 𝟐𝛑𝐧
⟹𝐯= = 𝟐𝛑 = 𝐧𝛌 = 𝐯𝐩 = Phase velocity.
𝐤
𝛌

On the other hand if a large no of wave (theoretically infinite number of wave) having
continuously varying frequency and wavelength superimpose with each other then the
amplitude of resultant wave (also called envelope of resultant wave) developed will
propagate in wave manner.

s.
The velocity of propagation of that amplitude wave is called group velocity of the wave
𝐝𝛚

ic
propagation. Mathematically it can be shown that this group velocity is given by 𝐯𝐠 = .
𝐝𝐤

pt
𝛚
Now since 𝐯𝐩 = then we can write
𝐤

,O
𝐝𝐯𝐩 𝟏 𝐝𝛚 𝛚 𝐝𝐯𝐩 𝐝𝛚 𝛚 𝐝𝐯𝐩
= − 𝐤𝟐 ⟹ 𝐤 = − 𝐤 = 𝐯𝐠 − 𝐯𝐩 i.e. 𝐯𝐠 = 𝐯𝐩 + 𝐤 .
𝐝𝐤 𝐤 𝐝𝐤 𝐝𝐤 𝐝𝐤 es 𝐝𝐤

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
Again 𝐤 = ⟹ 𝐝𝐤 = − 𝐝𝛌
𝛌 𝛌𝟐
av

𝟐𝛑 𝐝𝐯𝐩 𝐝𝐯𝐩
We finally have 𝐯𝐠 = 𝐯𝐩 + 𝟐𝛑 ⟹ 𝐯𝐠 = 𝐯𝐩 − 𝛌 . This is the relation
𝛌 − 𝐝𝛌 𝐝𝛌
𝛌𝟐
W

between phase velocity and group velocity of the wave motion.

n,

The actual fact that when at least

two or more than two waves of
tio

slightly different frequency and

wavelength superimposes with
illa

each other then the amplitude of

the resultant wave obtained will
sc

propagate in wave manner. The

phase velocity of that amplitude
.O

wave is called group velocity in wave motion. Let us now consider the superposition of
two waves having respective frequency 𝛚𝟏 and 𝛚𝟐 and propagation constant 𝐤 𝟏 and 𝐤 𝟐
Thus by the principle of superposition the resultant wave will be

𝐲 = 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟏 𝐭 − 𝐤 𝟏 𝐱 + 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟐 𝐭 − 𝐤 𝟐 𝐱

𝛚𝟏 + 𝛚𝟐 𝐤𝟏 + 𝐤𝟐 𝛚𝟏 − 𝛚𝟐 𝐤𝟏 − 𝐤𝟐
= 𝟐𝐀 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐭− 𝐱 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐭− 𝐱
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝛚𝟏 + 𝛚𝟐 𝐤𝟏 + 𝐤𝟐
= 𝐀 𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐭− 𝐱
𝟐 𝟐

⟹ 𝐲 = 𝐀 𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛚𝟏 ≈ 𝛚𝟐 ≈ 𝛚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐤 𝟏 ≈ 𝐤 𝟐 ≈ 𝐤

34 / 89
Here the amplitude wave of resultant motion will be

𝛚𝟏 − 𝛚𝟐 𝐤𝟏 − 𝐤𝟐 ∆𝛚 ∆𝐤
𝐀 𝐨 = 𝟐𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐭− 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐀 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝐭− 𝐱
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
∆𝛚
𝟐 ∆𝛚 𝐝𝛚
And the phase velocity of this amplitude wave will be 𝐯𝐠 = ∆𝐤 = = .
∆𝐤 𝐝𝐤
𝟐

This is the group velocity of wave motion. The velocity of that so called wave packet is
equal to this group velocity as predicted in wave particle duality.

s.
ic
pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

35 / 89
 .O
sc
illa
tio
n,
W

36 / 89
av
es
,O
pt
ic
s.
 .O
sc
illa
tio
n,
W

37 / 89
av
es
,O
pt
ic
s.
 .O
sc
illa
tio
n,
W

38 / 89
av
es
,O
pt
ic
s.
 4. Theory of Plucked String:

Suppose that a string of length 𝒍 stretched

between two fixed supports at the ends be
pulled at a point distant 𝐚 from the end
𝐱 = 𝟎 through a small transverse distance 𝐛

s.
and then released. The string is said to be
plucked at 𝐱 = 𝐚 the resulting vibration being

ic
that due to plucking. The distance 𝐛 is so

pt
small that the tension can assumed to be
constant. The initial configuration of the string

,O
is given by

𝐛 𝐛
𝐲 = 𝐚 𝐱 𝟎 ≤ 𝐱 ≤ 𝐚 , 𝐲 = 𝒍 −𝐚 𝒍 − 𝐱 𝐚≤𝐱≤𝒍
es
𝛛𝐲
av
The initial velocity of the string is zero everywhere i.e. 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = ] = 𝟎 for all 𝐱
𝛛𝐭 𝐭=𝟎
W

We have the general expression for the displacement 𝐲(𝐱, 𝐭) of the string at the point 𝐱 at
time 𝐭 is given by
n,

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭

𝐲= 𝐧=𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐚𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒍 𝒍
tio

And thus the velocity at the same point 𝐱 at time 𝐭 is

illa

∞
𝛛𝐲 𝛑𝐯 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭
𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = = 𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐧 −𝐚𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 + 𝐛𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝛛𝐭 𝒍 𝒍 𝒍 𝒍
sc

𝐧=𝟏

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱
Putting 𝐭 = 𝟎 we have 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐚𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 ……. (1)
.O

𝛑𝐯 ∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝐀𝐧𝐝 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝟎 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 ……. (2)
𝒍

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱
And we then get 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 = 𝟎. This equation will be true if 𝐛𝐧 = 𝟎 for all n.
∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭
Hence we thus get the wave disturbance 𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐚𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍 .

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱
Here the expression 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐚𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 shows that 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 is simply a sine series of
Fourier expansion.

39 / 89
 𝐦𝛑𝐱
Multiplying the two sides of equation (1) by 𝐬𝐢𝐧 where 𝐦 is an integer, viz.
𝒍
𝐦 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …, and integrating from 𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐭𝐨 𝐱 = 𝒍 we obtain

𝒍 𝒍 ∞
𝐦𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐦𝛑𝐱
𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 = 𝐚𝐧 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱.
𝟎 𝒍 𝟎 𝐧=𝟏 𝒍 𝒍

The integrals on the right-hand side are zero when 𝐧 ≠ 𝐦.

When 𝐧 = 𝐦 we get

s.
𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐚𝐧 𝒍 𝟐 𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐱
𝟎
𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 = 𝐚𝐧 𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = And 𝐚𝐧 = 𝒍 𝟎
𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 .
𝒍 𝒍 𝟐 𝒍

ic
Nothing that 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 is given by the above boundary conditions for plucked string

pt
𝟐 𝐚𝐛 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝒍 𝐛 𝐧𝛑𝐱
vibration and then we get 𝐚𝐧 = 𝒍 𝟎 𝐚
𝐱. 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐝𝐱 + 𝐚 𝒍 −𝐚
𝒍 − 𝐱 . 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 .
𝒍

,O
Both the integrals appearing in right hand side of this equation can be evaluated upon
𝐧𝛑
integration by parts. Putting 𝐤 = for first integral we have
𝒍
es
𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐱 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐱 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐚 𝒍𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐚𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐚
]𝐚𝟎 +
av
𝟎
𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐱 𝐝𝐱 = [𝐱 − 𝐤 𝟎 𝐤
𝐝𝐱 =− 𝐤
+ 𝐤𝟐
= 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
− 𝐧𝛑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍
.

The second integral is

W

𝒍 𝒍
− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐱 𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐱
(𝒍 − 𝐱) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐱 𝐝𝐱 = [ 𝒍 − 𝐱 ]𝐚 − 𝐝𝐱
n,

𝐚 𝐤 𝐚 𝐤
tio

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐤𝐚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐚 𝒍 −𝐚 𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝒍𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐚

= 𝒍−𝐚 + = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 .
𝐤 𝐤𝟐 𝐧𝛑 𝒍 𝒍
illa

Substituting the values of these integrals, we get

sc

𝟐 𝐛𝒍 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐛𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐛𝒍 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐛𝒍 𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝟐𝐛𝒍𝟐 𝐧𝛑𝐚

𝐚𝐧 = 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 − 𝐧𝛑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐧𝛑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝐚 𝒍 −𝐚 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 .
𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐 𝒍 𝒍 𝒍 𝒍 −𝐚 𝐧𝟐 𝛑𝟐 𝒍 𝒍
.O

𝟐𝐛𝒍 𝟐 ∞ 𝟏 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭

Hence finally we get 𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐚 𝒍 −𝐚 𝛑𝟐 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍

𝟐
𝟐𝐛𝒍 𝛑𝐚 𝛑𝐱 𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟏 𝟐𝛑𝐚 𝟐𝛑𝐱 𝟐𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟏 𝟑𝛑𝐚 𝟑𝛑𝐱 𝟑𝛑𝐯𝐭
= 𝐚 𝒍 −𝐚 𝛑𝟐 [𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍
+ 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍
+ 𝟗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍
+ ⋯]

The successive terms on the right-hand side of the above equation gives respectively the
displacements for the fundamental, second harmonic, third harmonic, etc.

𝟐𝐛𝐥𝟐 𝟏 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭

For the 𝐧′th mode, the displacement is 𝐲𝐧 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐚 𝐥−𝐚 𝛑𝟐 𝐧𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 .
𝐥 𝐥 𝐥

40 / 89
Note that the coefficients 𝐚𝐧 vary inversely as 𝐧𝟐 . Therefore, the amplitudes of the higher
harmonics fall off rapidly.

5. Theory of Struck String:

If a string stretched between two fixed supports at its ends is struck at a point by a
hammer, a sudden impulse or velocity is imparted to the
point of striking but the velocity of all other points on the
string remains initially zero. Thus the initial conditions of a
struck string differ from those of a plucked string. A

s.
plucked string has an initial displacement and no initial
velocity whereas a struck string has no initial displacement

ic
but an initial velocity at the region of striking. The initial

pt
conditions of a plucked string are thus static, while those

,O
of a struck string are dynamic.

In the analysis of a struck string, the duration of contact

es
between the striking hammer and the string is assumed to
be so small that the impact can be considered to have ceased before the disturbance finds
av
time to move over to other regions of the length. The initial velocity is thus confined to a
very short length, but otherwise the motion is free. Waves move in opposite directions
W

from the point of excitation and are reflected at the fixed ends. Thus standing waves are
produced.
n,

Let 𝒍 be the length of the stretched string supported at 𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 = 𝒍. It is struck at an

tio

infinitesimally small region from 𝐱 = 𝐚 𝐭𝐨 𝐱 = 𝐚 + 𝐝𝐱. Thus; this region attains the
velocity 𝐮 at time 𝐭 = 𝟎.
illa

The displacement of the string at the point 𝐱 at the time 𝐭 is given, in general, by equation
sc

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭

𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐚𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ………………….. (1)
𝒍 𝒍
.O

Here for this struck string we have the conditions

𝛛𝐲
𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝟎 and 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝐲𝟎 = ] = 𝐮 for 𝐚 ≤ 𝐱 ≤ 𝐚 + 𝐝𝐱
𝛛𝐭 𝐭=𝟎

Putting the initial conditions that 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝟎 everywhere at 𝐭 = 𝟎 we obtain 𝐚𝐧 = 𝟎 as

before.

∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭
Hence 𝐲(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 ………………………………… (2)

𝛛𝐲 𝛑𝐯 ∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭
The velocity at any point is 𝐲 = = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒍 …………………….. (3)
𝛛𝐭 𝒍

41 / 89
 𝛑𝐯 ∞ 𝐧𝛑𝐱
The initial velocity at any point 𝐱 is 𝐲𝟎 = 𝐲 𝐱, 𝟎 = 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 . ……………… (4)
𝒍

𝐦𝛑𝐱
The coefficient 𝐛𝐧 is found by multiplying equation (4) by 𝐬𝐢𝐧 where 𝐦 is an integer,
𝒍
and integrating from 𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐭𝐨 𝐱 = 𝒍.

All the integrals on the right-hand side disappear when 𝐦 ≠ 𝐧. When 𝐦 = 𝐧, we have

𝒍 𝒍
𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝛑𝐯 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝛑𝐜𝐧𝐛𝐧
𝐲𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 = 𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝐝𝐱 = .
𝟎 𝒍 𝒍 𝟎 𝒍 𝟐

s.
Note that 𝐲𝟎 = 𝟎 for all values of 𝐱 except for the region from 𝐱 = 𝐚 𝐭𝐨 𝐱 = 𝐚 + 𝐝𝐱,
where 𝐲𝟎 = 𝐮.

ic
pt
𝛑𝐯𝐧𝐛𝐧 𝐚+𝐝𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐚
= 𝐚
𝐮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐱 = 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝒍 𝒍

,O
𝐚+𝐝𝐱
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐀= 𝐚
𝐮 𝐝𝐱 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐱 → 𝐚 and 𝐝𝐱 → 𝟎

Therefore
𝟐𝐀
𝐛𝐧 = 𝐧𝛑𝐯 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝐧𝛑𝐚
es
. Substituting this value of 𝐛𝐧 in equation (2) we get
𝒍
av
𝟐𝐀 ∞ 𝟏 𝐧𝛑𝐚 𝐧𝛑𝐱 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟐𝐀 𝛑𝐚 𝛑𝐱 𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟏 𝟐𝛑𝐚 𝟐𝛑𝐱 𝟐𝛑𝐯𝐭
𝐲 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝛑𝐜 𝐧=𝟏 𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 = 𝛑𝐜
[𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒍
W

𝟏 𝟑𝛑𝐚 𝟑𝛑𝐱 𝟑𝛑𝐯𝐭

+ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 + ⋯ ].
𝟑 𝒍 𝒍 𝒍
n,

Note that the coefficients 𝐛𝐧 are inversely proportional to𝐧 Hence the amplitudes of the
higher harmonics fall off with increasing 𝐧, but not as rapidly as for a plucked string
tio

𝟏
(where the coefficients decrease as 𝐧𝟐 )
illa
sc
.O

42 / 89
6. Longitudinal Standing Waves and Normal Modes: Open and Closed Pipes:
Vibration of Air Columns:
Uptill now we have discussed about the standing wave formation in transverse string
vibration. It is also true that the standing wave can also be formed in several mode of
vibration also due to the superposition of longitude waves. And that can be done in air

s.
column vibration in open or close tube or pipes.
We shall now discuss here the vibration of air columns in hollow cylinders of uniform

ic
cross section. If the cylindrical tube is closed at one end and open at the other, it is called

pt
a closed pipe. If the tube is open at both ends, it is known as an open pipe. Within the

,O
pipe there are plane waves and at the open ends the waves move out spherically into the
surrounding air. The reflections at the ends produce oppositely moving waves which
superimpose on the incident wave to form stationary waves in the pipe. Instruments like
es
organ pipes, woodwind and horn-loudspeakers etc….. Works on the basis of such air
column vibration
av

To study such construction of longitudinal standing wave through air column vibration a
W

few assumptions are made which are

(i) Plane waves are produced so that the motion is uniform over a cross section.
n,

(ii) The velocity and the pressure changes in the waves are so small that their squares can
tio

be neglected.
illa

(iii) The vibrations are very rapid. Hence the process is adiabatic; enough time is not
allowed for the exchange of heat between the adjacent layers to equalize the
temperature.
sc

(iv) Viscosity effects are negligible, since the diameter of the pipe is assumed to be much
.O

smaller than the wave length and the length of the tube.

(v) Rotatory motions and vortices are not set up in the pipe.

(vi) The walls of the pipe are perfectly rigid.

Now for longitudinal wave propagation through the elastic medium, say air, we have the
𝛛𝟐 𝛏 𝛛𝟐 𝛏 𝐊
wave equation for one dimensional wave propagation as = 𝐯 𝟐 𝛛𝐱𝟐 where 𝐯 = is
𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝛒

the wave velocity, 𝐊 is the bulk modulus, and 𝛒 is the density of the air, 𝛏 is the
displacement of a particle or wave disturbance in air column at the position 𝐱 at time 𝐭.

43 / 89
By the method of separation of variables, if we solve this above wave equation we get
𝛚𝐱 𝛚𝐱
𝛏 = 𝐂𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐃𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐃𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝐯 𝐯
where the constants 𝐂𝟏 , 𝐂𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐃𝟏 , 𝐃𝟐 are determined by the boundary and the initial
conditions. Let us now take the following cases of air column vibration in open and close
pipes.

Case 1: Longitudinal Standing Wave formation in Pipe Opens at both ends:

s.
Here we consider air column vibration in an open tube or pipe having both ends open.
Thus both the ends of the pipe 𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐱 = 𝒍 are displacement antinodes here. Thus at

ic
𝛛𝛏
𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐨𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝒍, 𝛏 is a maximum, i.e. = 𝟎.
𝛛𝐱

pt
𝛛𝛏
Hence the condition 𝛛𝐱 = 𝟎 at 𝐱 = 𝟎 for all values of𝐭, used in above wave disturbance

,O
equation gives 𝐃𝟐 = 𝟎.
𝛚𝐱
And then we get 𝛏 = 𝛏 𝐱, 𝐭 = 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬
es 𝐯
where 𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛 are usually
new constants
av

𝛛𝛏
On the other hand the condition 𝛛𝐱 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐭 𝐱 = 𝒍 used in above equation for 𝛏 𝐱, 𝐭 gives
W

𝛚𝒍 𝛚𝒍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 = 𝟎 𝐎𝐫, = 𝐧𝛑 𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝐞𝐭𝐜. and then the general solution for 𝛏 𝐱, 𝐭 is
𝐯 𝐯

∞
n,

𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝐧𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝐧𝛑𝐱

𝛏 𝐱, 𝐭 = (𝐚𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 )𝐜𝐨𝐬 .
𝒍 𝒍 𝒍
tio

𝐧=𝟏

And obviously the 𝐧′th harmonic frequency in n’th mode of vibration is

illa

𝛚𝐧 𝐧𝐯 𝐧 𝐊
𝐟𝐧 = = = .
sc

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝛒
.O

In this case, the frequency of the fundamental tone is

𝟏 𝐊 𝐯 𝐯
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟐𝒍 = 𝟐𝒍 and the fundamental wave length is 𝛌 = 𝐟 = 𝟐𝒍
𝛒 𝟏

A pulse of compression travelling from the mouth inside the

tube is reflected from the other open end of pressure node
position with a reversal of phase, i.e. as a wave of rarefaction.

The reflected wave travels back in the tube and is again

reflected from the mouth with a phase reversal, i.e. as a pulse
of compression. This explains that the wavelength for the
fundamental is twice the length of the tube. The superposition

44 / 89
of the incident and the reflected waves in the tube form stationary waves.

Case 2: Longitudinal Standing Wave formation in Pipe Closed at one end and
Open at other end:
Here the relevant boundary conditions are: (i) at the closed end (𝐱 = 𝟎) the displacement
𝛛𝛏
𝛏 = 𝟎 (ii) at the open end (𝐱 = 𝒍) the displacement 𝛏 is a maximum, i.e. 𝛛𝐱 = 𝟎.

The first condition used in above original equation for wave disturbance gives 𝐃𝟏 = 𝟎. So
𝛚𝐱
we get 𝛏(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝐚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝐭 + 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 .

s.
𝐯

ic
𝛚𝒍
Using the second condition in this above equation we have 𝐜𝐨𝐬 = 𝟎.
𝐯

pt
𝛚𝒍 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝛑
That is = 𝐧 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝐞𝐭𝐜.

,O
𝐯 𝟐

∞ 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝛑𝐯𝐭 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝛑𝐱

Therefore finally 𝛏(𝐱, 𝐭) = 𝐧=𝟏(𝐚𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 + 𝐛𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐𝒍 es 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍

𝛚𝐧 (𝟐𝐧+𝟏)𝐯 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝐊
The frequency of the 𝐧’th harmonic is 𝐟𝐧 = = = .
𝟐𝛑 𝟒𝐥 𝟒𝒍 𝛒
av

Note that only odd harmonics are present here in contrast with the pipe open at both
W

ends where all the harmonics are present. Hence the fundamental frequency is
𝟏 𝐊 𝐯 𝐯
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟒𝒍 = 𝟒𝒍 and the corresponding wave length is 𝛌𝟏 = 𝐟 = 𝟒𝒍.
n,

𝛒 𝟏
tio

This shows that the initial pulse at the open end must travel the length of the pipe four
times before attaining the same phase. A pulse of compression starting from the open end
illa

travels in the tube and is reflected at the closed end

without suffering a phase change. So the reflected wave is
also a pulse of compression.
sc

It travels back and is reflected at the open end with a

.O

phase reversal. Thus, the reflected pulse is now one of

rarefaction. This pulse again traverses the tube and is
reflected at the closed end as a pulse of rarefaction which
in turn is reflected from the open end with a phase reversal to restore the initial pulse of
compression. Thus the wave travels the length of the tube four times to repeat the cycle.

For this air column vibration in open or close pipes, we should now mention the end
correction.

Antinodes have been assumed to occur at the open ends of the pipe. This assumption is
not correct. Beyond the open end the plane waves inside the tube produce spherical

45 / 89
waves. As a result at the open end, there is some excess pressure which falls to zero at a
point outside. This distance called the end correction, is estimated to be 𝟎. 𝟔𝐫 where 𝐫 is
the radius of the pipe.

The end correction needs to be added to the length of the tube at each open end. Hence
the effective wave length of the fundamental from a pipe open at both ends is

𝛌𝟏 = 𝟐 𝐥 + 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝐫 = 𝟐 𝐥 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝐫 .

The same for a pipe open at one end and closed at the other is 𝛌𝟏 = 𝟒(𝐥 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝐫). So the

s.
fundamental frequency of the former is a little less than twice that of the latter. We
should also note that humidity, temperature, nature of the gas etc…. affect the speed of

ic
sound in the pipe and hence the frequency of the emitted note.

pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

46 / 89
7. Melde’s Experiment:
By this experiment, resonant vibration of a stretched string is made demonstrated and
here the string is so attached that one end of it is connected to the extremity of one prong
of an electrically maintained large
tuning fork 𝐅. The string passes over a

s.
smooth pulley 𝐏 and carries a light
scale pan 𝐒 at the other end. Suitable

ic
weights are placed on the scale pan to

pt
stretch the string. In the arrangement
as shown in figure, the fork vibrates

,O
perpendicular to the length of the
es string. This arrangement is therefore
called the transverse arrangement. In another figure as shown, the fork vibrates parallel
to the length of the string: this arrangement is the longitudinal arrangement.
av

(a) Transverse Arrangement:

W

Suppose that the load stretching the string produces a tension 𝐓 in it. When the fork is
excited, let the string be set into resonant stationary vibrations, the number of loops in
n,

which the string vibrates

being 𝐧. If 𝐟 is the frequency
tio

of the fork, for resonance with

𝐧′th harmonic mode of the
illa

string vibration we have

𝐧 𝐓
sc

𝐟 = 𝟐𝐥 .
𝐦
.O

Here 𝐥 is the length of the

string between the fork and
the pulley. The quantities
𝐟, 𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦 being constants,
we have 𝐧 𝐓 = constant or
𝐧𝟐 𝐓 = constant. Thus the
load stretching the string is
inversely proportional to the square of the number of loops in which the string vibrates.

For example if the string vibrates in one segment with a load of 1kg, it vibrates in two
segments with a load of 0.25 kg, and in three segments with a load of (1/9) kg and so on.

47 / 89
(b) Longitudinal Arrangement:

In this configuration the string is the tightest when the vibrating prong is farthest from the
pulley. When the prong is nearest to the pulley, the string sags most. As the prong swings
away from this position to the other end the string is
stretched most. When the prong moves towards its
position nearest to the pulley, the string does not sag;
rather it moves upwards due to inertia. When the prong
is nearest to the pulley again, the string attains its
maximum displacement above the horizontal. Thus in

s.
one full oscillation of the fork, the string performs a half

ic
oscillation. Hence, the frequency of the string is half that
of the fork.

pt
,O
If the string vibrates in 𝐧 loops and 𝐟 is the frequency of
𝐟 𝐧 𝐓
the fork, we have = 𝟐𝐥 .
es 𝟐 𝐦

Obviously, as in the case of the transverse arrangement, we obtain 𝐧𝟐 𝐓 = constant. But

av
the tension now required for a particular number of loops is one-fourth that needed in the
transverse arrangement.
W

A tuning fork of known frequency 𝐟 is brought into resonance with the string by varying
the load on the scale pan. The resonance is recognized by the maximum amplitude of
n,

vibration of the string. If the string vibrates in 𝐧 loops at resonance, the frequency of
tio

𝐧 𝐓
vibration of the string is 𝐟𝐬 = 𝟐𝐥 .
𝐦
illa

The tension 𝐓 is given by 𝐓 = 𝐌𝐠 where 𝐌 is the weight placed on the scale pan and 𝐠 is
the local acceleration due to gravity. Knowing 𝐥, 𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐓 and counting 𝐧, 𝐟𝐬 can be
sc

calculated. In the transverse arrangement 𝐟𝐬 is found to be equal to 𝐟 whereas in the

𝐟
longitudinal arrangement. 𝐟𝐬 is found to be 𝟐.
.O

8. Superposition of N Harmonic Waves:

By this principle if a no of waves of same frequencies be superimposed at a point then the
disturbance occurred for resultant will be the algebraic sum of the all individual
disturbances of the waves before superposition.

Let us now consider the superposition or two waves. If 𝐲𝟏 and 𝐲𝟐 represents the
respective disturbances of two waves before superposition then by this principle the
disturbance of the resultant wave will be 𝐲 = 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 .

48 / 89
Now if before superposition these individual wave be represented as 𝐲𝟏 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭)
and 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗) then for their respective amplitudes 𝐚𝟏 and 𝐚𝟐 and phase
difference 𝛗 with their same frequency 𝛚 we can write down

𝐲 = 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗

⟹ 𝐲 = 𝐚𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭. 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 + 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭. 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗 = 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭

Now if we consider that 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 = 𝐚𝐨 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗𝐨 and 𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗 = 𝐚𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗𝐨 then we get
𝐲 = 𝐚𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗𝐨 ) This is the disturbance formalism for the resultant wave on
superposition of two waves. Here the amplitude of that resultant wave will be

s.
ic
𝐚𝟐𝐨 = (𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗)𝟐 + (𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛗)𝟐 = 𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗

pt
⟹ 𝐚𝐨 = 𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗

,O
Here we also see that this resultant amplitude of the resultant wave will depend not only
es
on the individual amplitudes but also on the phase difference of those two waves before
superposition.
av

We know that energy transmission will take place through the medium by wave motion.
In that case the amount of energy transmitted through unit cross section in unit time is
W

the estimation of intensity of the wave.

n,

Mathematically we can show that this intensity of the wave motion is proportional to the
square of amplitude of that wave motion and then mathematically we have 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝐨
tio

where for the individual waves before superposition these intensities should be
respectively 𝐈𝟏 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟏 and 𝐈𝟐 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟐 . Thus we get finally
illa

𝐤𝐚𝟐𝐨 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟏 + 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟏 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 ⟹ 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗

sc

From this expression of intensity we have for intensity

.O

𝐈𝐨 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱, 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 = 𝟏 ⟹ 𝛗 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 .

Thus for superposition of two waves in same phase the resultant intensity will be
maximum and this maximum intensity will be 𝐈𝐨 ]𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ( 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 )𝟐 .

On the other hand for 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧 we have 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝛗 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)𝛑 and in that case
the resultant intensity will be minimum for the superposition of two waves in opposite
phase and minimum intensity will be 𝐈𝐨 ]𝐦𝐢𝐧 = ( 𝐈𝟏 − 𝐈𝟐 )𝟐 .

49 / 89
Now if we take such superposition of two waves having same frequency and amplitudes
𝛗
then we have the resultant amplitude 𝐚𝐨 = 𝐚𝟐 + 𝐚𝟐 + 𝟐𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛗 = 𝟐𝐚𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 . And the
𝛗
intensity of this resultant wave will be 𝐈𝐨 = 𝟒𝐈𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝟐 for each individual intensity
𝟐
𝐈 = 𝐤𝐚 and also 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝐨 and for this two wave superposition with same phase 𝛗 = 𝟎,
𝐈𝐨 = 𝟒𝐈 = 𝟐𝟐 𝐈

Similarly if we consider the superposition of N harmonic waves each having same

frequency and amplitude then for wave disturbance of ith wave 𝐲𝐢 = 𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱
when 𝐢 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … . 𝐍 and then on superposition the resultant disturbance will be

s.
𝐍

ic
𝐲= 𝐲𝐢 = 𝐍𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱 = 𝐚𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤𝐱
𝐢=𝟏

pt
And the resultant intensity 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝐨 = 𝐍𝟐 𝐤𝐚𝟐 So finally 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐍𝟐 𝐈 .

,O
But if we consider such superposition of N waves with same amplitude and frequency but
es
different phase factors then each harmonic wave is required to present by plane wave
disturbance in complex form. Then we have the wave disturbance for i‘th wave is
𝐲𝐢 = 𝐚𝐞𝐣 𝛚𝐭+𝛗𝐢 when 𝐣 = −𝟏.
av

Thus on superposition we get the resultant disturbance

W

𝐍 𝐍
𝐍
𝐲= 𝐲𝐢 = 𝐚𝐞𝐣 𝛚𝐭+𝛗𝐢
= 𝐚𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝐢 = 𝐚𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 ( 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝟏 + 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝟐 + 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝟑 + ⋯ … + 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝐍 )
n,

𝐢=𝟏
𝐢=𝟏 𝐢=𝟏
tio

In case if we take 𝛗𝟏 = 𝟎 , 𝛗𝟐 = 𝛗𝟎 , 𝛗𝟑 = 𝟐𝛗𝟎 , 𝛗𝟒 = 𝟑𝛗𝟎 , ……… , 𝛗𝐍 = (𝐍 − 𝟏)𝛗𝟎

then we get the resultant disturbance
illa

𝐣𝛚𝐭 𝐣𝛗𝟎 𝐣𝟐𝛗𝟎 𝐣 𝐍−𝟏 𝛗𝟎 𝐣𝛚𝐭

𝟏 − 𝐞𝐣 𝐍 𝛗𝟎
𝐲 = 𝐚𝐞 𝟏+𝐞 +𝐞 + ⋯…+ 𝐞 = 𝐚𝐞
sc

𝟏 − 𝐞𝐣𝛗𝟎
𝐍𝛗𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐
.O

𝐣𝛚𝐭 𝐣 𝐍−𝟏 𝛗𝟎/𝟐

= 𝐚𝐞 𝐞 𝛗𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐

𝐍𝛗𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐧
And this can be written as 𝐲 = 𝐚 𝛗
𝟐
𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 𝐞𝐣 𝐍−𝟏 𝛗𝟎/𝟐 = 𝐚𝐨 𝐞𝐣 𝐍−𝟏 𝛗𝟎/𝟐 𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 where the
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟎
𝟐
𝐍𝛗𝟎 𝐍𝛗𝟎
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐
resultant amplitude is 𝐚𝐨 = 𝐚 𝟐
𝛗 and the resultant intensity 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐚𝟐𝐨 =𝐈 𝟐
𝛗 .
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟎 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

50 / 89
 Wave Optics

1. Electromagnetic Nature of Light:

Electromagnetic wave is actually a transverse progressive wave which travels with highest

s.
phase velocity (𝐯 = 𝐜 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬𝐞𝐜 ) through free space. As per theoretical prediction

ic
given by James Clark Maxwell (1862) for this electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic

pt
field vectors will oscillate harmonically in mutually perpendicular sense and the wave will

,O
produce for such oscillation which will propagate in a direction perpendicular to the plane of
that two field vector by obeying

es theoretically the right handed screw

rule. After 18 years from the
av
publication of Maxwell’s paper, the
W

structure of electromagnetic wave is

experimentally verified by the
n,

scientist Hertz.
tio

Maxwell at first has constructed four basic equations of electromagnetic theory by using
illa

previously published some fundamental principle of physics. Then he constructed the basic
structure of electromagnetic wave and after that explained all properties of this wave by his
sc

basic equations of electromagnetic theory. Electromagnetic wave may have several

frequencies and according to several range of frequency it is named by several titles which
.O

can clearly be specified by electromagnetic spectrum. As for example in visible range of this
electromagnetic spectrum this electromagnetic wave is called light wave.

We all know that in electromagnetic theory Maxwell’s equations are derived equations. They
are no longer fundamental principles but are possible to derive from a few basic or
fundamental principles of Physics.

51 / 89
These equations are

I) 𝛁. 𝐃 = 𝛒 → Maxwell’s 1st equation which can be obtained from Gauss’ law of Polarized
Dielectric
ii) 𝛁. 𝐁 = 𝟎 → Maxwell’s 2nd equation which can be obtained from Gauss’ law of
Magnetostatics
𝛛𝐁
iii) 𝛁 × 𝐄 = − 𝛛𝐭 → Maxwell’s 3rd equation which can be obtained from laws of

s.
electromagnetic Induction
𝛛𝐃
→ Maxwell’s 4th equation which can be obtained from Ampere’s Circuital

ic
iv) 𝛁 × 𝐇 = 𝐉 + 𝛛𝐭
Law

pt
,O
Thus for these equations as derived by Maxwell from several fundamental laws, the integral
form of these laws are respectively

i) 𝐒
𝐃. 𝐧𝐝𝐒 = 𝐐 ii) 𝐒
𝐁. 𝐧𝐝𝐒 = 𝟎 iii) 𝐞 = es
𝐂
𝐄. 𝐝𝐫 = −
𝛛𝛗𝐦
𝛛𝐭
iv) 𝐂
𝐁. 𝐝𝐫 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐈 + 𝐈𝐝
av
where 𝐃 = Electric displacement vector, 𝛒 = free charge density, 𝐁 = Magnetic induction,
W

𝐄 = Electric field intensity, 𝐉 = Conduction current density, 𝐇 = Magnetic field intensity

with 𝛁 = Vector gradient operator, 𝛁 • = Vector divergence operator, 𝛁 × = Vector curl
n,

operator. By detail mathematical manipulation with proper use of Maxwell’s equations, we

can obtain the following basic characteristics of Electromagnetic wave
tio

a) The equation of electromagnetic wave propagation in vacuum or free space is given by

illa

𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐄 𝟏 𝛛𝟐 𝐇
𝛁𝟐𝐄 = and 𝛁𝟐𝐇 = where 𝐜 = Phase velocity of electromagnetic wave in
𝐜𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 𝐜 𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐
free space
sc

b) The electric and magnetic field intensities for electromagnetic wave are instantaneously
given by 𝐄 = 𝐄𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫 and 𝐇 = 𝐇𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫 where 𝐤 is called wave
.O

vector and 𝐤 = 𝐤𝐧 for 𝐧 is the unit vector along the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave.

c) From the previous representation of electric and magnetic field vectors we see that both
𝛚
the field vectors oscillates harmonically with frequency 𝛎 = 𝟐𝛑

d) From Maxwell’s 1st equation in free space we get

𝛁. 𝐃 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛜𝐨 𝛁. 𝐄 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛁. 𝐄 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛁. 𝐄𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝐄. 𝐤 = 𝟎

52 / 89
 𝐓𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐄 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐤

e) Similarly from Maxwell’s 2nd equation in free space we get

𝛁. 𝐁 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛍𝐨 𝛁. 𝐇 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛁. 𝐇 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛁. 𝐇𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝐇. 𝐤 = 𝟎
𝐓𝐡𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐇 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐤

f) From Maxwell’s 3rd equation in free space we get

𝛛𝐁 𝛛𝐇 𝛛

s.
𝛁×𝐄 = − = −𝛍𝐨 ⇒ 𝛁 × 𝐄𝐨 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫 = −𝛍𝐨 𝐇 𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝐣 𝛚𝐭 − 𝐤. 𝐫
𝛛𝐭 𝛛𝐭 𝛛𝐭 𝐨

ic
⇒ 𝐤 × 𝐄 = 𝛍𝐨 𝛚𝐇

pt
𝐤×𝐄
This gives the relation between two field vectors as 𝐇= .
𝛍𝐨 𝛚

,O
g) Since in free space we have phase velocity of the electromagnetic wave as
𝐤×𝐄 𝐧×𝐄
𝐜 = 𝛚 𝐤 ⇒ 𝛚 = 𝐜𝐤 , we get 𝐇= ⇒𝐇= ⇒𝐜𝐁 =𝐧×𝐄
𝛍𝐨 𝛚
es 𝛍𝐨 𝐜
av
h) Again since 𝐜 𝐁 = 𝐧 × 𝐄 and 𝐄 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐤 Or 𝐧 ,
𝛑
We get 𝐧 × 𝐄 = 𝐄 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐 = 𝐄 and in that case 𝐄 = 𝐁𝐜
W

i) The phase velocity of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is

n,

𝟏 𝟏
𝐜= = = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦/𝐬𝐞𝐜
𝛍𝐨 𝛜𝐨 𝟏
tio

𝟒𝛑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 ×
𝟒𝛑 × 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗
illa

j) The phase velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium other than free space is given
𝟏
by 𝐯 = and thus the absolute refractive index of that medium in electromagnetic theory
𝛍𝛜
sc

𝐜 𝛍𝛜
can be written as 𝐧 = = = 𝛍𝐫 𝛜𝐫 where symbols have their usual meanings.
𝐯 𝛍𝐨 𝛜𝐨
.O

2. Definition and Properties of Wave Front:

For a number of waves, the imaginary surface taken through the same phase point of the
waves is called wave front. It has three types which are plane wave front, spherical wave
front and cylindrical wave front. When the source is at infinite then for the incoming parallel
waves coming from that distant source, the wave front obtained is called plane wave front.

53 / 89
Again for point source of light, the wave front obtained is called spherical wave front. In
similar manner the wave front obtained for the extended linear source is called cylindrical
wave front. The basic characteristics of this wave front are that the wave motion can be
replaced by the motion of the wave front and the wave front will follow all the properties of
the wave front.

s.
ic
pt
,O
Basic properties of the wave front are

es
a) Each and every point on the wave front will have the same phase b) Wave front will
propagate with the same phase velocity of the wave c) The wave motion can be replaced by
av
the motion of wave front d) Wave front has every property as that of wave e) Wave front will
follow Huygens construction.
W

3. Huygens Principle:
n,

By this construction, each and every point of single wave or wave front will behave as the
source of secondary wavelets and these wavelets
tio

will propagate with same velocity and frequency.

In this case it can be shown that the tangential
illa

locus of the wave front of all such secondary

wavelets will present the position of the main or
sc

original wave front at another instant.

.O

By this manner the original wave front will

propagate with the wave propagation. This is a constructional principle and is popularly
known as Huygens’s construction and for such construction the light wave is taken as
longitudinal wave in Huygens’s principle. We should now note that by this principle as given
by Huygens, every properties of light or electromagnetic wave except polarization can be
explained.

4. Explanation of Laws of Reflection of Light by Huygens’s Construction:

54 / 89
 Let us now consider two parallel
waves as designated by wave-1 and
wave-2 incident on a plane mirror
or reflector after coming from the
distant source. Here for these two
waves the wave front will be plane
wave front which at any instant is
represented as 𝐎𝟏 𝐀 . For this

s.
incident plane wave front as shown
in figure, in that time interval in which the wave-2 will travel from the point 𝐀 to 𝐎𝟐 then

ic
in that same time interval the wqave-1 will travel from the point 𝐎𝟏 to the point 𝐁 after

pt
reflection from the reflector. Hence the wave front 𝐎𝟐 𝐁 can be considered as the reflecting
wave front as shown in figure. Thus finally we have from figure, 𝐀𝐎𝟐 = 𝐎𝟏 𝐁 = 𝐯𝐭 for the

,O
𝐀𝐎𝟐
time of journey t. Thus for the triangle 𝐎𝟏 𝐀𝐎𝟐 we get 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 = and also for the triangle
𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐
𝐎𝟏 𝐁 𝐀𝐎𝟐
𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐 𝐁 we get 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫 = 𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐
=𝐎
𝟏 𝐎𝟐
es
= 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 ⟹ 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫 ⟹ 𝐢 = 𝐫

This is law of reflection of light as explained from Huygens’s principle.

av
5. Explanation of Laws of Refraction of Light by Huygens’s Construction:
W

As we take earlier, we similarly now consider two parallel waves as designated by wave-1 and
wave-2 incident on a plane interface of two mediums (having respective refractive indices
n,

𝛍𝟏 and 𝛍𝟐 ) after coming from the distant source.

Here for these two waves the wave front will be
tio

plane wave front which at any instant is

represented as 𝐎𝟏 𝐀.
illa

For this incident plane wave front as shown in

figure, in that time interval in which the wave-2
sc

will travel in first medium with velocity 𝐯𝟏 from

the point 𝐀 to 𝐎𝟐 then in that same time
.O

interval the wave-1 will travel from the point 𝐎𝟏

to the point 𝐁 with velocity after refracting in the
second medium through the interface.
Hence the wave front can be considered as the refracting wave front as shown in figure. Thus
𝐀𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟏 𝐁
finally we have from figure, 𝐀𝐎𝟐 = 𝐯𝟏 𝐭 , 𝐎𝟏 𝐁 = 𝐯𝟐 𝐭 , 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 = , 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫 = for the time
𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 𝐀𝐎𝟐 𝐯𝟏 𝐜/𝐯𝟐 𝛍𝟐
of journey t. Hence finally we get 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫 = = = = ⟹ 𝛍𝟏 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢 = 𝛍𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫 . This
𝐎𝟏 𝐁 𝐯𝟐 𝐜/𝐯𝟏 𝛍𝟏
is Snell’s law or the law of refraction of light as explained from Huygens’s principle.

55 / 89
 Interference

1. Young’s double slit Experiment:

In the year 1801, the scientist Thomas Young at first observe the property of interference
of light. He used two narrow slits lying

s.
on the same vertical plane when
placed in front of a point source of

ic
light. In this arrangement, these two

pt
slits will behave like two virtual
sources with respect to a screen when

,O
placed on the other side of the slits.
es Here by this optical arrangement,
Young showed that alternate bright
and dark fringe or band appears on
av
the screen with central fringe in
general bright.
W

This is interference of light and the

fringes obtained are called interference fringes. For these interference fringes, Huygens
n,

observed that
tio

i) The width of every bright or dark fringe will be constant and independent of the
position of the fringe
illa

ii) The bright and dark fringes will appear in alternate manner over the screen and the
sc

central fringe on the screen will be in general bright

iii) For use of monochromatic light, the colour of the bright fringe will be identical to that
.O

of the colour of the source, but the dark fringes will be totally black

iv) If in any set up of interference the source of monochromatic light be replaced by the
source of white light then the central fringe on the screen will be white, the spectrum of
white light will appear in each bright fringe and the dark fringes will remain still black

v) If the separation of two sources as used in front of the screen be increased or decreased
then the width of the fringe will decrease or increase respectively. On the other hand if
the normal separation between the source and the screen be increased or decreased then
the fringe width will increase and decrease respectively. These are the general
characteristics of interfere fringes.

56 / 89
2. Conditions of Interference:

To get the stable interference of light, the basic conditions which are required to obeyed
are

i) The two sources required for interference fringes must be coherent. More clearly the
phase difference of two light waves emitted by those two coherent sources will be time
independent.

ii) The conditions of all types of coherence will be obeyed.

s.
iii) The amplitude and frequency of two waves coming from two coherent sources will be

ic
the same.

pt
iv) The two waves coming from two coherent

,O
sources will remain at the same state of
polarization at the time of superposition at
any screen point. If all these above conditions
es
be obeyed together then the stable
interference pattern will be obtained on the
av

screen.
W

Let us now consider that the amplitude and

frequency of each of two waves coming from
n,

the two coherent sources are 𝐀 and 𝛚

respectively. If 𝛗 be their time independent phase difference at the time of superposition
tio

at any screen point𝐏 then before superposition these two waves can be represented as
𝐲𝟏 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 and 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗 ) .
illa

Hence the resultant wave for the superposition of those two waves at any screen point
will be
sc

𝛗 𝛗 𝛗
𝐲 = 𝐲𝟏 + 𝐲𝟐 = 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 + 𝐀𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛗 = 𝟐𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝟐 = 𝐀 𝐨 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝟐
.O

.
𝛗
Here at that screen point 𝐏 the amplitude of the resultant wave will be 𝐀 𝐨 = 𝟐𝐀𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 .

Since the intensity of the wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of
that wave, here the resultant intensity of that screen point on superposition will be
𝛗
𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐀 𝐨 𝟐 = 𝟒𝐤𝐀𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝟐 .

Now if that screen point 𝐏 be bright such that the bright fringe or the constructive
interference appears at that screen point then 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝛗 𝛗 𝛗
And 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟏 ⟹ 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 = ±𝟏 ⟹ = 𝐧𝛑 ⟹ 𝛗 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 (𝐧 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … … )
𝟐

57 / 89
This is the condition of appearance of bright fringe or constructive interference. So in this
case the phase difference of two waves on superposition will be even integer multiple
of 𝛑 . On the other hand if the dark fringe appears at that point 𝐏 then we have
𝛗 𝛗
𝐈𝐨 = 𝟎 and in that case 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 = 𝟎

𝛗 𝛗 𝛑
𝐂𝐨𝐬 𝟐 = 𝟎 ⟹ = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 ⟹ 𝛗 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)𝛑 (𝐧 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … … ) .
𝟐 𝟐

This is the condition of appearance of dark

interference fringe or the destructive
interference.

s.
ic
So in this case the phase difference of two
waves on superposition will be odd integer

pt
multiple of 𝛑. But if the intensity of any point

,O
on the screen does not match with any of these
two conditions then the intensity of that point
will be intermediate, neither maximum nor
es
minimum. These are the mathematical conditions of appearance of interference of light.
av
3. Phase Change on Reflection: Stokes’ treatment:
W

By this principle if a monochromatic wave be reflected from a denser medium then it will
undergo through a phase change 𝛑 in compare to the incoming wave. To establish it let us
consider the incidence of an incoming wave of amplitude 𝐚 on the interface of rarer to
n,

denser medium.
tio

Here the medium -1 is rarer medium where the medium -2 is the denser medium. Hence if
illa

we consider that for the incidence of the wave from the medium -1 to the medium-2, the
reflectivity and the transmitivity are respectively 𝐫 and 𝐭 then the amplitude of the
reflected and the refracted part of incoming wave are respectively 𝐚𝐫 and 𝐚𝐭 .
sc

Let us now consider that the reflected wave of amplitude 𝐚𝐫 is allowed to incident at the
.O

same incident point by propagating it in reverse sense. Thus for the incidence of it, the
amplitude of its reflected and refracted part will be respectively 𝐚𝐫𝐫 and 𝐭 𝟎 .

Similarly if 𝐫𝟎 and 𝐭 𝟎 be the respective reflectivity and transmitivity for the incidence of
the wave from medium-2 to medium -1 then if the refracted part of the original incoming
beam be allowed to incidence at the same incidence point from medium-2 to medium -1
by allowing this refracted part to propagate in reverse sense, then the amplitude of its
reflected and refracted part will be respectively 𝐚𝐭𝐫𝟎 and 𝐚𝐭𝐭 𝟎 .

58 / 89
So if both the reflected and refracted part of original incoming beam be allowed to
incident together at the same incident point then the original incoming beam can be
reproduced by the reversible property of light as guided by energy conservation. So by
energy conservation principle we should have

𝐚𝐫𝐭 + 𝐚𝐭𝐫𝟎 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐫 + 𝐫𝐨 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐫 = − 𝐫𝐨 and 𝐚𝐫𝐫 + 𝐚𝐭𝐭 𝟎 = 𝐚 𝐫 𝟐 + 𝐭𝐭 𝟎 = 𝟏.

Now if we consider 𝐫𝐨 positive then 𝐫 will be negative and 𝐫 = − 𝐫 .

So finally if the incoming and reflected wave be represented by 𝐲𝐢 and 𝐲𝐫 respectively

s.
then we have

ic
𝐲𝐢 = 𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 and 𝐲𝐫 = 𝐚𝐫𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = − 𝐚 𝐫 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 = 𝐚 𝐫 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛑 .

pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa

Hence we see that the reflected wave from the denser medium will undergo through an
additional phase change𝛑. This is Stoke’s principle or Stoke’s treatment in physical optics.
sc

4. Principle of Fresnel’s Biprism:

.O

Fresnel’s biprism is that optical instrument by which the coherent source can be
constructed by the division of wave front. This biprism is a triangular glass prism having
refracting angle 179o and each base angle 30 mins.

Thus as shown in figure if a point source be placed at a certain distance behind the
vertically mounted biprism and the screen be placed in front of biprism then the light
wave coming from the real point source will refract through the biprism and then the
refracted beam will superimpose at every screen point.

59 / 89
These refracted beams are assumed
to come from the virtual sources 𝐒𝟏
and 𝐒𝟐 and thus these two virtual
sources behaves as the coherent
sources.

Hence a steady interference pattern

will be obtained on the screen by
obeying all the conditions of
interference. For this interference

s.
pattern as constructed by biprism, if

ic
α be the base angle and δ be the
angle of deviation of light through

pt
refraction in thin prism as shown in figure then for distance of source 𝐱 𝟏 from the biprism

,O
and 𝐱 𝟐 from the prism to the screen we have

𝐝/𝟐 𝐝
𝛅 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛅 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛅 = = 𝟐𝐱 ⟹ 𝐝 = 𝟐𝐱 𝟏 𝛅 = 𝟐𝐱 𝟏 𝛂(𝛍 − 𝟏) .
es
𝐱𝟏 𝟏

This is the separation of two coherent sources as constructed by the biprism.

av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

On the other hand, by this Fresnel’s biprism set up we can also find the separation
between two coherent sources by placing the convex or converging lens at suitable
position between biprism and screen.

60 / 89
 We all know that if a convex lens be
placed between the fixed object and the
screen having separation greater than 4
times the focal length of the lens used
then we can get two distinct positions of
that lens between that object and the
screen at each of which the lens will give
the real image of that object on that
screen where the magnification of these
two images at that two different

s.
positions of the lens will be different.

ic
In respect to that principle of image

pt
formation by the converging lens, when the convex lens is placed between the biprism

,O
and the screen, the two coherent sources as formed by the biprism will now behave like
the two object points with respect to the lens used. Finally, we get the real images of that
two virtual object points on the screen or field of view of the microscope at two different
es
positions of the lens and finally if 𝐦𝟏 and 𝐦𝟐 be the respective magnifications we have
from basic principle 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 = 𝟏.
av

Thus if 𝐝𝟏 and 𝐝𝟐 be the respective separation between two images as given by the lens at
W

its two positions then for original separation 𝐝 between two coherent sources as formed
𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐
by the biprism, we have 𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐 = . =𝟏 ⇒𝐝= 𝐝𝟏 𝐝𝟐 .
𝐝 𝐝
n,

This is the separation between two coherent sources as appeared in biprism det up. Once
tio

we estimate this separation 𝐝 in this way, 𝐃 by the reading from optical bench and fringe
width 𝛃 by using micrometer screw of the microscope used, we can estimate the unknown
illa

𝛃𝐝
wave length of the light source used by the formula 𝛌 = . This is an outstanding use of
𝐃
Fresnel’s biprism set up and also by this way we can compare two known wavelengths of
sc

two light sources used separately in this set up.

.O

61 / 89
5. To find the Position of Interference Fringe and Fringe Width:
Now we consider that the separation of two coherent sources as constructed in front of
the screen of an interference set up is 𝐝 . Again the normal separation between the
source and the screen is 𝐃 . Thus if we take a screen point 𝐏 at a distance 𝐱 from the

s.
central point then for superposition of two waves at that screen point coming from the

ic
coherent sources, the path difference of that two waves will be ∆ = (𝐒𝟐 𝐏 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐏 ) .

pt
Now geometrically we can write down

,O
𝐝
(𝐒𝟐 𝐏)𝟐 = 𝐃𝟐 + (𝐱 + )𝟐
es 𝟐
𝐝
And (𝐒𝟏 𝐏)𝟐 = 𝐃𝟐 + (𝐱 − 𝟐)𝟐
av

Hence
W

(𝐒𝟐 𝐏)𝟐 − (𝐒𝟏 𝐏)𝟐 = 𝐒𝟐 𝐏 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐏 𝐒𝟐 𝐏 + 𝐒𝟏 𝐏

= 𝟐𝐱𝐝
n,

𝐱𝐝
Here we consider for d<<D, 𝐒𝟐 𝐏 ≈ 𝐒𝟏 𝐏 ≈ 𝐃 then ∆. 𝟐𝐃 = 𝟐𝐱𝐝 ⟹ ∆ = .
tio

Again the phase difference of those two waves on superposition at that point will be
illa

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝
𝛗= 𝚫 = . So if interference bright
𝛌 𝛌 𝐃
fringe appears at that point then
sc

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝
𝛗= 𝚫 = = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 ⟹ 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐧
.O

𝛌 𝛌 𝐃
𝐧𝛌𝐃
=
𝐝

This is the position of nth bright interference

fringe with respect to the central fringe on the
screen.

On the other hand if dark fringe appears at that point then we have

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝 𝟐𝐧+𝟏 𝛌𝐃
𝛗= 𝚫 = = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 ⟹ 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐧 = .
𝛌 𝛌 𝐃 𝟐𝐝

62 / 89
This is the position of nth dark interference fringe with respect to the central point on the
screen. Hence the fringe width of interference fringe which is defined by the distance
between two successive brighter dark fringes is now given by

(𝐧+𝟏)𝛌𝐃 𝐧𝛌𝐃 𝛌𝐃 𝛌𝐃
𝛃 = 𝐱 𝐧+𝟏 − 𝐱 𝐧 = − = ⟹ 𝛃= .
𝐝 𝐝 𝐝 𝐝

This is fringe width which is constant and independent of position of the fringe.

6. Principle of Lloyd’s Mirror:

s.
Lloyd’s Mirror is a horizontally mounted plane mirror by which coherent sources can be

ic
constructed which are necessary for the formation of interference fringe. Here also the

pt
coherent sources are made by the process of division of wave front. Here as shown in
figure a point source is placed

,O
above the mirror and by the
es reflection of light, the virtual
source 𝐒𝐨 will be made on
reflection and then the real
av
source 𝐒 and the virtual source
𝐒𝐨 will behave together as the
W

coherent sources because in

that case for the superposition
of two coherent waves at any
n,

screen point, one wave will be

tio

the direct coming wave from the source 𝐒 and other seems to be coming from the virtual
source 𝐒𝐨 .
illa

The basics feature of this set up using Lloyd’s Mirror is that according to Stoke’s
treatment, the reflected light from the mirror will undergo through an additional phase
sc

change 𝛑 in compare to the other direct coming wave from the source and as a result, the
total phase change of two waves on superposition will be the sum of the phase difference
.O

as occurred due to path change and the additional phase change.

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝
So it is mathematically given by 𝛗𝐨 = 𝛗 + 𝛑 = 𝚫 +𝛑= + 𝛑. Hence for
𝛌 𝛌 𝐃
this set up of Lloyd’s Mirror, the conditions of the appearance of constructive and
destructive interference are respectively given by

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛌𝐃
𝛗= 𝚫 = = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 + 𝛑 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)𝛑 ⟹ 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐧 =
𝛌 𝛌 𝐃 𝟐𝐝
𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑 𝐱𝐝 𝐧𝟎 𝛌𝐃
And 𝛗 = 𝚫 = = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 + 𝛑 = 𝟐 𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 = 𝟐 𝐧𝟎 𝛑 ⟹ 𝐱 = 𝐱 𝐧 = .
𝛌 𝛌 𝐃 𝐝

63 / 89
So we can conclude that for the interference pattern appeared in Lloyd’s Mirror set up,
the order of appearance of bright and dark fringes will be reverse to that in Fresnel’s
Biprism set up. Thus the intensity distribution of interference pattern will be
interchangeable in Lloyd’s Mirror and Fresnel’s Biprism set up and remarkably the central
fringe in Lloyd’s Mirror set up will be dark.

7. Interference in Thin Films:

We know that the interference phenomena of light can be obtained by two ways – one by
the way of division of wave front and another by the way of division of amplitude of the

s.
wave. Here we should mention that in case of interference in Young’s double slit
experiment, we adopt the method of division of wave front but in case of interference by

ic
thin film we basically use the method of division of amplitude to form the interference

pt
fringes.

,O
When monochromatic light wave is allowed to
incident to the surface of a thin transparent film
es
having opposite parallel surfaces , say , parallel to
each other ( where as these two surfaces may be
av
inclined to each other and in that case it is called
wedge shaped thin film), then it will experiences
W

successive reflection and refractions at both front

and back surfaces of that thin film an finally both the
reflected and transmitted part of the incoming wave can give interference pattern seems
n,

to be appeared on the film surface.

tio

8. Interference in Thin Parallel Film by Reflected Waves:

illa

Here as shown in figure, we consider two

successive reflected waves, one is direct
sc

reflected wave from the point 𝐎𝟏 and

another is indirect reflected wave from the
.O

point 𝐎𝟑 on the front surface of the film

where both superimposes at the retina of
human eye or at any screen point through
eye lens or any converging lens at a certain
path difference or phase difference and
gives interference pattern on the retina
where the eye will feel that to be appeared
on the front surface of the film. This is
interference by the thin film by the

64 / 89
reflected waves.

From the ray diagram we see that the path difference of that two reflected waves will be
∆ = 𝛍 𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐 + 𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟏 𝐏 where 𝛍 is the refractive index of the material of the film.
But also we have from the same figure if 𝐝 be the thickness of that film then for angle of
incidence 𝐢 and first angle of refraction 𝐫 we get

𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐 = 𝐎𝟐 𝐌 = 𝐌𝐎𝟐 and 𝐌𝐎𝟐 + 𝐎𝟐 𝐐 = 𝐌𝐐 = 𝟐𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫.

Thus we finally get the path difference

s.
∆ = 𝛍 𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟐 + 𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟏 𝐏 = 𝛍 𝐌𝐎𝟐 + 𝐎𝟐 𝐐 + 𝐐𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟏 𝐏 = 𝛍𝐌𝐐 + 𝛍𝐐𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟏 𝐏

ic
But again we have from Snell’s law of refraction

pt
𝐎𝟏 𝐏 𝐐𝐎𝟑

,O
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐢 = 𝛍𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐫 ⟹ =𝛍 ⟹ 𝛍𝐐𝐎𝟑 = 𝐎𝟏 𝐏
𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟑 𝐎𝟏 𝐎𝟑

Hence the path difference will then become ∆ = 𝛍𝐌𝐐 = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫.

es
But here one thing is very important to note that for this interference by thin film which is
av
made by denser transparent medium, the first direct reflected wave from the front
surface of the film will suffer an additional phase change 𝛑 by obeying Stoke’s treatment.
W

Hence we have for this interference by thin film with parallel surfaces through the
reflected waves; the phase difference is given by
n,

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
tio

𝛅= ∆ = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 + 𝛑 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)𝛑 for bright fringes

𝛌 𝛌
illa

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
And also 𝛅= ∆ = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 + 𝛑 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟐 𝛑 = 𝟐𝐧′ 𝛑 for dark
𝛌 𝛌
fringes
sc

9. Interference in Thin Parallel Film by Transmitted Waves:

.O

Here we now consider two successive transmitted waves as shown in the figure when the
wave – I is directed transmitted wave and the wave – II is indirect one. Because of
multiple reflections and refractions of the incoming wave at two parallel surfaces of the
thin film we get these two successive waves which superimposes at a certain path
difference or phase difference and then gives interference pattern seems to be appeared
at the back surface of the film. This is interference in thin film by the transmitted wave.

From the ray diagram we see that the path difference of that two transmitted waves I and
II will be ∆ = 𝛍 𝐎𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐎𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟐 𝐏 where 𝛍 is the refractive index of the material of

65 / 89
the film. But also we have from the same figure if 𝐝 be the thickness of that film then for
angle of incidence 𝐢 and first angle of refraction 𝐫 we get

𝐎𝟐 𝐎 = 𝐎𝐌 = 𝐌𝐎 and 𝐌𝐎 + 𝐎𝐐 = 𝐌𝐐 = 𝟐𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫.

Thus we finally get the path difference

∆ = 𝛍 𝐎𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐎𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟐 𝐏 = 𝛍 𝐌𝐎 + 𝐎𝐐 + 𝐐𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟐 𝐏
= 𝛍𝐌𝐐 + 𝛍𝐐𝐎𝟑 − 𝐎𝟐 𝐏

But again we have from Snell’s law of refraction

s.
𝐎𝟐 𝐏 𝐐𝐎𝟑
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐢 = 𝛍𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐫 ⟹ =𝛍 ⟹ 𝛍𝐐𝐎𝟑 = 𝐎𝟐 𝐏

ic
𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟑 𝐎𝟐 𝐎𝟑
Hence the path difference will then

pt
become ∆ = 𝛍𝐌𝐐 = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫.

,O
But here we see that since both the
waves are transmitted waves, either
es
direct or indirect transmitted, no wave is
reflected from the denser medium which
av

is also to be noted. Thus here Stokes

treatment is not effective in this case of
W

interference of thin film by the

transmitted waves and normally we
n,

have for this interference by thin film

with parallel surfaces through the
tio

transmitted waves; the phase difference

is given by
illa

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
𝛅= ∆ = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 For bright fringes and also
sc

𝛌 𝛌
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝛅= ∆ = 𝟐𝛍𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐫 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 𝛑 For dark fringes
𝛌 𝛌
.O

66 / 89
10. Interference in Wedge Shaped Thin Films:

Here for this wedge shaped thin film, the two surfaces of the film are inclined with each
other at a certain fixed angle and thus here also the interference phenomena can similarly

s.
be obtained by the both reflected and transmitted beam as before in case of thin film with

ic
parallel surfaces.

pt
As we stated before that we so long considered fringes formed in the reflected and
transmitted light when the plate or film is plane-parallel. But we will now consider the

,O
phenomenon, when the film is wedge-shaped, i.e., the surfaces enclosing the film are
inclined at an angle 𝛂. es
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

67 / 89
If we are now interested this interference in wedge shaped thin film by reflected wave we
have from figure, 𝐏𝐒𝟏 is the incident ray, reflected part goes along 𝐒𝟏 𝐎, the transmitted
part goes along 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟑 at an angle 𝛉′, gets reflected along 𝐒𝟑 𝐒𝟐 , partly gets back in the
incident medium along 𝐒𝟐 𝐎 , such reflected rays unite producing constructive or
destructive interference. 𝐒𝟐 𝐍𝟏 , 𝐒𝟐 𝐍𝟐 , 𝐒𝟐 𝐍𝟑 are all perpendiculars dropped from 𝐒𝟐 on to
ray 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟑 , to ray 𝐒𝟏 𝐎 and to the surface CD. The angles 𝐢, 𝐫, 𝛉′ and 𝛂 are also shown in the
figure.

s.
Thus from figure 𝛃 + 𝐫 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝛉′ + 𝛂 and also 𝛃 + 𝟐𝛉′ = 𝟗𝟎°

ic
So we have 𝟗𝟎° − 𝟐𝛉′ + 𝐫 = 𝟗𝟎 − 𝛉′ + 𝛂 ⇒ 𝛉′ = (𝐫 − 𝛂)

pt
The path difference between the reflected rays

,O
∆= 𝛍 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟑 + 𝐒𝟑 𝐒𝟐 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 = 𝛍 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟑 + 𝐒𝟑 𝐍𝟒 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐
es
= 𝛍𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟒 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 = 𝛍 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟏 + 𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟒 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 = 𝛍𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟏 + 𝛍𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟒 − 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 .
av
𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 𝐒 𝐍
Now from Snell’s law, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢 = 𝛍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫 ⇒ = 𝛍 𝐒𝟏 𝐒 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟐 = 𝛍𝐒𝟏 𝐍𝟏
𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
W

∆= 𝛍𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟒 = 𝛍𝐒𝟐 𝐍𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉′ = 𝛍 × 𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡

(𝐫 − 𝛂)

where 𝐝 = 𝐒𝟐 𝐍𝟑 represents thickness of the film at 𝐒𝟐 . Considering the path-difference

n,

introduced due to reflection from denser medium where the waves undergoes through
tio

𝛌
additional phase difference 𝛑 or path difference 𝟐 by Stokes treatment, we can have the
net path difference
illa

𝛌 𝛌
∆𝐨 = ∆ ± 𝟐 = 𝟐𝛍𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐫 − 𝛂) ± 𝟐.
sc

𝛌 𝛌
So for bright fringes, we get ∆𝐨 = 𝟐𝛍𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐫 − 𝛂) ± 𝟐 = 𝟐𝐧. 𝟐 and also for dark fringes
.O

𝛌 𝛌
∆𝐨 = 𝟐𝛍𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐫 − 𝛂) ± 𝟐 = 𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏 .
𝟐

11. Newton’s Rings: Measurement of Wavelength and Refractive Index:

Newton’s ring is an experimental demonstration of interference by this film. This is

basically the concentric dark and bright rings with a few specifications (will be discussed
later on) which may occur by the interference through both reflected and transmitted
waves particularly by the wedge shaped thin film.

Monochromatic light from an extended source 𝐒 is rendered parallel by a lens 𝐋. It is

incident on a glass plate inclined at 𝟒𝟓° to the horizontal, and is reflected normally down

68 / 89
onto a plano-convex lens placed on a flat glass plate. Part of the light incident on the
system is reflected from the glass-to-air boundary, say from point 𝐃 as shown in figure.

The remainder of the light is transmitted through the air film. It is again reflected from the
air-to-glass boundary, say from point 𝐉. The two rays reflected from the top and bottom
of the air film are derived through division of
amplitude from the same incident ray 𝐂𝐃 and are
therefore coherent. The rays 1 and 2 are close to
each other and interfere to produce darkness or
brightness. The condition of brightness or darkness

s.
depends on the path difference between the two

ic
reflected light rays, which in turn depends on the
thickness of the air film at the point of incidence.

pt
The optical path difference between the rays is given

,O
by ∆= 𝟐𝛍𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫 and since 𝛍 = 𝟏 for air and
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫 = 𝟏 for almost normal incidence of light, we
es
have ∆= 𝟐𝐭
av
But since here Stoke’s treatment is effective for the wave 1, reflected from the denser
medium as the Plano convex lens is placed on a plane glass slab as shown, the intensity
W

𝛌 𝛌
maxima occur when the optical path difference 𝚫 = 𝟐𝐭 = 𝐦𝛌 + = 𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏 .
𝟐 𝟐

This is the condition for appearance of the bright fringes occurred in Newton’s ring when
n,

constructed by wedge shaped air film through reflected waves. Similarly for this case of
tio

appearance of the dark rings, the path difference will be

𝛌 𝛌
illa

𝚫 = 𝟐𝐭 = 𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏 + 𝟐 = 𝐦 + 𝟏 𝛌 = 𝐦′𝛌 which is all integer multiple of the

𝟐
wavelength.
sc

Apart from these conditions of the appearance of the dark and bright fringes in Newton’s
ring set up, we should recall once again that In Newton’s ring arrangement, a thin air film
.O

is enclosed between a plano-convex lens and a glass plate.

The thickness of the air film at the point of contact is zero and gradually increases as we
move outward. The locus of points where the air film has the same thickness then fall on a
circle whose centre is the point of contact. Thus the thickness of air film is constant at
points on any circle having the point of lens-glass plate contact as the centre. The fringes
are therefore circular.

Let us now consider the dark rings in that particular appearance of Newton’s ring by
reflected waves from wedge shaped air film. If 𝐑 be the radius of curvature of the Plano

69 / 89
convex lens taken then let a dark fringe be located at 𝐐. If we take the thickness of the air
film at 𝐐 is 𝐏𝐐 = 𝐭 and the radius of the circular fringe at 𝐐 is 𝐎𝐐 = 𝐫𝐦 then from figure

𝐑𝟐 = 𝐫𝐦
𝟐
+ (𝐑 − 𝐭)𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟐
𝐫𝐦 = 𝟐𝐑𝐭 − 𝐭 𝟐 , 𝐀𝐬 𝐑 ≫ 𝐭, 𝟐𝐑𝐭 ≫ 𝐭 𝟐 ⇒ 𝐫𝐦
𝟐
≅ 𝟐𝐑𝐭 . The
𝟐
condition for dark ring at 𝐐 is then 𝟐𝐭 = 𝐦𝛌 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝐫𝐦 ≅ 𝐦𝛌𝐑 or, 𝐫𝐦 = 𝐦𝛌𝐑

The radii of dark fringes can be found by inserting

values 1, 2, 3 …….. for m. Thus we get
𝐫𝟏 = 𝟏𝛌𝐑 𝐨𝐫 𝐫𝟏 ∝ 𝟏, 𝐫𝟐 =
𝟐𝛌𝐑 𝐨𝐫 𝐫𝟐 ∝ 𝟐, 𝐫𝟑 = 𝟑𝛌𝐑 𝐨𝐫 𝐫𝟑 ∝ 𝟑 and

s.
so on. It means that the radii of the dark rings are

ic
proportional to square root of the natural
numbers. The above relation also implies that

pt
𝐫𝐦 ∝ 𝛌. Thus the radius of the 𝐦𝐭𝐡 dark ring is

,O
proportional to under root of wavelength.

And here the ring diameter of 𝐦𝐭𝐡 dark ring is

es
𝐃𝐦 = 𝟐𝐫𝐦 Or 𝐃𝐦 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝐑𝐭 Or 𝐃𝐦 = 𝟐 𝐦𝛌𝐑 .
av

We can now conclude that with the measurement

W

of this diameter of m’th dark ring we can now

measure the wave length of the wave used in this set up. If 𝐃𝐦 and 𝐃𝐦+𝐩 be the
respective diameters of m’th and (m+p)’th dark rings, we have
n,

𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 −𝐃𝟐𝐦
tio

𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 − 𝐃𝟐𝐦 = 𝟒𝐩𝛌𝐑 ⇒ 𝛌 = .

𝟒𝐩𝐑
illa

This is the wavelength of the wave coming from the unknown source.

On the other hand if we consider the wedge shaped liquid film in place of wedge shaped
sc

air film, then the liquid, whose refractive index is to be determined, is filled in the gap
between the lens and plane glass plate.
.O

Now the liquid film substitutes the air film. The condition for interference may then be
written as 𝟐𝛍𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫 = 𝐦𝛌 (for dark ring) and here 𝛍 is the refractive index of the liquid.

For almost normal incidence the equation becomes𝟐𝛍𝐭 = 𝐦𝛌.

𝐫𝟐 𝟐𝛍 𝐫 𝟐 𝐦𝛌𝐑 𝟒𝐦𝛌𝐑
𝐀𝐬 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐑 , = 𝐦𝛌 𝐎𝐫 𝐫 𝟐 = ⇒ 𝐃𝟐 =
𝟐𝐑 𝛍 𝛍

𝟒𝐦𝛌𝐑
Following the above relation, the square diameter of 𝐦𝐭𝐡 dark ring is [𝐃𝟐𝐦 ]𝐋 = .
𝛍

70 / 89
 𝟒(𝐦+𝐩)𝛌𝐑
Similarly, the diameter of the (𝐦 + 𝐩)𝐭𝐡 ring is given by [𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 ]𝐋 = .
𝛍

𝟒𝐩𝛌𝐑
Finally we get [𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 ]𝐋 − [𝐃𝟐𝐦 ]𝐋 = .
𝛍

(𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 )𝐚𝐢𝐫 −(𝐃𝟐𝐦 )𝐚𝐢𝐫

But we know that (𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 )𝐚𝐢𝐫 − (𝐃𝟐𝐦 )𝐚𝐢𝐫 = 𝟒𝐩𝛌𝐑 and we get = . This is the
(𝐃𝟐𝐦+𝐩 )𝐥𝐢𝐩 −(𝐃𝟐𝐦 )𝐥𝐢𝐩

refractive index of the liquid taken at the gap of the lens and the glass slab.

On the other hand the same discussion can be carried

out for the construction of such Newton’s ring by

s.
transmitted waves.

ic
Newton’s rings in transmitted light may be observed

pt
with the arrangement made as in figure. Here in this

,O
case effectively Stokes treatment is not required to
taken into account and then the condition for maxima
of bright rings
es is 𝟐𝛍 𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫 = 𝐦𝛌
𝟐𝐦+𝟏 𝛌
𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐤 𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝟐𝛍𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐫 = 𝟐
av

As 𝛍 = 𝟏 for air and 𝐫 = 𝟎 for almost normal

observation, the above expressions may be simplified
W

𝐫𝟐
to for bright fringes 𝟐𝐭 = 𝐦𝛌 and for dark rings 𝟐𝐭 = 𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏 𝛌/𝟐 . 𝐀𝐬 𝐭 = 𝟐𝐑, the
𝟐
radius for the bright ring is given by 𝐫𝐦 = 𝐦𝛌𝐑 and the radius for dark rings is given by
n,

𝟐
𝐫𝐦 = 𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏 𝛌𝐑/𝟐
tio
illa
sc
.O

71 / 89
 Interferometer

1. Fabry-Perot Interferometer:

a) Intensity Formulation:

s.
In this interferometer two parallel semi silvered (semi reflecting) thin glass plates are
taken with a normal separation d and when a light of amplitude ‘a’ coming from a point

ic
source S is allowed to pass through one plate then successive reflection and transmission

pt
takes place between that two plates and as shown in figure, the respective amplitudes of
the successive transmitted waves I, II, III, …. will be att’, att’r2e–iδ, att’r4e–i2δ, … where δ is

,O
the phase difference between two successive transmitted waves and it is given by
δ = (2π/λ)(2d) for almost normal incidence of the incoming wave and by considering the
es
space between two parallel plates as a thin air film.
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

We have from Stoke’s relation tt’ = 1 – r2 or, tt’ + r2 = 1 or, T + R =1 where T = tt’ =
transmitivity and R = r2 = reflectivity and thus the respective amplitudes of the
consecutive transmitted waves will be aT, aTRe–iδ, aTR2e–i2δ …. Thus on superposition of all
these transmitted waves at any screen point the resultant amplitude will be

72 / 89
 𝟏
A = aT+ aTRe–iδ+ aTR2e–i2δ+ …… = aT (1+Re–iδ+R2e–i2δ+…….) = aT
𝟏−𝐑𝐞−𝐢𝛅

And thus the resultant intensity at that screen point

𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝐈=𝐤𝐀 = 𝐤𝐀𝐀∗ = 𝐤𝐚𝐓 . 𝐚𝐓
𝟏−𝐑𝐞−𝐢𝛅 𝟏−𝐑𝐞𝐢𝛅

𝐤 𝐚𝟐 𝐓 𝟐 𝐤 𝐚𝟐 𝐓 𝟐 𝐤 𝐚𝟐 𝐓 𝟐
And we have 𝐈= = =
𝟏−𝐑𝐞−𝐢𝛅 𝟏−𝐑𝐞𝐢𝛅 𝟏+𝐑𝟐 −𝐑 𝐞𝐢𝛅 +𝐞−𝐢𝛅 𝟏+𝐑𝟐 −𝟐𝐑𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛅

This intensity expression can now be written as

s.
𝐤 𝐚𝟐 𝐓 𝟐 𝐈𝐨 𝐓 𝟐 𝐈𝐨 𝐓 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

ic
𝐈= = 𝛅 = . 𝟒𝐑 𝛅 = 𝐈𝐦 𝟒𝐑 𝛅
(𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 +𝟐𝐑 𝟏−𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛅 (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 +𝟒𝐑𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 𝟏+ 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟏+ 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐
𝟐 (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 𝟐 (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 𝟐

pt
𝐨 𝟐 𝐈 𝐓𝟐 𝛅
where 𝐈𝐦 = 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 = (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 for 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝛅 = 𝟐𝐦𝛑.

,O
𝛅 𝐈 𝐓𝟐
On the other hand, for 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟐 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝛅 = (𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏)𝛑, we get 𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧 = (𝟏+𝐑)
𝐨
𝟐 . Thus
es
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟒𝐑
we can have the final intensity expression 𝐈 = 𝛅 where 𝐅 = (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐 = Finesse or
𝟏+𝐅𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐
av
𝟐
coefficient of Finesse of Fabry Perot Interferometer.
W

b) Intensity Distribution:

From intensity expression of Fabry Perot Interferometer, we

n,

see that the intensity depends on two parameters – one is

tio

Finesse 𝐅 i.e. the reflectivity 𝐑 and the phase factor 𝛅. If we

study the graphical variation of the intensity with phase
illa

factor 𝛅 then that is called intensity distribution curve where

a family of curve will be obtained for several value of finesse
sc

or reflectivity of the half silvered glass plates.

It is noted from that distribution graph that the intensity falls off on
.O

both sides of the maximum at higher values of 𝐑. Here the sharpness

of the distribution is measured by the half width of the curve. For this
half width of the distribution curve,

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝟏 𝟏 𝛅

𝐈= ⇒ = ⇒ = ⇒ 𝐅𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐
𝟐 𝛅 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝐅𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛅 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝐅𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
=𝟏

𝟏 𝟏−𝐑
⇒ 𝛅 = 𝟐𝐒𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ± = 𝟐𝐒𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ±
𝐅 𝟐 𝐑

73 / 89
This gives the two possible values of from which we can estimate the half width of the
distribution curve and then the sharpness of the distribution is reciprocal of the half
width.

c) Formation of Fringes:

Since the separation of this two half silvered plates of the interferometer is d for the
inclination 𝛉 of a particular wave with the normal to the plate, the path difference
between any two successive transmitted waves corresponding to the incident wave is
∆ = 𝟐𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 and the condition for these waves to produce maximum intensity is

s.
∆ = 𝟐𝐝𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 = 𝐦𝛌 where 𝐦 is an integer.

ic
pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa

For the certain order m of the fringe, the locus of points on that fringe for certain constant
inclination 𝛉 is a circle because here from that condition of maximum intensity
sc

𝐦𝛌 𝐃 𝐃 𝟒𝐝𝟐
𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉 = = = ⇒ 𝐱𝟐 + 𝐲𝟐 = − 𝟏 𝐃𝟐 = 𝐑𝟐 → This is the equation
.O

𝟐𝐝 𝐫 𝐃𝟐 +𝐱 𝟐 +𝐲 𝟐 𝐦𝟐 𝛌𝟐
of a circle of radius 𝐑 . So obviously the fringe system is concentric dark and bright circular
𝟒𝐝𝟐
rings and the radius of such m’th circular bright ring is 𝐑𝐦 = 𝐃 −𝟏 .
𝐦𝟐 𝛌𝟐

d) Visibility of the Fringe:

Since the intensity variation appears on the fringe system, the visibility of the fringe is
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 −𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧
defined as = . And finally it is given by
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 +𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧

74 / 89
 (𝟏+𝐑)𝟐
−𝟏
𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 (𝟏−𝐑)𝟐
−𝟏 𝟐𝐑
𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝐕= 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = . Thus the visibility of the fringe basically depends
+𝟏 𝟏+𝐑𝟐
𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧
(𝟏+𝐑)𝟐
+𝟏
(𝟏−𝐑)𝟐

on the reflectivity of the semi silvered plates used in Fabry Perot interferometer. This
visibility increases with the increment of R and it has value 0.8 for R = 0.5 and it
approaches unity as R approaches 1.

s.
ic
pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

75 / 89
2. Construction and Principle of Michelson Interferometer:

We know that an interferometer is an instrument in which the phenomenon of

interference is used to make precise measurements of wavelengths or distances.

s.
In Michelson interferometer, a beam of light from an extended source is divided into two

ic
parts of equal intensities by partial reflection and refraction. These beams travel in two

pt
mutually perpendicular directions and come together after reflection from plane mirrors.
The beams overlap on each other and produce interference fringes.

,O
The schematic of a simple Michelson interferometer is shown in figure. It consists of a
beam splitter 𝐆𝟏 ,a
es
compensating plate 𝐆𝟐 , and
two plane mirrors𝐌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 .
av

The beam splitter 𝐆𝟏 is a

W

partially silvered plane

parallel glass plate. The
n,

compensating plate 𝐆𝟐 is a
simple plane parallel glass
tio

plate having the same

thickness as 𝐆𝟏 . The two
illa

plates 𝐆𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐆𝟐 are held

parallel to each other and are
sc

inclined at an angle of 𝟒𝟓°

with respect to the mirror 𝐌𝟐 .
.O

The mirror 𝐌𝟐 is mounted on a carriage and can be moved exactly parallel to itself with
the help of a micrometer screw. The distance through which the mirror 𝐌𝟐 is moved can
be read with the help of a graduated drum attached to the screw. Displacements of the
order of 𝟎. 𝟏 𝛍𝐦 (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 Å) can be easily read. The plane mirrors 𝐌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 can be made
perfectly perpendicular with the help of the fine screws attached to them. The
interference fringes are observed in the field of view of the telescope 𝐓.

We can now show that basically circular fringes are produced in this interferometer by
using monochromatic light when the mirrors 𝐌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 are exactly perpendicular to
each other.

76 / 89
Since the incoming light will be splitted equally into two parts – one is the transmitted
part propagating towards the mirror 𝐌𝟏 and another is the reflected part moving towards
𝐌𝟐 when both are originating from the semi reflecting back surface of the beam
splitter 𝐆𝟏 , they will reflect back from the respective mirrors 𝐌𝟏 and 𝐌𝟐 and finally
superimposes at the telescope with certain path difference and hence, phase difference
and gives interference fringes. But here it is considered that for further reflection of the
reflected wave coming from 𝐌𝟏 , it is supposed to be coming from 𝐌′𝟏 which is the virtual
image of 𝐌𝟏 due to such reflection and holds parallel to 𝐌𝟐 for 𝐌𝟏 and 𝐌𝟐 as mounted
exactly perpendicular with each other.

s.
ic
pt
,O
es
av
W
n,
tio

Thus the fact that the two waves entering through the telescope are considered to be
coming from a thin parallel air film with two parallel surfaces 𝐌′𝟏 and 𝐌𝟐 when one is
illa

coming through reflection from 𝐌𝟐 another from 𝐌′𝟏 . Thus it is obvious that the principle
of this interferometer is based on the principle of interference in thin film.
sc

So what we want to say that if we look into the instrument from𝐓, we see mirror 𝐌𝟐
directly and in addition we will see the virtual image 𝐌𝟏′ of mirror 𝐌𝟏 formed by reflection
.O

in the glass plate 𝐆𝟏 . It means that one of the interfering beams come from 𝐌𝟐 and the
other beam appears to come from the virtual image 𝐌𝟏′ . The situation is similar to an air
film enclosed between mirrors 𝐌𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟏′ with the difference that in case of a real film
between two surfaces, multiple reflections take place, whereas in this case only two
reflections take place.

If the two arms of the interferometer are equal in length image 𝐌𝟏′ coincides with
mirror𝐌𝟐 . If 𝐌𝟏′ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 do not coincide, the distance between them is finite i.e.
𝐌𝟏′ 𝐌𝟐 = 𝐝 = 𝐋𝟏 − 𝐋𝟐 as shown in figure.

77 / 89
Now if a light ray comes from a source point 𝐒 and is reflected by both 𝐌𝟏′ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 the
observer will see two virtual images 𝐒𝟏 due to reflection at 𝐌𝟏′ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝟐 due to reflection at
𝐌𝟐 . The virtual images are separated by a distance 𝟐𝐝 .

If the observer looks into the system at an angle 𝛉, the path difference between the two
beams will be ∆ = 𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉. The light that comes from 𝐌𝟏 and goes to 𝐓 suffers
reflection from beam splitter 𝐆𝟏 and therefore a 𝛑 − 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 change occurs. In view of this
𝛌
the total path difference between the two beams is given by ∆= 𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 + 𝟐. Thus the
condition for obtaining brightness is

s.
𝛌 𝛌
𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 + 𝟐 = 𝐦𝛌 ⇒ 𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = 𝟐𝐦 − 𝟏 where 𝐦 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … … …
𝟐

ic
For a given mirror separation 𝐝, a given wavelength 𝛌 and order 𝐦, angle 𝛉 is constant.

pt
This means that the fringes are of circular shape. They are called fringes of equal

,O
inclination.

In case if the mirror 𝐌𝟐 coincides with the

es
virtual image 𝐌𝟏′ , 𝐰𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐝 = 𝟎. The path
difference between the interfering beams
av
𝛌
will be 𝟐 only and consequently we obtain a
minimum at the coincidence position and
W

the centre of the field will be dark.

n,

Let us now consider as shown in the figure

that P is any point on the image plane
tio

having coordinates (x,y) and the observing

telescope T is at a normal distance D from it.
illa

For the locus of the fringe pattern through

the variable point P is now given by
sc

𝛌 𝐃
𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = 𝟐𝐦 − 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 =
.O

𝟐 𝐫𝐨
𝛌
= 𝟐𝐦 − 𝟏
𝟐
𝟐𝐃 𝟒
Thus we get 𝐫𝐨 = 𝐃𝟐 + 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = ⇒ 𝐱 𝟐 + 𝐲 𝟐 = 𝐃𝟐 𝟐
− 𝟏 = 𝐫𝐦
𝟐𝐦−𝟏 𝛌 [ 𝟐𝐦−𝟏 𝛌]𝟐 ]𝟐

This is the equation of a circle of radius 𝐫𝐦 . So the fringes in this adjustment of the
interferometer will be concentric circular dark and bright in alternate manner.

78 / 89
3. Visibility of Fringes in Michelson Interferometer:
In case of Michelson Interferometer since two reflected wave are supposed to be coming
from a thin air film with parallel surfaces superimposes at the telescope and gives
intensity distribution through the generation of interference fringes at the field of view of
𝛅
the telescope, the intensity of the fringe is given by 𝐈 = 𝟒𝐀𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝟐 where 𝐀 is the
amplitude of the component wave and is the phase difference 𝛅 of two waves which is
𝟐𝛑
given by 𝛅 = (𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉) .
𝛌

Here 𝐝 is the distance between 𝐌′𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 . The intensity is maximum when 𝛅 is odd

s.
integral multiple of 𝟐𝛑. The intensity is zero when 𝛅 is an even multiple of 𝟐𝛑. When a

ic
monochromatic source of light is used, the minimum intensity of the fringes is zero.

pt
Similar to Fabry Perot Interferometer the visibility of fringes in the case of a Michelson
𝐈 −𝐈
interferometer is 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 +𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧 .

,O
𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐦𝐢𝐧

For monochromatic light, exactly 𝐈𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 𝟎 and therefore 𝐕 = 𝟏

es
However if the source of light is not strictly monochromatic, but contains two nearby
wavelengths, the condition for maximum intensity for both the wavelengths is satisfied
av

only for particular values of path difference (𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉)

W

4. Fringe of Equal Inclination or Haidinger Fringes: Non Localized Fringe in

n,

Michelson Interferometer:
tio

Basically in normal set up of Michelson Interferometer, the mirrors and are held exactly
illa

perpendicular to each other so that 𝐌′𝟏 and 𝐌𝟐 becomes parallel

with each other. Thus it virtually construct a parallel thin film and in
sc

real sense, any two reflected wave from this film for any incoming
wave, should meet at infinite and then the circular fringes for their
.O

superimposition is called non localized fringes. Thus in this

interferometer with its normal adjustment, the concentric circular fringes obtained is
basically non localized and these are also known as fringes of equal inclination or
Haidinger fringes.

79 / 89
5. Localized Fringes: Fringe of Equal Width or Fizeau’s Fringes:
When the mirror 𝐌𝟏 is tiled, the mirrors are not exactly perpendicular to each other and
therefore the mirror 𝐌𝟐 and the virtual image
𝐌𝟏′ are not parallel. In this case the air path
between them is wedge-shaped and the
fringes appear to be straight. These
interference fringes for
reflection from the
wedge shaped film are

s.
localized fringes.

ic
We have already

pt
mentioned that fringes of different nature, straight, circular or
curved convex outwards or inwards will be produced depending on the orientation of the

,O
two mirrors.

When the two mirrors are

es
inclined such that the mirror
𝐌𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟏′ which is the
av

image of 𝐌𝟏 by reflection
intersects each other as
W

shown in figure, we would

get straight fringes
n,

(localised) parallel to the

tio

line of intersection. These

fringes are also called
illa

fringes of equal width or

Fizeau’s fringes. If the
inclination be such as in figure, fringes would be convex outwards, towards the line of
sc

intersection, whereas if the inclination be as in figure, the fringes would again be convex
inwards again towards the line of intersection.
.O

These straight fringes which are localised fringes, to see them eye must be focussed at
finite distance; whereas the circular fringes are non-localised in the sense that they are
formed at infinity and to see them eye must be focussed at infinity.

80 / 89
6. Application of Fabry Perot Interferometer: Analysis of Fine structure of
Spectral Line:

A Fabry-Perot etalon is an interferometer of the simplest form, but it is that essential

simplicity that makes it so useful in a wide variety of optical applications.

s.
Below is a small selection of where our etalons are being employed:

ic
 Highly specialized etalons for DUV photolithography sources

pt
 Air-spaced etalons used to control the centre wavelength and bandwidth of UV-

,O
NIR lasers

 Large solid and air- spaced etalons for government research projects
es
 Etalons for telecommunications solutions
av

 Air-spaced etalons for astronomy as narrow bandwidth filters

W

 Wavelength reference etalons used in LiDAR sensing instruments for atmospheric

research
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

Among of all these utilization of Fabry Perot Interferometer, the wide application is to
analysis the hyperfine structure of line spectra and to find the difference in two close
wavelengths.

81 / 89
A spectral line may consist of a number closely spaced lines differing in wavelengths
ranging between 𝟎. 𝟏 Å 𝐭𝐨 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 Å. One of them is called the main line; the other lines
are called its satellites. The spectral line is then said to have hyperfine structure. A Fabry
Perot Interferometer because of its high resolution can be used to investigate hyperfine
structure of spectral lines.

We might enquire into the cause of the hyperfine structure. Two reasons individually or
conjointly may be responsible for the origin of the hyperfine structure.

One reason may be the isotopic constitution of the element. Isotope of an element

s.
possesses different nuclear masses and as a result, the lines from each isotope are slightly
displaced w.r.t. each other. To put it in other way, according to Bohr model, the wave-

ic
number 𝐯 of a spectral line is given by,

pt
𝟐𝛑𝟐 𝛍𝐞𝟒 𝐳 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

,O
𝐯= − 𝐧𝟐 where 𝐧𝟏 , 𝐧𝟐 are the quantum numbers; 𝐡 is the Planck’s constant
𝐜𝐡𝟑 𝐧𝟐𝟏 𝟐
𝐦𝐌
and 𝛍 = 𝐦+𝐌 is called the reduced mass of the atom, 𝐦 being the mass of the electron
es
and 𝐌 that of the nucleus. So for isotopic constitution, since 𝐌 is different for the
isotopes, a spectral line may consist of closely spaced group of lines or in other words, it is
av
said to have hyperfine structure.

To study the hyperfine structure of the spectral line with the help of Fabry Perot
W

Interferometer, the plate separation is to be adjusted such that at a particular separation

there will appear fringe system due to different components. Thus we would get for any
n,

order not a fringe but a fringe system.

tio

For a particular order 𝐦 for a wavelength 𝛌𝟏 (main line) in the neighbourhood of the
centre 𝟐𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉𝟏 ≃ 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝛌𝟏
illa

For the next order outwards we similarly have 𝟐𝐝 = (𝐦 − 𝟏)𝛌𝟏

sc

If there be a line 𝛌𝟐 very close to 𝛌𝟏 , then applying the method of coincidence, the fringe
of order 𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝛌𝟐 is made to coincide with (𝐦 − 𝟏)th fringe of wavelength 𝛌𝟏 then
.O

𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝛌𝟐 = (𝐦 − 𝟏) 𝛌𝟏

Now if 𝛌𝟏 = 𝛌𝟐 + 𝚫𝛌 then from equation 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝛌𝟐 = (𝐦 − 𝟏) 𝛌𝟏 we get

𝛌𝟏
𝐦 𝛌𝟏 − 𝚫𝛌 = 𝐦 − 𝟏 𝛌𝟏 ⇒ ∆𝛌 = .
𝐦

𝟐𝐝 𝛌𝟏 𝛌𝟐 𝛌𝟐
But 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝛌𝟐 ⇒ 𝐦 = So we get ∆𝛌 = ≃ 𝟐𝐝𝟏
𝛌𝟐 𝟐𝐝

To see how small ∆𝛌 can be determined by Fabry Perot Interferometer, we consider the
following parameters of the instrument → Let 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐦, 𝛌 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎Å, 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧

82 / 89
 (𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 )𝟐 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
∆𝛌 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Å = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓Å
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟏
If the relative shift could be measured to 𝟏𝟎 𝐭𝐡 of a fringe, then

𝟏
∆𝛌 = × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓Å ≃ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓Å
𝟏𝟎

Thus we can very easily study the hyperfine structure of spectral line with the help of
Fabry Perot Interferometer

s.
7. Application of Michelson Interferometer:

ic
a) Determination of Wavelength by Michelson Interferometer:

pt
,O
Michelson interferometer is used to determine the wavelength of light from a
monochromatic source. The monochromatic source is kept at S. If the mirrors 𝐌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐
are exactly perpendicular circular fringes are obtained which are actually concentric
es
circular dark and bright fringes.
av
If the mirror 𝐌𝟐 is moves forward or backward, the
circular fringes appear or disappear at the centre. Now
W

as the mirror is moves through a known distance 𝐝, the

number of fringes disappearing at the centre is counted.
n,
tio

Suppose 𝐝𝟏 is the initial thickness of the air film

between the mirror 𝐌′𝟏 and the image of 𝐌𝟐
illa

corresponding to the bright fringe of order 𝐦𝟏 and 𝐝𝟐 is the final thickness of the air film
sc

corresponding to a bright fringe of order 𝐦𝐧 in the same position.

.O

Then 𝟐𝐝𝟏 = 𝐦𝟏 𝛌 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟐𝐝𝟐 = 𝐦𝐧 𝛌

By subtraction we get 𝟐 𝐝𝟐 − 𝐝𝟏 = 𝐦𝐧 − 𝐦𝟏 𝛌 Or 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐍𝛌

𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐝𝟐 − 𝐝𝟏 = 𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝐧 − 𝐦𝟏 = 𝐍 .

𝟐𝐝
Hence we get 𝛌 = . This is the wavelength of the light wave coming from the source.
𝐍

83 / 89
b) Determination of Wavelength Difference by Michelson Interferometer:

If a source of light consists of two wavelengths 𝛌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛌𝟐 which differ slightly, then two
sets of fringes corresponding to the two wavelengths are produced in a Michelson
interferometer. By adjusting the position of the
mirror 𝐌𝟐 of the interferometer, the position is
found when the fringes are very bright. In this
position, the bright fringe due to 𝛌𝟏 coincide
with the bright fringes due to 𝛌𝟐 . When the

s.
mirror 𝐌𝟐 is moved, the two sets of fringes get

ic
out of step because their wavelengths are
different.

pt
When the mirror 𝐌𝟐 has been moved through a

,O
certain distance, the bright fringe due to one set will coincide with the dark fringe due to
the other set and no fringes will be seen in this case. Again by moving the mirror 𝐌𝟐 , a
es
position is reached when a bright fringe of one set falls on the bright fringe of the other
and the fringes are again distinct. This is possible when the 𝐦𝐭𝐡 order of the longer
av
wavelength coincides with the (𝐦 + 𝟏)𝐭𝐡 order of the shorter wavelength.
W

Let 𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝟐 be the changes in the order at the centre of the field when the mirror 𝐌𝟏
is displaced through a distance 𝐝 between two consecutive positions of maximum
distinctness of the fringes.
n,
tio

Then we get 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝟏 𝛌𝟏 = 𝐦𝟐 𝛌𝟐 . If 𝛌𝟏 is greater than 𝛌𝟐 we have 𝐦𝟐 = 𝐦𝟏 + 𝟏

𝛌𝟐
Thus we can have 𝟐𝐝 = 𝐦𝟏 𝛌𝟏 = (𝐦𝟏 + 𝟏)𝛌𝟐 and hence 𝐦𝟏 = 𝛌 .
𝟏 −𝛌𝟐
illa

𝛌 𝛌 𝛌𝟏 𝛌𝟐
Hence we get 𝟐𝐝 = 𝛌 𝟏−𝛌𝟐 𝐎𝐫 𝛌𝟏 − 𝛌𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝐝
sc

Taking 𝛌 as the mean wavelength of the two wavelengths 𝛌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛌𝟐 , the small difference
.O

𝛌𝟐
𝚫𝛌 is given by 𝚫𝛌 = 𝛌𝟏 − 𝛌𝟐 = 𝟐𝐝 .

This is wave length difference as measured by Michelson Interferometer.

c) Determination of Refractive Index by Michelson Interferometer:

When a tube containing a gas is introduced in the path of the beam going towards 𝐌𝟐 , a
path difference equal to 𝟐(𝛍 − 𝟏)𝐥 is introduced between the two interfering beams. Here
𝛍 is the refractive index of the gas and 𝐥 is the length of the tube i.e. the equal distance of

84 / 89
both the mirrors 𝐌𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝟐 from the beam splitter. If 𝐦 fringes cross the centre of the
field of view then we have 𝟐 𝛍 − 𝟏 𝐥 = 𝐦𝛌. Knowing 𝐥, 𝐦 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛌, 𝛍 can be calculated.

In the path of the rays going towards 𝐌𝟐 a

tube containing air at atmospheric pressure is
introduced and the fringes are obtained in the
centre of the field of view. In that case,
refractive index of the air at various pressures

s.
can be determined. Let the length of the tube

ic
be 𝐥 and let it contain air at atmospheric

pt
pressure.

,O
The tube is completely evacuated and 𝐦 fringes cross the centre of the field of view. The
path difference introduced between the two interfering beams is 𝟐(𝛍 − 𝟏)𝐥. So we get
es
𝐦𝛌
𝟐 𝛍 − 𝟏 𝐥 = 𝐦𝛌 and this gives 𝛍 = + 𝟏 . This is the refractive index of that gas as
𝟐𝐥
av

introduced in the path of one light wave coming from the beam splitter.
W
n,
tio
illa
sc
.O

85 / 89
 Diffraction and Holography

1. Fraunhofer Diffraction: Single Slit:

When Monochromatic or Polychromatic light passes through narrow hole or be
obstructed by some opaque obstruction then while passing through that hole or while

s.
passing beside that obstruction, the light will bent and produces band of maximum or

ic
minimum intensity. This is diffraction of light and that intensity band obtained on the

pt
screen is called diffraction band or diffraction pattern.

,O
For such diffraction of light it is important to note that
i) The hole should be very narrow and comparable with the wavelength of light
es
ii) The amount of deviation of light will depend on the shape of hole
av
iii) For bending of light the diffraction pattern will appear on the screen when placed in
front of the hole or obstruction and although the pattern is the combination of alternate
W

maximum and minimum intensity but the minimum intensity is no longer zero
iv) For diffraction of sound wave or radio wave, bending of the wave may occur when
n,

wave passes through the window or door of room because of the fact that the wave
length of such wave is comparatively large. On the other hand since wave length of visible
tio

light is very small, diffraction of such light needs very narrow hole
illa

v) Diffraction of light confirms wave nature of light but it does not confirm whether light
longitudinal or transverse
sc

vi) For this diffraction, the intensity distribution occurs on the screen and it appears due to
the superposition of secondary waves coming from a single wave front. It does not require
.O

coherent sources
vii) Diffraction pattern basically occurs by the principle of superposition like interference
but in this case only at least a single hole or obstruction is required.
Diffraction of light has two classes which are Fresnel’s class of diffraction and Fraunhofer
class of diffraction.
In case of Fresnel’s class of diffraction, both source and screen are placed at the finite
distance from hole or obstruction.

86 / 89
On the other hand, for Fraunhofer class of diffraction, the source will be placed at infinite
distance or far away from the hole or obstruction. Thus in case of Fraunhofer class of
diffraction, the incoming wave front will be always plane wave front.
Suppose a single slit 𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟐 is taken on which the parallel light wave coming from distant
source is incident and the corresponding incident plane wave front is AB. L is a converging
lens which is placed in front of that hole and a screen is placed at the focal point of that
convex lens on other side of it.
Now according to Huygens’
construction, the secondary

s.
wave lets are emitted from each

ic
and every point on that incoming
plane wave front at slit region in

pt
all possible direction and those

,O
secondary wave lets will
superimpose at several
secondary focal point on the
es
screen after refraction through
the lens and as a result alternate
av

maximum and minimum

intensity pattern will appear on
W

the screen. It is single slit diffraction. Now consider that the secondary wave coming from
the central point O of the slit is expressed by the function 𝐀𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 where 𝐀 is the amplitude
n,

of that wave and 𝛚 is the angular frequency.

tio

As shown in figure, for the superposition of two waves coming from the points O and P at
Q, the path difference will be ∆= 𝐱𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉.
illa

𝟐𝛑 𝟐𝛑
Hence their phase difference will be 𝛗 = 𝐏𝐍 = . 𝐱𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝛃𝐱 . For this phase
𝛌 𝛌
difference, the wave coming from P can be now expressed by the complex form 𝐀𝐞𝐣(𝛚𝐭−𝛃𝐱)
sc

Hence in the hole region, the resultant displacement for superposition of all the waves
.O

coming from the small elementary region dx will be 𝐝𝐲 = 𝐂𝐀𝐞𝐣(𝛚𝐭−𝛃𝐱) 𝐝𝐱 where C is a

proportional constant.
Finally for the superposition of all the secondary waves coming from the hole region at a
certain angle 𝛉, the resultant displacement at the point Q on the screen will be
𝐚 𝛃𝐚
+𝐚/𝟐 𝐞−𝐣𝛃𝐱 +𝟐 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂
𝐲= −𝐚/𝟐
𝐂𝐀𝐞𝐣(𝛚𝐭−𝛃𝐱) 𝐝𝐱 = 𝐂𝐀𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 [ −𝐢𝛃 ] 𝐚 = 𝐂𝐀𝐚 𝛃𝐚
𝟐
. 𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 = 𝐂𝐀𝐚 . 𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 = 𝐀 𝐨 𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭
− 𝛂
𝟐 𝟐

𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂 𝛃𝐚
By this calculation, the resultant amplitude will be 𝐀 𝐨 = 𝐂𝐀𝐚 where 𝛂 = .
𝛂 𝟐

87 / 89
 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛂
So the intensity at that point Q on the screen will be 𝐈𝐨 = 𝐤𝐀𝟐𝐨 = 𝐤 𝐨 where
𝛂𝟐
𝛃𝐚 𝛑𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉
𝐤 𝐨 = 𝐤 (𝐂𝐀𝐚)𝟐 and 𝛂 = = .
𝟐 𝛌

Now this parameter 𝛂 depends on the diffraction angle 𝛉 . So mathematically if the

intensity of diffraction fringe at that point be maximum or minimum then we must have
𝐝𝐈𝐨 𝟐𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛂 𝟐𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛂
=𝟎 ⟹ − = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂 = 𝟎 𝐎𝐫 𝛂 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂
𝐝𝛂 𝛂𝟐 𝛂𝟑

Hence by mathematical analysis it can be shown that 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂 = 𝟎 . For this condition
𝐝𝟐 𝐈𝐨 𝐝𝟐 𝐈𝐨
= +𝐯𝐞 and for the condition 𝛂 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂 we see that = −𝐯𝐞.

s.
𝐝𝛂𝟐 𝐝𝛂𝟐

Here the condition

ic
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂 = 𝟎 will give the

pt
minimum intensity of single slit

,O
diffraction pattern and the other
condition 𝛂 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂 will give
maximum intensity of that es
diffraction pattern.
Now for minimum intensity of
av

that diffraction pattern

W

𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂 = 𝟎 ⟹ 𝛂 = 𝐧𝛑
where 𝐧 = ±𝟏, ±𝟐, ±𝟑, … ….
n,

but 𝐧 ≠ 𝟎 . Now for 𝐧 = 𝟎 we also have 𝛉 = 𝟎 z Thus the mathematical condition

𝐧 = 𝟎 will give maximum intensity of the
tio

𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛂
central fringe (because 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝛂→𝟎 =𝟏 )
𝛂
illa

This central maximum is called principal

maxima. But for this single slit diffraction
sc

pattern the position of minimum intensity

will be guided by the other values of
.O

𝛂 = ±𝛑, ±𝟐𝛑, ±𝟑𝛑, … …

Again although the other condition
𝛂 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛂 gives the positions of secondary
maxima in single slit diffraction pattern, but
solving of this equation is not analytically
possible. Only the graphical solution of this
equation is possible.
By this graphical solution, it can be shown that the position of the secondary maxima in
this single slit diffraction pattern is given by

88 / 89
 𝟑𝛑 𝟓𝛑 𝟕𝛑
𝛂=± ,± ,± ,……
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
Here the intensity distribution of this diffraction pattern is shown in figure. And by this
distribution, we have for central maxima of single slit diffraction pattern of the screen
𝛌
𝐚𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 = 𝛌 ⟹ 𝛉 ≈ 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝛉 = .
𝐚
𝟐𝛌
Thus the angular diameter of these central maxima will be 𝟐𝛉 = which is inversely
𝐚
proportional to the width of the slit.

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