Selected topics in Water Resource

CVEN 442

Hydraulic Structures
 Content

▪ Functions of hydraulic structures

▪ Function and stability of different dams
▪ Weirs
▪ Spillways
▪ Culverts
▪ Stilling basins
 Functions of hydraulic structures
• Storage structures are designed to hold water under hydrostatic conditions.
• Conveyance structures are designed to transport water from one place to another
 Functions of hydraulic structures
• Waterway and navigation structures are designed to support water transportation
• Coastline structures are constructed to protect beaches, inlets, harbors, and buildings
 Functions of hydraulic structures
• Measurement or control structures are used to quantify the discharge in a particular
conduit
• Energy-conversion structures are designed to transform hydraulic energy into
mechanical or electric energy
 Functions of hydraulic structures
• Sediment- and fish-control structures are designed to direct or regulate the movement
of the nonhydraulic elements in water
• Energy-dissipation structures are used to control and disperse excess hydraulic energy
to prevent channel erosion.
Dams: Functions and Classifications
Structure of Dam
Crest
Upstream
Spillway
MWL (inside dam)
Max. level

NWL
Normal
water level

Free board
Sluice way

Down stream
Gallery

Heel
Toe
• Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side

• Toe: contact on the downstream side

• Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest

• Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.

• Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the
construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.

• Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the
reservoir to downstream side

• Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear
the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
Stability of Gravity Dams
The major forces acting on a gravity dam are

1. the hydrostatic force (FHS),

2. the weight of the dam (W),

3. the uplifting force on the base of the dam (Fu),

4. the sedimentation (silt deposit) pressure force (Fs),

5. the earthquake force on the dam (FEQ), and

6. the earthquake force caused by the water mass

behind the dam (FEW).

7. Wind pressure

8. Ice pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure
• The hydrostatic force acting on the upstream face of the dam
may be resolved into a horizontal component and a vertical
component.

• The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acts along

a horizontal line H/3 above the base of the dam. This
horizontal force creates a clockwise moment about the toe of
the dam and it may cause the dam to fail by overturning. It
may also cause dam failure by shearing along a horizontal
plane at the base of the dam. 𝑷𝑯𝑺

• The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is equal to

the weight of the water mass directly above the upstream
face of the dam. It acts along a vertical line that passes
through the centroid of that mass.

• The vertical component of hydrostatic force always forms a

counterclockwise moment about the toe. It is a stabilizing
factor in gravity dams.
1 Hydrostatic pressure
▪ The intensity of the pressure varies
triangularly, with a zero intensity at
the water surface, to a value ‘𝛾𝑤 H’
at the depth h below the water
surface

▪ Force due to water pressure

1
𝑃ℎ = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
2

▪ The force P acts at a height h/3 from

the base of the dam
 Weight of the dam
▪ Weight of the dam is the major resisting
force
▪ Unit length of the dam is considered
▪ Total weigh of the dam acts at the center of
the gravity of this center
▪ The largest stability force is the weight of
the dam, which depends not only on the
dimensions but also on the material used.
▪ The unit weight of most masonry or solid
earth materials is approximately 2.4 to 2.6
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 times that of water.
▪ Weight of the dam mainly prevents the
dam failure due to overturn and sliding
 Uplift pressure
▪ Uplift pressure is the upward pressure exerted by water as the
seeps through the body of the dam or its foundation
▪ Acting in a direction opposite to the weight, this force should
be minimized in every dam design if possible.
▪ It weakens the foundation and tends to overturn the dam.
▪ Seeping water exerts pressure on the base of the dam, and it
depends upon water head.

𝛾𝑤 𝐻ʹ
𝛾𝑤 𝐻

1
𝑈 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐵𝐻ʹ + 𝐵 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐻ʹ
𝑈 2
1
𝑈 = 𝐵𝛾𝑤 𝐻 + 𝐻ʹ
2
 Uplift pressure
If the foundation soil is porous and
homogeneous, then the uplifting
pressure on the base varies linearly
from full hydrostatic pressure at
the heel of the dam (i.e., ) to the
full hydrostatic pressure at the toe.

The magnitude of the uplifting

force as well as the overturning
(clockwise) moment can be greatly
reduced by installing an
impermeable cutoff wall.

The cutoff wall alters the seepage

course by lengthening the pathway,
thus reducing the seepage and
uplifting force downstream for the
cutoff wall.
 Silt pressure

▪ Silt gets deposited against the

upstream face of the dam.

▪ If h is the height of the silt deposited,

then the force exerted by this silt in ℎ
addition to external water pressure
𝑷𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒕
would be
1
▪ 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 = 2 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 ℎ2 𝐾𝑎
ℎ
▪ 𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 acts at 3 from the base.
 Wave pressure

▪ Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by

the blowing winds, which cause pressure towards the
downstream side
▪ Waves pressure depends upon the wave height
ℎ𝑤 = 0.032 𝑉. 𝐹 + 0.763 − 0.271𝐹1/4 (F < 32 km)
ℎ𝑤 = 0.032 𝑉. 𝐹 (F > 32 km)

𝑉 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟)

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 (𝑘𝑚)
𝑃𝑤 = 2.4 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤
3
▪ 𝑃𝑤 acts ℎ𝑤 at above the still water surface.
8
 Ice pressure Earthquake forces

▪ Ice may be formed on the water ▪ If the dam is to be designed for a

surface of the reservoir in cold location, which is susceptible to
countries. Ice may sometimes melt earthquakes, allowance must be made
and expand. for stresses generated by the
▪ The dam face has to resist the thrust earthquakes.
exerted by the expanding ice ▪ An earthquake produces waves, which
▪ The magnitude of this force varies can shake the earth upon which the
from 250 – 1500 KN/m2, depending dam is resting, in all the possible
on the temperature variations directions
Earthquake forces
▪ When the vertical acceleration is acting
▪ For the design purpose, earthquake
upward direction, it would lift the
waves has to be resolved in vertical
foundation of the dam upward and close to
and horizontal components
the dam increasing the effective weight of
▪ Horizon acceleration αʹℎ
the dam
▪ Vertical acceleration αʹ𝑣 𝑊
• The effective weight of the dam = 𝑊+
𝑔
× αʹ𝑣

▪ When it is acting downward direction, the

▪ The values of these acceleration are
foundation will try to move downward
generally expressed as percentage of
away from the dam – reducing the
acceleration due to gravity; αʹ = 0.1 g
effective weight of the dam.
or 0.2 g, etc. 𝑊
• The effective weight of the dam = 𝑊−
𝑔
× αʹ𝑣
 ▪ Horizontal acceleration acting towards the reservoir,
causes a momentary increase in the water pressure, as
the foundation and dam accelerates towards the
reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to
its inertia.
▪ The extra pressure exerted by this process is known as
hydrodynamic pressure

hydrodynamic pressure 𝑃𝑒 = 0.555𝑘ℎ 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2

4𝐻
The force acts as the height of = 0.424 𝐻 above the base
3𝜋
4𝐻
The moment exerted by this hydrodynamic force 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑃𝑒 = 0.424 × 0.555𝑘ℎ 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
3𝜋
𝑀𝑒 = 0.233 𝑘ℎ 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2
 Stability analysis
Overturing
If the resultant of all the
forces acting on a dam at W1
any of the section, passes 2H/3 W2
outside of the toe, the dam W3
shall rotate and overturn
about the toe. P
H/3

σ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆 = 𝑈
σ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
d1 d2 d3
Its value generally varies between 2 to 3
d

𝐻
෍ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃 × + 𝑈 × 𝑑𝑢
3

𝑑1 𝑑2 2𝑑3
σ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑊1 × + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑊2 × + 𝑑3 + 𝑊3 × + 𝑊𝑤 × 𝑑𝑤
3 2 3
 Stability analysis
Sliding
- A dam may fail in sliding at its base. W1
2H/3 W2
- Sliding will occur when the net
W3
horizontal force exceeds the
P
frictional resistance developed at
H/3
that level
𝑈

d1 d2 d3
μσ𝑊
𝐹. 𝑂. 𝑆. =
σ𝐻 d

μ =The coefficient of friction between the earth support Here

and concrete = 0.65 to 0.75 σ 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝐹𝑤 −U

The value of F.O.S. should be greater than 1 𝐻=𝑃

 Stability analysis

Compression or crushing Tension

- A dam may fail by the failure of its - Masonry and concrete gravity dams are

materials usually designed in such a way that no

- The compressive stress may exceed tension is developed anywhere, because

the allowable stress and the dam the materials can not withstand

material may get crushed sustainable tensile stresses

- When these dams are subjected to such

stresses, the used materials may crack

Problem 1

A concrete dam retaining water is shown

below. If the specific weight of the concrete
is 23.5 KN/m3, find the factor of safety
against overturning, and the pressure
intensity on the base. Assume there is a
hydrostatic uplift that varies uniformly
from full hydrostatic head at the heel of the
dam to zero at the toe and the coefficient
of friction between the dam foundation is
0.45.
Redraw the free board diagram
Identify the forces and the points these forces are acting
Let us assume 1 m length of the dam perpendicular to the
cross-section

Determine the forces acting:

The horizontal forces

𝐹𝑥 = 𝛾ℎ𝑝 𝐴
𝐾𝑁
𝐹𝑥 = 9.81 3 7𝑚 14𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚
𝐹𝑥 = 961.38 𝐾𝑁

The vertical forces

𝐹𝑦 = 𝛾𝑉𝑦
𝐾𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 9.81 3 11𝑚 3𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚
𝐹𝑦 = 323.73 𝐾𝑁

𝑊1 = 𝛾𝑐 𝑉1
𝐾𝑁
𝑊1 = 23.5 15𝑚 4𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚3
𝑊1 = 1410 𝐾𝑁
𝑊2 = 𝛾𝑐 𝑉2
𝐾𝑁
𝑊2 = 23.5 0.5 8𝑚 12𝑚 (1𝑚)
𝑚3

𝑊2 = 1128 𝐾𝑁

𝑊3 = 𝛾𝑐 𝑉3
𝐾𝑁
𝑊3 = 23.5 15𝑚 3𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚3

𝑊3 = 1057.5 𝐾𝑁

𝑈 = γ𝑉𝑈
𝐾𝑁
𝑈 = 9.81 0.5 15𝑚 14𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚3

𝑈 = 1030.05 𝐾𝑁
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑:

2
ℎ𝑝 = (14𝑚)
3

ℎ𝑝 = 9.33 𝑚

𝑥1 = 10 𝑚

2
𝑥2 = 8𝑚 = 5.33 𝑚
3

𝑥3 = 7.5 𝑚

𝑥4 = 13.5 𝑚

2
𝑥5 = 15𝑚 = 10 𝑚
3
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑥

෍ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 = 961.38 𝐾𝑁

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑦

෍ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +

𝑅𝑦 + 𝑈 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3 + 𝐹𝑦

𝑅𝑦 + 1030.05 = 1410 + 1128 + 1057.5 + 323.73

𝑅𝑦 = 2889.18 𝐾𝑁
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕:

𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2 + 𝑊3 𝑥3 + 𝑊4 𝑥4
𝑅𝑀 = (1410)(10) +(1128) 5.33 + 1057.5 7.5 + 323.73 13.5
𝑅𝑀 = 32413.85 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕:

𝑂𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥 14 − ℎ𝑝 + 𝑈𝑥5
O𝑀 = 961.38 14 − 9.33 + 1030.05 10
𝑂𝑀 = 14790. 15𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚
 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒆

𝑅𝑀−𝑂𝑀
𝑋ത =
𝑅𝑦

32413.85 − 14790.15
𝑋ത =
2889.18
ഥ = 𝟔. 𝟏 𝒎
𝑿

𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚

𝜇𝑅𝑦 (0.45)(2889.18)
Factor of safety against sliding, 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 𝑅𝑥
=
961.38

𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 1.35

𝑅𝑀 32413.85
Factor of safety against overturning, 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑜 = 𝑂𝑀 = 14790.15
𝐹𝑂𝑆𝒐 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟗
Practice 1

A gravity dam is depicted in Figure below. If a force ratio against sliding of 1.3 is required, is the 33 m dam
safe? Assume the coefficient of friction between the dam base and the foundation is 0.6, the specific gravity of
concrete is 2.5, and full uplift forces exist on the base of the dam. Neglect earthquake and sedimentation forces.
The horizontal forces
𝐹𝑥 = 𝛾ℎ𝑝 𝐴
𝐾𝑁
𝐹𝑥 = 0.5 9.81 𝑚3 30 𝑚 30𝑚 1𝑚
𝐹𝑥 = 4415.4 𝐾𝑁

The vertical forces

𝑊 = 𝛾𝑐 𝑉2
5+(1/1.5)*33 = 27 m
𝐾𝑁
𝑊 = 2.5 ∗ 9.81 3 0.5 (5 + 27)(33)(1𝑚)
𝑚

𝑊 = 12936 𝐾𝑁

𝑈 = γ𝑉𝑈
𝐾𝑁
𝑈 = 0.5 9.81 30𝑚 27𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚3

𝑈 = 3973.05 𝐾𝑁
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑥

෍ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 = 4415.4 𝐾𝑁

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑦

෍ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +

𝑅𝑦 + 𝑈 = 𝑊

𝑅𝑦 + 3973.05 = 12936

𝑅𝑦 = 8962.95 𝐾𝑁

𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚

𝜇𝑅𝑦 (0.6)(8962.95)
Factor of safety against sliding, 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 𝑅𝑥
= 4415.4

𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 1. 𝟐𝟐
Practice 2

The concrete Dam of trapezoidal cross section as shown in figure below has the following dimensions T = 1 m, B= 4.3m,
H= 9 m, and h= 6 m. The weight of the concrete is 24 KN/m3. For the given conditions, evaluate the following:

i. The total hydrostatic force on the dam in KN per meter length

ii. The resisting moment of the dam to overturning, in KN-m per meter length of Dam
iii. Factors of safety against sliding if the coefficient of friction between the supporting ground and concrete is 0.50

1m

9m

6m

4.3 m
Let us assume 1 m length of the dam perpendicular to the cross-
section

Determine the forces acting:

1m
The horizontal forces
𝐹𝑥 = 𝛾ℎ𝑝 𝐴
𝐾𝑁
𝐹𝑥 = (0.5) 9.81 3 6𝑚 6𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚
𝑭𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝑲𝑵 9m

The vertical forces

𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 6m

𝐾𝑁
𝑊1 = 24 1 𝑚 9 𝑚 1 𝑚 = 216
𝑚3

𝐾𝑁 4.3 m
𝑊2 = 24 0.5 9 𝑚 3.3 𝑚 1 𝑚 = 356.4
𝑚3
𝑊 = 572.4 𝐾𝑁

𝑈 = γ𝑉𝑈
𝐾𝑁
U = 0.5 9.81 6 𝑚 4.3𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚3

𝑈 = 126.55 𝐾𝑁
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑:

1
ℎ𝑝 = (6 𝑚) 1m
3

ℎ𝑝 = 2 𝑚 (from base)
9m

1
𝑥1 = + 3.3 = 3.8 𝑚
2
6m
2
𝑥2 = 3.3 𝑚 = 2.2 𝑚
3

4.3 m
2
𝑥𝑢 = 4.3𝑚 = 2.87 𝑚
3
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠,

𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑥

෍ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + 1m

𝑅𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝐾𝑁
9m
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑅𝑦
෍ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +

𝑅𝑦 + 𝑈 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 6m

𝑅𝑦 + 126.55 = 216 + 356

4.3 m
𝑅𝑦 = 445.85 𝐾𝑁
 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕: 1m

𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊1 𝑥1 + 𝑊2 𝑥2
9m
𝑅𝑀 = (216 𝐾𝑁)(3.8 𝑚) +(356.4 𝐾𝑁) 2.2 m
𝑅𝑀 = 1604.9 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚

6m
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕:

𝑂𝑀 = 𝐹𝑥 ℎ𝑝 + 𝑈𝑥𝑢
4.3 m
O𝑀 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 𝐾𝑁 (2𝑚) + (126.55 𝐾𝑁) 2.87 𝑚
𝑂𝑀 = 716.36 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑚
 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒆

𝑅𝑀−𝑂𝑀
𝑋ത =
𝑅𝑦
1m
1604.9 − 716.36
𝑋ത =
445.85
ഥ = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒎
𝑿
9m
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚

𝜇𝑅𝑦 (0.5)(445.85) 6m
Factor of safety against sliding, 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 𝑅𝑥
=
176.58

𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑠 = 1. 𝟐𝟕

4.3 m

𝑅𝑀 1604.9
Factor of safety against overturning, 𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑜 = 𝑂𝑀 = 716.36
𝐹𝑂𝑆𝒐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟒
 Weirs

▪ A weir is a flow obstruction that causes water

to rise to pass over it.

▪ One unique application of a weir is to help

keep bridges from flooding

▪ Weirs are commonly built to measure the

discharge in open channels.

▪ Weirs are also used to raise stream-flow

levels in order to divert water for irrigation
and other purposes
▪ By placing an obstruction of adequate dimensions in
an otherwise, subcritical stream flow, the water level
is raised upstream from the weir.

▪ With the increased available head, the flow

accelerates as it passes over the weir crest.

▪ This acceleration causes the depth of water to

decrease and attain supercritical flow after passing
through critical depth.

▪ Some distance downstream from the weir, the flow

returns to a normal subcritical depth through a
hydraulic jump.

▪ This arrangement protects the bridge structure from

being overtopped.
 The hydraulics of an overflow weir
At the location where critical depth occurs, the discharge per
unit width of the weir can be determined by using the critical
flow equations
𝑉
=1 (1)
𝑔𝐷

3 𝑄2 3 𝑞2 (2)
𝑦𝑐 = =
𝑔𝑏2 𝑔

q is the discharge per unit width of the weir

Rearranging equation 1 and substituting 𝑦𝑐 = 𝐷 (for a rectangular channel)

𝑉𝑐2 𝑦𝑐
=
2𝑔 2
𝑉𝑐2 𝑦𝑐 3
The specific energy at the critical section is 𝐸 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 𝑦𝑐 + = 𝑦𝑐
2𝑔 2 2
 If the approaching velocity head can be neglected, then the energy of the
approaching flow is approximately equal to the water depth upstream of
the weir, H.

Therefore, for a frictionless weir, we may write an energy balance as

3
𝐸 + 𝑥 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑥 = 𝐻 (3)
2
where x is the height of the weir

Combining equation 2, and equation 3

3
2𝐻𝑠
𝑞= 𝑔𝑦𝑐3 = 𝑔
3
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐻 − 𝑥

3/2 This is the basic form of the weir equation

𝑞 = 1.70𝐻𝑠
 Sharp-crested weir
▪ As flow approaches the weir, the water near the bottom of the
channel rises in order to pass over the crest.

▪ The vertical component of the flow near the upstream face of

the weir causes the lower surface of the stream to separate from
the weir and form a nappe after the flow passes over the weir

▪ The nappe usually traps a certain amount of air between its

lower surface and the downstream side of the weir.

▪ If no means of restoring air is provided, a void will appear that

represents a negative pressure on the structure.

▪ The nappe will also cling intermittently to the side of the weir
and cause the flow to be unstable. The dynamic effect of this
unstable flow may result in added negative pressure that may
eventually damage the structure.

▪ When the downstream water level rises over the weir crest, the
weir is said to be submerged. In this case, the negative pressure
no longer exists
 Low head dam

▪ A low head dam is a specific type of weir

designed to span a stream or river,
raising the upstream water level slightly
as the flow passes over its entire length.
▪ It allows a relatively constant diversion
of water upstream for open-channel
(irrigation or power-plant cooling, two
common applications).
▪ Most low head dams are less than 3 m
high.
▪ Low head dams must be designed
hydraulically to fulfill their purpose, but
an additional concern is human safety.
A reverse roller develops in case 3; at least three dangers need to
be considered:
i. The first danger is the reverse current that ensnares anyone
who ventures too close to the backside of the dam.
ii. The second danger is the reduced “buoyancy” resulting from
the large amounts of entrained air created from the plunging
water.
iii. The third danger is the force of the water falling over the dam
and striking someone who is not able to resist the reverse
current
Problem 2

Uniform flow at a depth of 2 meters occurs in a long rectangular channel that is 4 meters wide. The channel
is laid on a slope of 0.001, and the Manning coefficient is 0.025. Determine the minimum height of a low
weir that can be built on the bottom of this channel to produce critical depth.

For a uniform flow condition, the Manning equation may be used to determine the channel discharge (Q):
1 2/3 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅ℎ 𝑆0
𝑛
𝐴 = 2𝑚 4𝑚 = 8 𝑚2

𝑃 = 2 2𝑚 + 4 𝑚 = 8 𝑚

𝑅ℎ = 𝐴ൗ𝑃 = 1 𝑚
1 2 1
𝑄= 8 (1 ) (0.0012 )
3
0.025

𝑄 = 10.1 𝑚3/𝑠
𝑄 10.1
𝑉= = = 1.26 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 8
 𝑉2 1.262
The specific energy 𝐸 = 𝑦 + = 2 + = 2.08 𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

3 𝑄2 3 (10.1)2
Flow over the weir passes through critical depth 𝑦𝑐 = = = 0.87 𝑚
𝑔𝑏 2 9.81(4)2

𝑄 10.1 10.1
The corresponding velocity 𝑉= = = = 2.9 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 4𝑦𝑐 4(0.87)

𝑉𝑐2 2.92
the critical velocity head = = 0.43 𝑚
2𝑔 2(9.81)

Assuming no energy loss at the weir, the minimum weir height (x) that can be
built to produce critical flow
𝑉𝑐2
𝐸 = 𝑦𝑐 + +𝑥 2.08 = 0.87 + 0.43 + 𝑥
2𝑔

𝑥 = 0.78 𝑚
 Overflow Spillways
Overflow spillways are designed to pass large amounts of water safely
over the crest of a dam to maintain target water levels. They often act
as emergency spillways or, in conjunction with emergency spillways,
to keep the dam from being overtopped during storm events.

The ideal longitudinal profile or shape of an overflow spillway should

closely match the underside of the freefalling water nappe of a sharp-
crested weir to minimize the pressure on the spillway surface.

Caution must be exercised to avoid any negative pressure on the

surface. Negative pressure is caused by separation of the high-speed
flow from the spillway surface, resulting in a pounding action that
can cause significant damage to the spillway structure (e.g., pitting).
 Siphon Spillways
▪ Water passing through a closed conduit will experience negative
pressure when the conduit is elevated above the hydraulic grade line
(pressure line).

▪ Spillway designed to discharge water in a closed conduit under

negative pressure is known as a siphon spillway.

▪ A siphon spillway begins to discharge water under negative pressure

when the reservoir level reaches a threshold elevation that primes the
conduit. Before this, the water overflows the spillway crest in the same
manner as that of the overflow spillway. However, if the water that
flows into the reservoir exceeds the capacity of the spillway, the water
level at the crest will rise until it reaches and passes the level of the
crown. At this point, the conduit is primed and siphon action begins
changing free surface flow into pressure flow.

▪ Under normal conditions, atmospheric pressure is equivalent to a 10.3

m water column height; therefore, the maximum distance between the
crown (highest point in the siphon) and the water surface elevation in
the reservoir is limited to approximately 8 m
 Culverts
Culverts are hydraulic structures that provide passage of stream flow from one
side of a road, highway, or railroad embankment to the other.

The primary design objective is to determine the most economical culvert that
will carry the design discharge without exceeding an allowable upstream
elevation.

The major components of a culvert include the inlet, the pipe barrel, the outlet,
and an outlet energy dissipater

(a) submerged inlet and submerged outlet producing (pressure) pipe flow,
(b) submerged inlet with full pipe flow but unsubmerged (free-discharge) outlet,
(c) submerged inlet with partially full (open-channel) pipe flow, and
(d) unsubmerged inlet and outlet producing open-channel flow throughout.
 Stilling basins
▪ When the water velocity at the outlet of a hydraulic
structure is high, the excessive amount of kinetic
energy carried by the flow may be damaging to the
receiving channel and even undermine the outlet of
the hydraulic structure.

▪ A spillway is a structure used to provide the

controlled release of water from a dam or levee
downstream, typically into the riverbed of the
dammed river itself.

▪ A stilling basin is an effective energy dissipater that

produces a controlled hydraulic jump to prevent
scour to the downstream channel.

▪ Much of the damaging energy is lost in the

transition from supercritical to subcritical flow
 Design of a Stilling basin
To design the stilling basin, one must calculate the exit
velocity, i.e., the velocity at the foot of the basin, the
water depth and the Froude number.

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔𝑍
𝑄
𝑑1 =
𝑉𝐵
𝑉
𝐹=
𝑔𝑑1 𝐶𝑣 is the velocity coefficient (0.97)
𝐵 is the spillway width

Based on the Froude number, one may select the suitable basin type.

Froude No. Type

2.5 – 4 IV
Fr > 4, V < 20 m/s III
Fr > 4, V > 20 m/s II
Problem 3
Design a stilling basin based on the following data: Z = 15 m; Q = 50 m3/sec; B =20 m

V = 0.97 √(2*9.81*15) = 16.64 m/sec

d1 = 50/(16.64*20) = 0.15 m
F = 16.64/√(9.81*0.15)= 13.7

Froude No. Type

2.5 – 4 IV
Fr > 4, V < 20 m/s III
Fr > 4, V > 20 m/s II
Then select type III

from curve (b)

T.W. depth = d2
T.W. depth/ d1 = 18.5
T.W. depth = d2 = 18.5*0.15 = 2.78 m
from curve (c)
h3/d1 = 3 ; h4/d1 = 1.8
Baffle block height h3 =3*0.15=0.45 m
End sill height h4 = 1.8*0.15 = 0.27 m
from curve (d)
L/d2 = 2.8
Stilling basin length L = 2.8*2.78 ≈ 8 m

0.2 h3 = 0.09 m
h1 =d1 =0.15 m h4=0.27 m
h3= 0.45 m

L=8m