1.

History of Linux

●​ Unix made in 1960s by AT&T Bell Labs​

●​ Unix is multi-user and multitasking OS​

●​ 1973: Unix changed to C language by Dennis Ritchie​

●​ 1985: Andy Tanenbaum made Minix (Unix-like OS)​

●​ 1990: Linus Torvalds made a new kernel (Linux)​

●​ 1994: Linux Kernel Version 1.0 released​

●​ Linux is open-source​

2. Linux Meaning

●​ Linux is an open-source Unix-like kernel​

●​ Linux + GNU tools = Full Unix-like OS​

●​ Distributed by companies as packages​

3. Open-Source Software

●​ Source code is free to use, edit, share​

●​ No royalty fees​

●​ Helps learning, fixing, and improving software​

●​ Gives better control, training, security, and stability​

4. Why Use Linux?

●​ Linux is open-source​

●​ Linux is secure and stable​

●​ Linux runs in many systems (servers, markets, smart TVs)​

●​ Linux powers cloud, containers, storage, and big data​

●​ Linux works with command-line and scripts​

●​ Linux is used with Microsoft in data centers​

●​ Linux has free virtualization​

5. Linux Distribution

●​ Linux distribution = Kernel + programs + libraries​

●​ Gives easy way to install and use Linux​

●​ Uses tools from GNU, Sendmail, Apache, etc.​

6. Linux Distros

●​ Distro = Complete Linux OS made by a vendor or community​

●​ Some distros for desktop, some for servers​

●​ Community distros are free​

●​ Enterprise distros need subscription​

7. Linux and Unix Types

●​ Linux examples: Red Hat, Fedora, Ubuntu, Suse, CentOS​

●​ Unix examples: Oracle Solaris, IBM AIX, HP UX​

8. More Linux Distros

●​ Android, Arch Linux, Elementary OS, Gentoo, Kali Linux​

●​ Linux Mint, Manjaro, MX Linux, Puppy Linux​

●​ Slackware, Solus, Debian, Zorin OS, Mandriva​

9. Red Hat

●​ Red Hat is top company for open-source software​

●​ Works on Linux, cloud, storage, virtualization​

●​ Red Hat makes RHEL (Red Hat Enterprise Linux)​

●​ RHEL is commercial and fully supported​

●​ Process: Fedora → CentOS Stream → RHEL​

●​ Red Hat gives updates, support, and tools​

●​ CentOS Stream is base for RHEL​

10. Fedora vs CentOS Stream vs RHEL

Feature Fedora CentOS Stream RHEL

Lifecycle 12–18 5 years 10

months years

Vendor certified No Usually not Yes

Documentation by Community Community Red Hat

Expert support No No Yes

Security team No No Yes

Security certification No No Yes

Free to use Yes Yes No

Management tools No No Yes

11. Layers of Linux System

●​ Users: Human users​

●​ User Interface: Communication path to system​

●​ Standard Utilities: Shell, editors, compilers​

●​ Standard Library: open, close, read, write​

●​ Operating System: Process, memory, file system, I/O​

 ●​ Hardware: CPU, memory, disk, terminals​

12. Kernel (Core Part)

●​ Kernel is loaded during system start​

●​ Manages memory, CPU, devices, processes​

●​ Gives services to user programs​

13. Shell (Command Interface)

●​ Shell runs when user logs in​

●​ Accepts user commands and gives to kernel​

●​ Shell can run scripts (Shell scripts)​

●​ Many shell types:​

○​ sh (Bourne)​

○​ csh (C Shell)​

○​ ksh (Korn)​

○​ bash (Bourne, default in RHEL)​

○​ tcsh (TC Shell)​

●​ Shell prompt shows ready state:​

○​ Root: [root@host ~]#​

○​ User: [user@host ~]$​

14. Linux Server Hardware (Dell and HP)

●​ Dell and HP make entry, mid, high-end Linux servers​

●​ Models: Tower, Rack, Blade​

●​ x86 architecture​

●​ Cost-effective​

15. Linux OS Installation Methods

●​ From DVD​

●​ From hard disk​

●​ From network:​

○​ NFS (Network File System)​

○​ HTTP / HTTPS​

○​ FTP​

16. PuTTY

●​ Open-source terminal software​

●​ Used to connect via SSH​

●​ Uses port 22​

●​ Download from: https://www.putty.org​

17. Shell Prompt Structure

●​ [root@host ~]# → Root user​

●​ [user@host ~]$ → Normal user​

●​ Format: username@hostname: prompt​

●​ Useful commands:​

○​ whoami – Shows username​

○​ hostname – Shows system name​

○​ pwd – Shows current path​

18. Linux Command Syntax

●​ Format: command <options> <arguments>​

●​ Example: ls -l /etc​

○​ ls – command name​

○​ -l – option​

○​ /etc – argument​

19. ls -l Command Output

●​ File Type and Permission: drwxr-xr-x​

●​ Links: Number of hard links​

●​ User Owner: File owner​

●​ Group Owner: Group name​

●​ Size: File size in bytes​

 ●​ Date and Time: Last modified​

●​ File Name: Name of file​

20. File System Hierarchy

●​ / – Root directory​

●​ Common directories:​

○​ /bin – Basic user commands​

○​ /boot – Boot files​

○​ /etc – Config files​

○​ /home – User folders​

○​ /root – Admin folder​

○​ /usr – User software​

○​ /var – Logs​

○​ /tmp – Temp files​

21. Absolute vs Relative Paths

●​ Absolute Path: Starts with /​

○​ Example: /home/john/portfolio​

●​ Relative Path: No starting /​

○​ Example: cd home, cd john​

22. Linux is Case Sensitive

●​ demo, Demo, DEMO are different files​

23. Basic Linux Commands

●​ whoami – Show username​

●​ hostname – Show system name​

●​ history – Show past commands​

●​ man – Manual help​

●​ date – Show current date​

●​ cal – Show calendar​

●​ uname – System info​

●​ uptime – Running time​

●​ who – Show logged users​

●​ logname – Show login name​

24. man Command Usage

●​ man <command> – Show help for command​

●​ Sections:​

○​ NAME – Topic name​

○​ SYNOPSIS – Command format​

○​ DESCRIPTION – Basic use​

○​ OPTIONS – Switches​
 ○​ EXAMPLES – Sample usage​

○​ FILES – Related files​

○​ SEE ALSO – Linked topics​

○​ BUGS – Known errors​

○​ AUTHOR – Contributor name​

25. uname Command Options

●​ uname -s – Kernel name​

●​ uname -r – Kernel release​

●​ uname -v – Compile time​

●​ uname -m – Machine type​

●​ uname -p – Processor​

●​ uname -i – OS architecture​

●​ uname -o – Operating system​

26. ls Command Options

●​ ls – List files​

●​ ls -l – Long list​

●​ ls -a – All files​

●​ ls -R – Recursive​

●​ ls -ld – Show directories​

●​ ls -lrt – Sort by time​

27. File Types

●​ - – Regular file​

●​ d – Directory​

●​ l – Link file​

●​ c – Character device​

●​ s – Socket​

●​ p – Pipe​

●​ b – Block device​

28. File Navigation Commands

●​ cd – Change directory​

●​ ls – List files​

●​ pwd – Show current path​

29. File Management Commands (Basic)

●​ mkdir – Make folder​

●​ touch – Make file​

●​ cat – View file​

●​ echo – Print text​

●​ cp – Copy file​

●​ mv – Move or rename​
 ●​ rm – Delete file​

●​ rmdir – Delete folder​

30. File Management Commands (Advanced)

●​ find – Search file​

●​ which – Command path​

●​ head – Top lines​

●​ tail – Bottom lines​

●​ more / less – Read page by page​

●​ grep – Pattern search​

31. Pipe and Redirection

●​ | – Send output to next command​

●​ > – Send output to file​

●​ >> – Append to file​

●​ Example:​

○​ echo "text" > file1 – Save​

○​ cat > file2 – Create and enter data​

○​ ls -l > /tmp/out-file – Redirect output​

32. Text Editors

●​ Used to write and edit text​

●​ Common editors:​

○​ cat, nano, vi, vim, gedit, pico​

33. vi Editor Modes

●​ Command Mode: Give commands​

●​ Insert Mode: Type text​

●​ Escape Mode: Switch to command​

34. vi Editor Commands

●​ vi filename – Open file​

●​ Esc + x – Delete one char​

●​ Esc + dd – Delete line​

●​ Esc + ndd – Delete n lines​

●​ Esc + vy – Copy line​

●​ Esc + p – Paste after​

●​ Esc + P – Paste before​

●​ Esc + r – Replace char​

●​ Esc + R – Replace line​

●​ Esc + u – Undo​

●​ Esc + /xyz – Search xyz​

 ●​ Esc + $ – End of line​

●​ :w – Save​

●​ :q! – Quit no save​

●​ :wq – Save and quit​

●​ :set number – Show line numbers​

●​ :set nonumber – Hide line numbers​

35. Hard Link vs Soft Link

Feature Hard Link Soft Link

Inode Same as original Different

Works with Files only Files and directories

File system Same only Across file systems

Broken by delete No Yes

Command ln file ln -s file

linkname linkname
USER & GROUP ADMINISTRATION – SHORT NOTES

1. User Types:

●​ Root = superuser. Full control.​

●​ System users = used by services.​

●​ Regular users = for daily use.​

2. UID:

●​ Each user has UID (User ID). OS uses UID to track users.​

3. User Commands:

●​ id = Show user details.​

●​ ls -l = Show file owner.​

4. Create User:

●​ useradd username​

●​ Options:​
-d = home folder​
-c = description​
-s = shell​
-u = UID​
-G = group​
-m = create home​

5. Modify User:

●​ usermod = Change user info​

Example: usermod -c "name" -m demo​

6. Password Commands:

●​ passwd = change password​

 ●​ passwd username = set for user​

●​ passwd -l username = lock user​

●​ passwd -u username = unlock user​

7. Delete User:

●​ userdel demo = remove user only​

●​ userdel -r demo = remove user + home​

8. Danger in Delete:

●​ Files stay with same UID.​

●​ New user with same UID owns old files.​

●​ Use find / -nouser -o -nogroup to find unowned files.​

CONFIGURATION FILES

1. /etc/passwd:

●​ Stores user info​

Format: username:x:UID:GID:desc:/home:/shell​

2. /etc/shadow:

●​ Stores passwords​

●​ Only root can read​

●​ Stores expiry, warn days, etc.​

3. /etc/group:

●​ Stores group info​

●​ Format: groupname:x:GID:user list​

4. /etc/gshadow:

●​ Stores group passwords​

●​ Only root can read​

ACCOUNT POLICY

1. chage Command:

●​ View/set password policy​

●​ Options:​
-m = min days​
-M = max days​
-I = inactive days​
-E = expiry date​
-W = warning days​

GROUPS

1. Group = set of users

●​ GID = Group ID​

2. Group Commands:

●​ groupadd = create group​

●​ groupmod -n new old = rename​

●​ groupdel = delete group​

3. Types:

●​ Primary = main group​

●​ Supplementary = extra groups​

 ●​ id = show groups of user​

SWITCH USER

1. su = switch user

●​ Needs password​

●​ su - = full login shell​

●​ Root can switch without password​

SUDO

1. sudo = run command as root

●​ Needs user password​

●​ Members of wheel group can use​

●​ File: /etc/sudoers​

●​ Edit with: visudo​

FILE PERMISSIONS

1. Owners:

●​ User, Group, Others​

●​ User permission > Group > Others​

2. Permissions:

●​ Read = r​

●​ Write = w​
 ●​ Execute = x​

3. Types:

●​ File:​
r = read content​
w = change content​
x = run file​

●​ Directory:​
r = list files​
w = add/delete files​
x = go inside​

SYMBOLIC MODE

1. Use letters:

●​ u = user​

●​ g = group​

●​ o = others​

●​ a = all​

2. Change Permission:

●​ + = add​

●​ - = remove​

●​ = = set exact​

3. Examples:

●​ chmod g+wx filename​

●​ chmod ugo=rwx filename​

●​ chmod go-rw filename​

 ●​ chmod -R g+rwx /home/dir1​

NUMERIC MODE

1. Values:

●​ Read = 4​

●​ Write = 2​

●​ Execute = 1​

2. Examples:

●​ chmod 777 = full for all​

●​ chmod 754 = user full, group rx, others r​

●​ chmod 750 = user full, group rx, others none​

●​ chmod 644 = user rw, group r, others r​

OWNERSHIP

1. chown = change owner

●​ chown user file​

●​ chown -R user folder​

●​ chown user:group file​

2. chgrp = change group

DEFAULT PERMISSION – UMASK

1. Defines default file permission

2. Values:

●​ Root = 022​

●​ User = 002​

3. Files:

●​ /etc/login.defs​

●​ /etc/bashrc​

ACL – ACCESS CONTROL LIST

1. Use ACL to give permission to one user or group

2. Commands:

●​ Add: setfacl -m u:user:rwx file​

●​ View: getfacl file​

●​ Remove: setfacl -x u:user file​

SPECIAL PERMISSIONS

1. Setuid (u+s):

●​ File runs as file owner​

●​ Value = 4​

2. Setgid (g+s):

●​ File runs as group owner​

 ●​ Directory: new files get same group​

●​ Value = 2​

3. Sticky Bit (o+t):

●​ Users can delete only own files​

●​ Used in /tmp​

●​ Value = 1​

Disk Management & LVM – Short Notes

1.​ File Systems Used​

• XFS used as default file system in RHEL​
• Ext4 also supported​
• GFS2 used in shared disks (multi-node)​

2.​ XFS vs Ext4​

• XFS can increase size, cannot reduce​
• Ext4 can reduce size​

3.​ Mount Point​

• Directory used to access file system​
• File systems are mounted during boot​
• Many devices can be used under one tree​

4.​ Partition Table​

• 64-byte data structure​
• Stores basic disk partition info​

5.​ Block Device Files​

• Stored in /dev directory​

6.​ Device Naming​

• SATA/USB: /dev/sda, /dev/sdb​
• Virtual (virtio-blk): /dev/vda, /dev/vdb​
• NVMe: /dev/nvme0, /dev/nvme1​
• SD card: /dev/mmcblk0, /dev/mmcblk1​

7.​ Need to Add Disk​

• Used when space is full​
 • Needed for extra applications​

8.​ Commands​
• df – check disk space​
• fdisk – create partition​

9.​ Add Disk – Steps (VM)​

• Power off VM​
• Settings → IDE Controller → Hard Drive → Add → New​
• Choose VHDX format​
• Choose Dynamically Expanding​
• Give name and size​
• Finish setup​

Add New Disk in Hyper-V – Very Short Notes

1.​ Step 1 – Open VM Settings​

• Right-click on VM name in Hyper-V Manager​
• Click Settings​

2.​ Step 2 – Select Controller​

• Choose IDE Controller 0​
• Click Hard Drive → Click Add​

3.​ Step 3 – Create Virtual Disk​

• Select Virtual hard disk​
• Click New​

4.​ Step 4 – Choose Format​

• Choose VHDX​
• Supports up to 64 TB​

5.​ Step 5 – Choose Disk Type​

• Select Dynamically Expanding​
• Uses less space, grows when needed​

6.​ Step 6 – Name and Location​

• Give file name (Example: Disk2.vhdx)​
• Choose save location​

7.​ Step 7 – Configure Disk​

• Choose size (Example: 5 GB)​
• Or copy from physical disk​
 8.​ Step 8 – Final Setup​
• Review all info → Click Finish​
• Click Apply and then OK​

9.​ Important​
• Do not replace main VHDX file​
• Always create new disk under IDE Controller 0​

Disk Partition and Commands – Short Notes

1.​ df Command​
• Shows total, used, free disk space​
• -h shows values in MB, GB​

2.​ du Command​
• Shows folder or file disk usage​

3.​ fdisk Command​

• Used to create partitions​
• Start with: fdisk /dev/sdb​

4.​ View Devices​

• lsblk – Show all devices​
• fdisk -l – Show all partitions​

5.​ Create Partition – Steps​

• Press n → Add partition​
• Press p → Select Primary partition​
• Enter start and end sector (press Enter to use default)​
• Press p → Print partition table​
• Press w → Save changes​

6.​ Change Partition ID to 8e (for LVM)​

• Press t → Change ID​
• Enter partition number​
• Press L → Show ID list​
• Press w → Save​

7.​ Format Partition​

• Use mkfs -t ext4 /dev/sdb2​

8.​ Mount Partition​

• mkdir /data​
 • mount /dev/sdb2 /data​

9.​ Unmount Partition​

• umount /data​

10.​Delete Partition​
• Use d option inside fdisk​

11.​Fstab File​
• Located at /etc/fstab​
• Stores file system mount info​

LVM – Very Short Notes

1.​ LVM Full Form​

• Logical Volume Manager​

2.​ LVM Purpose​

• Combine many disks​
• Create flexible storage​

3.​ LVM Structure​

• Hard disks → Partitions​
• Partitions → Physical Volumes (PV)​
• PV → Volume Group (VG)​
• VG → Logical Volume (LV)​
• LV → Mounted to folders (Example: /data1, /home)​

4.​ Example Setup​

• File system: datafs​
• Logical volume: datalv​
• Volume group: datavg​
• Physical volumes: /dev/sda1, /dev/sdb1, /dev/sdc1​

5.​ Important LVM Commands​

Type Commands

Physical Volume pvcreate, pvdisplay, pvs, pvremove

Volume Group vgcreate, vgdisplay, vgs, vgremove, vgextend,
vgreduce

Logical Volume lvcreate, lvdisplay, lvs, lvremove, lvextend,

lvreduce

6.​ ​
fstab Entry Format​
• Device MountPoint FileSystem defaults 0 0​

7.​ Remove Logical Volume – Steps​

• Remove entry from /etc/fstab​
• Run umount /mountpoint​
• Run lvremove /dev/vgname/lvname​

BOOT Process – Very Short Notes

1.​ POST​
Power On Self Test checks hardware condition.​

2.​ BIOS (Basic Input Output System)​

Checks system integrity. Finds boot loader from hard disk or CD-ROM. Runs MBR.​

3.​ MBR (Master Boot Record)​

First sector of hard disk. Size is 512 bytes. Runs GRUB.​

4.​ GRUB2 (Boot Loader)​

Loads kernel. Default path: /boot/grub2/grub.cfg. Runs Kernel.​

5.​ Kernel​
Loads RAM disk and drivers. Mounts root file system. Starts system initialization.​

6.​ Systemd (Init Process)​

Starts systemd process (PID 1). Starts services. Shows login shell. Uses config:
/etc/systemd/system/default.target.​
Runlevels – Very Short Notes

1.​ Runlevel Meaning​

Runlevel means Linux system state.​

2.​ Runlevel 0​
Shutdown or halt system.​
Command: init 0 or shutdown.​

3.​ Runlevel 1​
Single user mode.​
Used for troubleshooting.​

4.​ Runlevel 2​
Multi-user mode without network.​

5.​ Runlevel 3​
Multi-user mode with network.​
Default runlevel. Commonly used.​

6.​ Runlevel 4​
User-defined.​

7.​ Runlevel 5​
Multi-user mode with network and GUI.​

8.​ Runlevel 6​
Reboot system.​
Command: init 6 or reboot.​

9.​ Command to check runlevel​

who -r​

Process Management – Very Short Notes

1.​ Process​
Running program in Linux. Each has a PID (Process ID).​
Every process comes from systemd. A process can create a child process.​

2.​ Commands​

●​ ps – Show current shell processes​

 ●​ ps -f – Show parent PID​

●​ ps -H – Show in hierarchy​

●​ ps -e – Show all system processes​

●​ ps -u username – Show processes of user​

●​ kill -l – Show all signals​

●​ kill 2345 – Stop process with PID 2345​

3.​ top​
Shows real-time system info. Shows CPU, memory, priority, and nice value.​

4.​ Monitoring Files​

●​ CPU info: cat /proc/cpuinfo​

●​ Memory info: cat /proc/meminfo​

Special Process Types – Very Short Notes

1.​ Daemon​
Background process. Starts at boot. Stops only by manual action or shutdown.
Managed by systemd.​

2.​ Zombie Process​

Finished process. Still shows in process table.​

3.​ Fork​
Parent process copies address space to create child process.​

Service Management – Very Short Notes

1.​ Service Meaning​

Service means one or more background daemons.​

2.​ Systemctl Tool​

Used to manage services in systemd.​
 3.​ Service Status Check​

●​ systemctl is-active name – check if name is active​

●​ systemctl list-unit-files -at service – shows enabled, disabled, static

services​

4.​ Types of Services​

●​ Enabled – Starts at boot​

●​ Disabled – Does not start at boot​

●​ Static – Cannot start automatically​

Common Systemctl Commands

Action Old Command New (Systemctl)

Command

Start service name start systemctl start name

Stop service name stop systemctl stop name

Restart (if running) service name systemctl try-restart

condrestart name

Restart service name systemctl restart

restart name

Status of one service name status systemctl status name

service
Status of all service systemctl
services --status-all

Enable at startup chkconfig name on systemctl enable name

Disable at startup chkconfig name off systemctl disable

name

Shutdown shutdown -h now systemctl poweroff

Reboot shutdown -r now systemctl reboot

Network Management – Very Short Notes

1.​ NetworkManager​
Controls and manages active network connections. Keeps network working.​

2.​ Basic Commands​

●​ ip link show – Show all network interfaces​

●​ ip addr – Show device address​

●​ ping – Check connection between hosts​

●​ ip route – Show routing info​

nmcli (Network Manager CLI) Commands

Action Command

Show all profiles nmcli connection show

Show active profiles nmcli connection show active

Show device status nmcli device status

Connect to profile nmcli connection up id

CONNECTION

Disconnect profile nmcli connection down id

CONNECTION

Wifi status nmcli radio wifi

Turn Wifi on/off nmcli radio wifi on / off

List Wifi networks nmcli device wifi list

Refresh Wifi list nmcli device wifi rescan

Connect to SSID nmcli device wifi connect

SSID
Port Accessibility – Very Short Notes

1.​ /etc/services​
Maps service names to port numbers and protocols.​

2.​ netstat​
Shows network connections, routes, interfaces.​

3.​ lsof -i​

Shows open files using network.​
Example: lsof -i TCP:22 – show process using port 22​

4.​ lsof -i TCP@127.0.0.1​

Shows all TCP processes using localhost.​

ss (Socket Statistics)

●​ ss – Show open sockets​

●​ ss -l – Show listening ports​

●​ Options:​

○​ -t – TCP sockets​

○​ -u – UDP sockets​

○​ -p – Show processes using sockets​

Package Management – Very Short Notes

1.​ YUM (Yellowdog Updater Modified)​

Used to install, update, and manage packages with auto dependency handling.​
Central repository saves effort in package management.​

2.​ YUM Advantages​

●​ Multiple repositories​

●​ Simple config​
 ●​ Fast operations​

●​ Handles dependencies correctly​

●​ Works well with RPM​

3.​ YUM Important Commands​

●​ yum list available – show all available packages​

●​ yum list installed – show installed packages​

●​ yum install httpd – install httpd package​

●​ yum update httpd – update httpd​

●​ yum search samba – search for samba packages​

●​ yum repolist – show enabled repositories​

●​ yum clean all – clean YUM cache​

RPM (Red Hat Package Manager)

1.​ RPM Meaning​

Low-level tool to install .rpm packages manually. Cannot auto-resolve
dependencies.​

2.​ RPM Package Name Parts​

Example: coreutils-8.32-31.el9.x86_64.rpm​

●​ Name: coreutils​

●​ Version: 8.32​

●​ Release: 31​

●​ Arch: x86_64​

3.​ RPM Important Commands​

●​ rpm -qa – list installed packages​

 ●​ rpm -q httpd – show version of httpd​

●​ rpm -qi httpd – detailed info​

●​ rpm -ql httpd – list files installed by httpd​

●​ rpm -qc httpd – list config files​

●​ rpm -qd httpd – list docs​

●​ rpm -ivh httpd.rpm – install httpd​

DNF (Dandified YUM)

1.​ DNF Meaning​

Replaced YUM in RHEL9. Faster and improved. Same commands as YUM. YUM is
linked to DNF.​

2.​ DNF Important Commands​

●​ dnf list httpd – show info about httpd​

●​ dnf info httpd – detailed info​

●​ dnf install httpd – install httpd​

●​ dnf update – update all packages​

●​ dnf remove httpd – remove httpd​

●​ dnf group list – show package groups​

●​ dnf group install webserver – install group​

●​ dnf history – show transaction history​

Virtualization – Very Short Notes

1.​ Meaning​
Running many operating systems on one machine using a hypervisor.​

●​ Guest = virtual OS​

●​ Host = real hardware​

Types of Virtualization

1.​ Full Virtualization​

●​ Uses hardware support​

●​ No change in guest OS​

●​ Example: KVM in Red Hat​

2.​ Para Virtualization​

●​ Guest OS needs changes​

●​ Uses special drivers or modified kernel​

●​ Example: Xen​

KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine)

●​ Type-1 (bare-metal) hypervisor​

●​ Part of Linux kernel (version 2.6.20 or newer)​

●​ Runs many guest machines​

●​ Needs system virtualization support​

●​ Requires package installation to create VMs​

VMware ESXi

●​ Type-1 hypervisor from VMware​

●​ Runs multiple virtual machines​

●​ Installed directly on server hardware​