Hover Performance

Prediction Methods

II. Blade Element Theory

© L. Sankar 1
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Preliminary Remarks
• Momentum theory gives rapid, back-of-
the-envelope estimates of Power.
• This approach is sufficient to size a rotor
(i.e. select the disk area) for a given power
plant (engine), and a given gross weight.
• This approach is not adequate for
designing the rotor.

© L. Sankar 2
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Drawbacks of Momentum Theory
• It does not take into account
– Number of blades
– Airfoil characteristics (lift, drag, angle of zero
lift)
– Blade planform (taper, sweep, root cut-out)
– Blade twist distribution
– Compressibility effects

© L. Sankar 3
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Blade Element Theory
• Blade Element Theory rectifies many of these
drawbacks. First proposed by Drzwiecki in 1892.
• It is a “strip” theory. The blade is divided into a
number of strips, of width ∆r.
• The lift generated by that strip, and the power
consumed by that strip, are computed using 2-D
airfoil aerodynamics.
• The contributions from all the strips from all the
blades are summed up to get total thrust, and
total power.

© L. Sankar 4
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Typical Blade Section (Strip)
dT
r
Tip

R
dr T =b ∫ dT
Cut −Out
Root Cut-out
Tip

P=b ∫ dP
Cut −Out

© L. Sankar 5
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Typical Airfoil Section

V + v 
φ = arctan  Line of Zero Lift
 Ωr 
Chord Line

θ
V+v φ

Ωr
αeffective = θ − φ

© L. Sankar 6
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Sectional Forces
Once the effective angle of attack is known, we can look-up
the lift and drag coefficients for the airfoil section at that strip.

We can subsequently compute sectional lift and drag forces

per foot (or meter) of span.
1
(
∆L = ρ U T2 + U P2 cCl
2
) UT=ωr

UP=V+v
1
(
∆D = ρ U T2 + U P2 cCd
2
)
These forces will be normal to and along
the total velocity vector.
© L. Sankar 7
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Rotation of Forces
∆T ∆L

∆Fx
V+v
Ωr ∆D

dT = (∆L cos(φ ) − ∆D sin (φ ))dr

1
( )
= ρ U T2 + U P2 c(Cl cos(φ ) − Cd sin (φ ))dr
2
dFx = (∆D cos(φ ) + ∆L sin (φ ))dr
1
( )
= ρ U T2 + U P2 c(Cd cos(φ ) + Cl sin (φ ))dr
2
dP = U T dFx = ΩrdFX
© L. Sankar 8
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Approximate Expressions
• The integration (or summation of forces)
can only be done numerically.
• A spreadsheet may be designed. A
sample spreadsheet is being provided as
part of the course notes.
• In some simple cases, analytical
expressions may be obtained.

© L. Sankar 9
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Closed Form Integrations
• The chord c is constant. Simple linear twist.
• The inflow velocity v and climb velocity V are small.
Thus, φ << 1.
• We can approximate cos(φ ) by unity, and approximate
sin(φ ) by ( φ ).
• The lift coefficient is a linear function of the effective
angle of attack, that is, Cl=a(θ−φ) where a is the lift
curve slope.
• For low speeds, a may be set equal to 5.7 per radian.
• Cd is small. So, Cd sin(φ) may be neglected.
• The in-plane velocity Ωr is much larger than the normal
component V+v over most of the rotor.

© L. Sankar 10
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Closed Form Expressions
r=R
1  V v 2
T= ρ cbaΩ ∫  θ −
2
− r dr
2 r =0 
Ωr Ωr 

1
P = ρ cb
2
r=R
  V v  V v   3
Ω ∫ a θ −
3
−  +  + Cd r dr
r =0  
Ωr Ωr  Ωr Ωr  

© L. Sankar 11
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Linearly Twisted Rotor: Thrust
Here, we assume that the pitch angle varies as

θ = E + Fr
b 1  3  V + v 3 b 2 θ .75 R 
T = ρΩ ca   E + FR  −
2
 R = ρca(ΩR ) R  − λ / 2
2 3  4  2ΩR  2  3 
abc θ .75  aσ θ .75 R 
CT = − λ / 2 = − λ / 2
2πR  3 
 2  3 

where
σ = solidity = BladeArea/DiskArea = bc / πR
a = Lift Curve slope (~ 2π )
V +v
λ = Inflow Ratio =
ΩR
© L. Sankar 12
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Linearly Twisted Rotor
Notice that the thrust coefficient is linearly proportional to the
pitch angle θ at the 75% Radius.

This is why the pitch angle is usually defined at 75% R

in industry.
The expression for power may be integrated in a similar
manner, if the drag coefficient Cd is assumed to be a
constant, equal to Cd0.

σC d 0
CP = λCT +
8
Induced Power © L. Sankar Profile Power 13
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Closed Form Expressions for
Ideally Twisted Rotor
θ tip R
θ=
r
σa
CT = (θ tip − λ)
4
σCd 0
C P = λCT + Same as linearly
8 Twisted rotor!
© L. Sankar 14
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Figure of Merit according to Blade
Element Theory
λCT
FM =
λCT + σCd 0 / 8
where,
λ = Inflow Ratio = (V + v)/ΩR
σ = Solidity = Blade Area/Disk Area
High solidity (lot of blades, wide-chord, large blade area) leads to higher
Power consumption, and lower figure of merit.

Figure of merit can be improved with the use of low drag airfoils.
© L. Sankar 15
Helicopter Aerodynamics
 Average Lift Coefficient
• Let us assume that
every section of the Average Lift Coefficient = Cl
entire rotor is R
1 ρbc Cl Ω 2 R 3
T = b ∫ ρc(Ωr ) Cl dr =
2
operating at an 0
2 6
optimum lift T bc Cl C
coefficient. CT = = =σ l
ρπR 2 (ΩR )2 πR 6 6
• Let us assume the CT
Cl = 6
rotor is untapered. σ
Rotor will stall if average lift coefficient exceeds 1.2, or so.

Thus, in practice, CT/σ is limited to 0.2 or so.

© L. Sankar 16
Helicopter Aerodynamics
Optimum Lift Coefficient in Hover
λCT
FM =
σC d 0
λCT +
8
CT
In hover, λ =
2
CT3 / 2
FM = 3 / 2 2
CT σC d 0
+
2 8
If C T = σCl / 6
FM is maximized if C d0 / Cl3 / 2
is minimized.
© L. Sankar 17
Helicopter Aerodynamics