NWT > B. Oscillations and won Simple harmonic motion « resonance = analogy between + electrioal and mechanical oscillating systems = waves on & string = standing waves = traveling waves = Energy transfer of a wave = sound waves = Doppler effect. Introduction The vibrations or oscillations of any system constitutes one of the most important fields of study in engineering physics, Examples of such oscillations are pendulum of a clock, loaded spring and LC circuit, The knowledge about the resonant behaviour of mechanical and electrical systems is very much essential for all engineers. Oscillatory Motion Basie concepts Motion When the position of a body (object) in the space changes with time, the body is said to be in motion. This motion is classified into four types. They are, @) Translational motion (i) Rotational motion Gi) Periodic motion (iv) Vibrational or Oscillatory motion (@) Translational motion If the position of a body varies linearly with time, then the motion is said to be translational motion. A car/train moving on a straight road, a ball moving on the ground are examples of translational motion,Engineering Phys) 32 ng_Physics (ii) Rotational motion ea ; If the position of a body as @ whole does not change linearly but it rotates at the same position about an axis, . time : pie rotational motion. then the motion is said to be The examples for rotational motion are the motion of e, about its axis, the rotation of a flywheel on its ball bearings, (iii) Periodic motion : If a body repeats its movement at regular intervals of time, its motion is said to be periodic. Motion of planets round the sun, rotational motion of the earth about its own axis, motion of a pendulum, oscillations of a loaded spring etc. are examples for periodic motion. (iv) Oscillatory motion An oscillatory motion is one in which a body moves to and fro repeatedly about a mean position. Motion of a pendulum, oscillations of a loaded spring, to and fro motion of the prongs of tuning fork are examples for oscillatory motion. Oscillatory motion is a special case of periodic motion in which a body vibrates to and fro about its mean position. Though all oscillatory motions are periodic, all periodic motions are not; oscillatory. Periodic Motion A motion in which the body describes the same path in same way continuously after equal interval of time is known as the periodic motion. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a special case of periodic motion with the following characteristics. ¢ This is a type of periodic motion. * The acceleration of the body is directly proportional to ~ its displacement from a fixed point and always directed — towards the fixed point. « The restoring force developed in the body tries to bring the particle to its equilibrium position. ;Qsolllations 3.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION An oscillatory motion is harmonie if the displacement can be expressed in terms of sine or cosine function. An oscillator executing harmonic motion is called a harmonic oscillator. Definition When the acceleration of particle is directly Proportional to its displacement from its equilibrium position and it is always directed towards equilibrium position, then the motion of the particle is said to be simple harmonic motion, Characteristics of simple harmonic motion A particle executing simple harmonic motion must satisfy the following conditions: ¢ The motion must be periodic. ¢ The motion is oscillatory ie., to and fro along a straight line or along a curved path about a mean position. ¢ The restoring force on the body is proportional to the displacement and its direction is always towards the mean position, Example for simple harmonic motion ¢ Simple Pendulum It consists of an ideally massless inextensible string hanging from a rigid support A with a point mass (i.e, the bob of the pendulum) connected to its other end B. This is shown in fig. 3.1. When the bob is displaced to a new position P and released, oscillations start and it is in simple harmonic motion.34 If @ is the condition of the and the accelerat! of mg (i.e, mg CO angle made by the string at P with the string AB,m and g are the magg ion due to gravity, then the radial 3 @) balances the tension 7 across A mgcos0 Fig. 3.1 Simple pendulum The tangential component ‘mg sin 0’ tries to b i at B. These way oscillations continue till it stops due to: e Spring - Mass system Here a mass block is connected to a spring either V or horizontally from rigid supports as shown in fig.3. (b). On displacing the mass from its equilibrium (a) Vertically connected (b) Horizontally co Fig. 3.2 SHM by mass block connected withOsea Oscillations 45 * Vibrations of a tuning fork * Vibrations of a sonometer wire. * Vertical oscillations of the liquid column in a U-tube. * Angular oscillations of a torsion pendulum. Types of Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M) The simple harmonic motions are of two types: (i) Linear Simple Harmonic Motion If the displacement of a particle executing S.H.M. is linear, the motion is said to be linear S.H.M. The examples of linear S.H.M. are motion of simple pendulum, the motion of prongs of vibrating tuning fork, the motion of a point mass attached to a spring. (ii) Angular Simple Harmonic Motion If the displacement of a particle executing SHM. is angular, the motion is said to be angular S.H.M. The example of angular S.H.M. is torsional oscillations of a solid. Essential conditions for S.H.M If a is linear acceleration and y is displacement from equilibrium position, then essential condition for linear S.H.M. is a«-y eration and @ angular displacement If o is angular accel then essential condition for angular ‘from equilibrium position, S.H.M. is ae -8 oO P A Definitions concerning S.H.M ¢ Q Let a particle execute S.H.M along t O. (Fig. 3.3) straight line QoP, abou ‘ig. Sigel 1. Amplitude The maximum displacement position is called the amplitude. It i OP =0Q =A. of a particle from mean s denoted by A. Then.36 2. Oscillation rm ni When particle moves from mean position O to P, from P to Q via O and then comes pate from Q to oO, particle is said to complete one-oscillation i.e., 1 oscillation = motion from O to P + from P to from Q to O or motion (from P to Q + from Q to P) 3. Period ' The time taken by the particle executing S.H.M to com, one oscillation is called the period or periodic tim denoted by T. 4. Frequency The number of oscillations completed by particle’ second is called its frequency. It is denoted by n i. Frequency n= period (T) The position and direction of motion of a vibrating par is different at different instants. The direction of motion of a vibrating physical quantity called the phase. instantaneous positio1 particle is expressed A If S.H.M is expressed as y = Asin (wt + 6); the quantity (ot + 9) is the Phase of vib rating particle. Differential Equation of S.H.M A particle executing S.H.M is called a hi oscillator. Consider a Particle of mass m executes S.H. a straight line (Fig. 3.4). Let y be the displacement of from mean Position at any time ¢. ‘Oscillations a On basic condition of S.H.M. the restoring force F is Proportional to displacement y and oppositely directed i.e., Fo-y or F=-hy @) where k is a constant of proportionality and it is called spring factor or force constant. Its unit is newton / metre (N/m) 2 d fi item = is acceleration at any instant ¢, then by t Newton’s second law of motion F= mass x acceleration = ma 2 Pom 22 ae dt From the eqns. (1) and (2), we have 2 m Fy _- by, dt 2 moe + ky = 0 dt 2 eu ge eed) gig | Me ie., a + oy =0 ~ (3) 2a : where w =— is a constant and is known as angular m frequency. The eqn. (3) represents the differential equation of SHM. A general solution of the differential equation for SHM is given bywhere A is the amplitude of the SHM. is the initial phase. jon Angular harmonic mot mai consider & particle executing angular motion. At any instant ¢, let @ be rhe angular displac id measured from the equilibrium position of Me similar to equation (3) for the linear case, we have ae @ is a constant, Torsional oscillations of a stretched wire, oscillations of a freely suspended bar magnet in a magnetic field ete. examples of angular harmonic motion. Velocity and Acceleration We have displacement y=A sin (wt + 6) Differentiating with respect to time ¢, we get BE ane Pitan =Awcos(wt + >) or cos: (wt + 9) = 1 ~ sin’ (ot + 9) v = A@NVi - sin’ (t+ 6) (sin? (oe +9) + cos (wt +6)=1) =Ao sin (wt + 9) Gor) (cost (ut 9) =1 - sina v=@ [oe sere v= OVA = 7 a)Oscillations 39 Equation (7) gives velocity of particle at any displacement y. Maximum velocity is obtained by putting y = 0. ‘max =A (at mean position) Thus, velocity is maximum and equal to Aw at mean position and velocity is zero at y=+A (extreme positions), Acceleration Differentiating eqn (6) with respect to time 1, dv acceleration a = ra =-A © sin(ot + 6) or - (8) Equation (8) gives acceleration of oscillating particle at any displacement y from the mean position. This equation is the standard equation of S.H.M. For maximum acceleration at y = A (extreme position) -. Maximum acceleration, Gay = wA (at extreme position) Minimum acceleration is obtained by putting y = 0 @,,;, = 0 (at mean or equilibrium position). Period of S.H.M The time taken by the particle to make one complete to and fro motion is called the time period of the S.H.M. It is also equal to the time required by the particle to trace an angle 21. Since © is the uniform angular velocity. 2n T @ = or, Period, T = 2 HS o3.10 Engineering PI From eqn (8), we have e " Sint f iy ap 2 ae + bP +o y = fsin pt The eqn, (4) is the differential e of the forced oscillation of the para "Oscillations 3.15 The solution of differential eq. (4) y =A sin (pt - 8) (5) where A is the steady amplitude of vibrations We have ji Ae tate ae (@ -p) +46 Pp] wa (6) eet The equation (6) gives the amplitude of forced vibration while eqn (7) its phase. It is clear that the amplitude and phase of the forced oscillations depend upon (o ay ie., they depend upon the driving frequency (p) and the natural frequency of the oscillator («). (3.2) RESONANCE It is a special case of forced vibration The phenomenon of making a body vibrate with its natural frequency under the influence of another vibrating body with the same frequency is called resonance. If the frequency of the external periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of oscillation of the system, we get oscillations of larger amplitude. This is known as resonance. Amplitude becomes larger if the two frequencies are exactly equal to each other. v = v’ (Fig 3.8)U RG: % Fig. 3.8 Amplitude of resonance Theory of resonant vibrations (a) Condition of amplitude resonance: In case of forced vibrations, we have 9 rE ow Vo-p) + 4b p that the amplitude varies wi a particular value of p, Jhenomenon is known The expression (1) shows the frequency of the force p. For amplitude becomes maximum. This pl amplitude resonance. The amplitude is maximum when Vo-p) + 4b p minimum dy ee ae EOD) + 4b p} = 0 or 2(@-p’)" (2p) + 40° (2p) = of the impressed force becomes the resonant frequency.Oscillations 347 This frequency of the system both in presence of damping, . ‘ a — and in the absence of damping i.e. ay p=o Condition for Amplitude Resonance Using equation (1), A is maximum only when, For negligible damping, 6 = 0 and As 630, A,,. 3 &. Sharpness of Resonance The rate of change (fall) of amplitude with the change of forcing frequency on each side of resonant frequency is known as sharpness of resonance. Figure 3.9 shows the variation of A with forcing frequency at different conditions of damping. (2) Sharp resonance Flat resonance Amplitude (A) Oo oy P Forcing frequency Fig. 3.9 Sharpness of resonance curveae ee de when there ; litude when there . ve hows the amp! t Fe ay * In this case the amplitude an at p= (©. This case is never attained in practice due to fj as ‘3 present, resistance, as slight damping 18 Oe (2) and (3) shows the effect of damping ont The curve t the peak of the curye » amplitude. It is observed tha’ towards the left. i Examples (i) Two tuning forks of same frequency are mounted suitable sound boards and arranged as shown in fig 7 Fig. 3.10 Vibrations in Tuning forks If one is made to vibrate by striking it with a hammer, it is found that the second fork is also in vibrations. with hand. The second fork continue to vibrate ant sound will be heard. (ii) A column of army marching over a bridge can se vibrations of the bridge. If the frequency of foot | matches with natural frequency of the bridge, resonance, the bridge may vibrate with a amplitude. This may cause damage to the bridge. Hence are asked to break steps while crossing a brid;Oscillations 3.19 (iii) Radio receivers Radio stations have their own broadcasting (carrier) frequencies. When we tune our radio set, the moment the radio tuner attains exactly the frequency of any broadcasting station, we start hearing the loud and clear sound of that particular radio station due to resonance. (iv) Other Examples The loud speaker diaphragm vibrates according to the amplifier circuit. Air column in resonance tube vibrates as per the vibrations of the tuning fork. Simple experiment on Resonance From an elastic chord a number of pendulums are suspended (Fig. 3.11). If the pendulum P is set into vibrations, other pendulums also vibrate because they are attached to the same chord. But their motions are not regular. Fig. 3.11 Resonance in pendulum motion After sometime we will notice that Q which is the same length as P, vibrate with maximum amplitude and of same time period. They are said to be in resonance. Other pedulums of different lengths are not in resonance.(3.3) MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ANALOGUES — In a mechanical vibration, the particles have both kinetic énergy and potential enorgy, The total energy is sum of these two energios, The enorgy of mechanical oscillator is damped by an opposing force (for example air friction). 2 d a The equation of motion is given by ae +o y = 0. When re mechanical oscillator velocity and i 7 4 ; : oscillator is free from damping. The (pendulum ete) is described by its position, acceleration, In the case of spring An electrical oscillating system has potential energy wl is stored as electrostatic energy in a capacitor. Further du electrical oscillation, there is a transfer of energy be' electrical and magnetic energy in the case of LC oscillators. The electrical oscillator system is described by d current I = ri and frequency of oscillator is given byoscillations: 3.24 Now we shall discuss similarity between mechanical system and electrical system. One of the most popular and very important resonant system is an electrical system. It consists of a capacitance (C), an inductance (ZL) and a resistance (R ). It is shown in figure 3.12, I Cc iene {3 +4-4 V=V,sinat () R L a I Fig. 3.12 Electrical System Here V = Vj sinwé is applied voltage. It is distributed among the three components as, dl Vy =IR and V, = LS Ga Vv Here, V,-+Vp-+-Vo ‘ dl ’ ie., Dt + IR + a = V,sinot F = 7% Since, J = at 2 Le., peek + rf e va = Vosinwt dt ae: = si or, - Tade CL : sin @tEngineering py : gz En Pg The equation (1) is similar to forced vibration. equation of motion for i dx r on + onx = fsin ot AQ) dt’ F fangirl eA aos where 2k = = @ = my and Tie A It is noted that the mass m is analogous to self inductance L,r to the electrical resistance R, compliance s to the electrical capacitance C, the force F to the voltage Vo, the displacement dx : x to the charge q, ‘and the velocity 7, to the electrical current 4 a [4 Here the mechanical quantities and electrical analogues are given below: Mechanical Quantities Electrical Analogues Displacement (x) Charge (q) Velocity mass (mm) = 4 Current | J = az Inductance (L) Force (F) Voltage (V,) Damping constant (r) Stiffness constant (S) @’m Quality factor, Q = - = For mechanical oscillator eames co-efficient k = —— 2m Mechanical Impedance [Eos electrical oscillator Resistance (R) Reciprocal of capacitance _ Quality factor Q = ose Damping co-efficient, k = al Electrical ImpedanceOscillations 3.23 Mechanical Quantities Electrical Analogues Z mo | + (2 jem ) ( +R 1 u t 1 2L Relaxation time | > | = —— Relaxation time | = | = <= k r hk R Potential =i? a ONE R ENE LEY ie Svs Electrostatic energy = ine Kinetic energy of moving mass|Electromagnetic energy of 1 2 . ae =ymx moving charge = 2 Lq 3.4] WAVES ON STRING A string is a cord whose length is very long compared to its diameter and which is uniform and flexible. The transverse vibration of strings, is the principle to the working of many stringed instruments like sitar, guitar and violin etc. When strings are plucked they are set into transverse vibration and under suitable conditions they produce musical note. Vibrations of Stretched String “If the string vibrates with nodes at the fixed ends and an antinode at the centre, then it is said to vibrate in fundamental mode. The frequency corresponding to this mode of vibration is known as frequency of fundamental mode”. Consider a string stretched between two supports. When the string is plucked in the middle, transverse progressive waves are produced. These waves travel towards each end of the wire.3.24 Engineering Physics The speed of the waves is given by, « Y where T is tension in the string and m is mass per unit length (linear density) of string. These waves are reflected at both ends of the string: The the incident waves and reflected waves transverse stationary waves. (Fig 3.13) A Fundamental or 5 N first harmonic i. B A Aas a Second harmonic ni N is B A A <—— 1-2 ——> A A » N N, } oe B Third A is a In the stationary pattern, nodes are formed at and an antinode in the middle. Ju 98 A 2 where i is wavelength. If 7 be the length between fixed ends ofOsoillations 3.25 If n be the frequeney of vibration of string, then » (3) Substituting for o from equation (1) ws Spring] 2s Tah where, 7’ = tension in the string m= mass per unit length of string t length of string In general, fundamental frequene where p is number of loops and it takes values as p=1,2,3,. For p = 1, n, = a z. called fundamental frequency p= 2, n= ial z =2n called 1" over tone Laws of Transverse vibrations of stretched strings The frequency of vibration of the fundamental note of a stretched string is given by, where T is the tension and m is mass per unit length of string.3.26 i h ) Law of lengt! : ; : The fundamental frequency of vibration of g ; ing is inversely proportional to the length, when tha a mass per unit length of the string remain a ‘ ren ele when T and m are constant .e., 1 fj [ara wna (ii) Law of tension The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string is directly proportional to the square root of tension wi the length and the mass per unit length of the string y constant. ie, 2 VT when / and m are constant or (iii) Law of mass The fundamental frequency of vibration of a stret string is inversely proportional to the square root of the n per unit length when the tension and the length of the sti remain constant. 3 i i Le., ne a when T and 1 are constant : Wave Motion ¢ An important type of motion that occurs i wave motion, another by means of itself is not transpocillations os 3.27 es of Wave Motion There are two types of wave motion They are }, Longitudinal wave motion 2. Transverse wave motion ; Longitudinal Wave Motion Wave motion in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean Position along the same line as propagation of wave is called longitudinal wave motion. ’ Cm tC Re Cee REG Fig. 3.14 Longitudinal Wave Motion Example: sound waves. In longitudinal wave motion region of more particles (compression) and region of less number of particle (rarefaction) are produced. 2. Transverse Wave Motion Wave motion in which particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position at right angle to the direction of propagation is called transverse wave motion. OSEEIIE peak Trough Fig. 3.15 Transverse Wave Motion Example: waves on the surface of water.progressive roe wave is defined ag 8 A Bay which is transmitted con motion ey ae from one particle tg — the same medium and travel forward ‘th f tl i Mm (38) PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVES OR TRaye, arbi WAVES ive wave originating from a Po! nd deneagtind through an isotropic medium ; etal velocity in all directions, ‘ At any instant, the wavefront (locus of all vibrating with the same phase) will be spherical If the sphere of very large radius is conside spherical wave will approximate to a plane sy the waves are called plane progressive waves, Relation between Frequency, Wave -S; Wavelength By definition, the distance travelled by the war time-period (T) of vibration of particle = wave length ( ie Distance travelled in 7 second =i “. Distance travelled in one second = 4 is But, distance travelled in one second = wave §| substituting value of T from the relation betw (n) and time Period T i : Cs ie, T= nD (1), we geta =aiat —_—$_— scl god of theme ee frequency (1) * wavelength ngth (A) phis relation holds for all types of wav. es, spe ion | 8 wave Equation of a Plane - Progressive Wave On propagation of wave in a mediu , execute simple harmonic motion m, the particles of medium jf a plane progressive wave is propagating in a medi sitive Xe ree edium along positive xX axis. (Le. from left to right) (Fig. 3.16) then the positions of particles O,A,B,C,D ... are shown fl AS the wave propagates, all the particles of the medium begin to vibrate to and fro about their mean positions. In fig. 3.16 the instantaneous positions of these particles are shown. The curve joining these positions represents the progressive wave. Displacement Direction of wave propagation Fig. 3.16 Let the particle begin to vibrate from origin O at time t= 0. If y is the displacement of the particle at time ¢, then equation of particle executing simple harmonic motion about 0 is _@ where A is amplitude and © is angular velocity. If n is frequency of wave, then @ = 277.330 Engineering Phy As the advancing wave reaches the other particles A,B,C... (beyond particle at O), these particles begin to vibrate. If v is the speed of wave and C is a particle at a distance x from O, then the time taken by wave to reach point C. is i aig ie seconds, therefore the particle will start vibrating e seconds after particle at O. Therefore, the displacement of particle C at any time ¢ will 7 x be the same which was of particle O at time | ¢ ~ | : EG The displacement of particle O at time (« = 3 can be obtained by substituting (! = = in place of t in equation (1). Thus the displacement of particle C at a distance x from origin O at any time ¢ is given by om If T is time-period and 4 the wavelength of wave, then This equation is expressed asOscillations Osc 3.31 z rnin Sloe -=] | T Ree = Asin— y Bing eats) Tate 0 =] Y=51L| Sp ae ru a , ae a SY VeISIO ar 7 uae v ney vee The equation (2) is also expressed as aren 2nn y = Asin ot - 2x] [.:ann=0) i v 2n 2n ae o But jaa k = propagation constant n Qn yen Asin (at. =e) |» ) | Any of the equations (2), (3), (4), (5), represents the equation of a plane progressive wave propagating along positive direction of X — axis. Out of these, the equation (5) is often used. If the wave is propagating along negative X - axis, then the equation of plane progressive wave may be obtained by — x forx, so that equation (5) takes the form substituting mee (6) If is the phase difference between this wave travelling along positive X - axis and another wave, then the equation be expressed as of the wave may y = Asin[ (wt - fx) + 01 oD3,32 e most general equation of is is th | 0 progressive, Wave travelling along positive X-axis. Differential equation of wave motion . 20 We have y = Asin> (ut - x) ee au oos = (ot - x) Then, ae = dy -20A Qn, Also, et ee cos = (ut — x) Particle velocity dt ae From eqn. (2) dy_d(dy)_d(-2nA on peau | cle, | dua ch | Penh) co Tt-a)] ae sas canes de dk\de|~ dx |, x (uta) x ae A an Y el 3 Paes sin (vt = x) Pe From eqn. (1) i t fy Tan A 2n ) 2x ae df a | 2 sins (ot = is particle acceleration. ied Comparing eqns (4) and (5), we haveations epteto0 ——— & 3.33 or ao fa = dy v dé his is the di ‘ e shown that Le equation of wave ‘i can s case of progressive war F ‘motion. It py & and x by v 8¢ ves, if, t is increased , _ 20 then y = @ = en ) sin >" [v(t + 8) - @ + vd0) y= oie ae nN + vbt-x - vt] ek ly Thus, in a time 6, the wave advances through v dt. Hence, v is the velocity of the wave. Characteristics of progressive wave 1, Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean position. The disturbance progresses onward from one particle to another. 2. The particles of the medium vil amplitude. 3. Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its predecessor along the propagation of the wave. 4. The phase of every particle ¢ 5. No particle remains permanent] each vibration, the particles are at extreme positions, different P position at different time. 6. Transverse progressive waves are and troughs. Longitudinal N essions and rarefactions. cross the medium in the gressive wave. brate with same hanges from 0 to 2n. ly at rest. Twice during momentarily at rest articles attain the 3 are characterised by crests waves are characterised by comp! 7. There is a transfer of energy 4 direction of propagation of pro}3.34 ‘ cles have the same maximum y, rough the mean position, g, All the parti they pass th ; 9, The displacement, velocity and accelera; particle separated by mA are the same, who” an integer. a 36) STATIONARY WAVES OR STANDING Wave When two progressive waves of same ampli; wavelength travelling along a straight line in ¢ directions superimpose on each other and then waves are formed. Analytical method Let us consider a progressive wave of amplit wavelength A travelling in the direction of X axis, — 3 t ‘ m= asinanl 7-5] ial This wave is reflected from a free end and if the negative direction of X axis, then 1 ae eee ES) @ ar eninas(T +5] ie _ According to principle of superposition, the displacement is ouorh ~ YE Igcillations: ® 3.35 Using trignometry identity This is the equation of a stationary wave (@) A points where x = a 3A = 0, a’ “9” the values of Qnx C08. eee a -. A = 2a. At these points of the resultant amplitude is maximum. They are called antinodes (Fig. 3.17). i a (ii) At points where x =7—, any Ea . the values of 4 4 4 2m x = 0. cos Bt .. A = 0. The resultant amplitude is zero at these points. They are called nodes (Fig. 3.17). NK ACA N N Fig. 3.17 Stationary waves The distance between any two successive antinodes or nodes is equal to & and the distance between an antinode and A a node is 7. t 2. 2nd (iii) When ¢ = 0. Ds Te eo 27s then’ sin ——- = ‘0, the ee) 2 Ts displacement is zero. T BT AoT * ua (iv) When ¢ = 4, 32, 3% ete, ... sin "at = +1, the displacement is maximum.3.36 i aves Characteristics of ppaseone w enh 1. The waveform remains statio} ‘ s are formed alternately. 2, Nodes and antinode: e displacement is zero are called ints wher" : ; Scar here the displacement is maximum and the points W called antinodes. 4. Pressure changes are maximum @ at antinodes. t nodes and minim, 5. All the particles except those at the nodes, execute simple harmonic motions of same period. 6. Amplitude of each particle is not the same, it maximum at antinodes and decreases gradually and zero at the nodes. 7. The velocity of the particles at the nodes is zero. I increases gradually and is maximum at the antinod 8. Distance between any two consecutive nodes antinodes is equal to & whereas the distance betw $ f Xd a node and its adjacent antinode is equal to tL 9. There is no transfer of energy. All the particles of the” medium pass through their mean posi simultaneously twice during each vibration. 10. Particles in the same segment vibrate in the phase and between the neighbouring segments, particles vibrate in opposite phase. Standing waves in strings In musical instruments like sitar, violin, etc. sound is produced due to the vibrations of the stretched strings. transverse progressive wave moves towards the end of the and gets reflected. Thus stationary waves are formed.Mechanics mM 5. Many ern aircraft instrumen Pilot, bomb “sights, artificial horizon, indicators, etc. have bee controlled principles. (1.15) TORSIONAL PENDULUM A circular metallic disc Suspended using a thin wire that executes rotational oscillation is pendulum. uch as automatic called torsional ¢ It executes torsional oscillations, whereas a simple pendulum executes linear oscillations. Description A torsional pendulum consists of a metal wire suspended vertically with the upper end fixed. The lower end of the wire is connected to the centre of a heavy circular disc (Fig.1.45). Fig. 1.45 Torsional Pendulum Expression for the period of Oscillation of a Torsional Pendulum When the disc is rotated by applying a twist, the wire is twisted through an angle 6. Then, the restoring couple set up in the wire=C0 where C = couple per unit twist. If the disc is released, it oscillates with angular velocity 2 in the horizontal plane about the axis of the wire. dt oscillations are known as torsional oscillations. If ae is the angular acceleration produced in the d dt : and I its moment of inertia of the disc about the axis of wire then, ) Applied couple = 7 oe dt At equilibrium, applied couple = restoring couple 2 ye. ca dt Here — ve sign signifies that the restoring couple is opposite to applied couple (torque) do at S19 8 w+ (3) This equation represents simple harmonic motion which 2 8 shows that angular acceleration ( a is proportional to angular t displacement ® and is always directed towards the mean position. — Hence, the motion of the disc being simple hi : motion, the time period of the oscillation is given by Dis) ment ERB AccelerationMechanics 1.73 ees (4) [x T=2n C Uses of Torsional Pendulum Torsional pendulum is used to determine 1. Rigidity modulus of the wire 2. Moment of inertia of the disc 3. Moment of inertia of an irregular body. Determination of Rigidity Modulus of the Wire The rigidity modulus of the wire is determined by the following equation z Rec) Experiment A circular dise is suspended by a thin wire of length (1) and rigidity modulus (n). The top end of the wire is fixed firmly in a vertical support. The disc is then rotated about its centre through a small angle and set free. It executes torsional oscillations. The time taken for 20 complete: oscillations is noted. The experiment is repeated and the mean time period (7) of oscillation is measured.1,74 Engineering Physics The length / of the wire is measured. This length is then changed by about 10 cm and the experiment is repeated. The readings for five or six different lengths of wire are measured. The disc is removed and its mass (M) and radius (R) are measured, The time period of oscillation is rane Q) Squaring on both sides, we have 2 7 oe[ ft & 2 2 4nt = “(Ay a Cc 4 avy ag ta Tuitew Substituting couple per unit twist C = “gin eqn (4), 2 2 Weshaveg Ta == len 2S na! a .. (5) cnr cTnr 20 rearranging the equation (5), The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire -- (6) MR I- moment of inertia of circular disc = 2 where M—~ Mass of the circular disc R- Radius of the disc