PHY 103: General Physics III

BEHAVIOUR OF MATTER

LECTURE 2
Thermal expansion of solids and
liquids Contd.
ASSIGNMENT: In a similar manner, it can be shown that for a
rectangular plate, the change in area is A = 2 Ai T
Where β = 2
 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
Solved problems
(1) A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.00m when the temperature
is 0.00C.
(a) what is its length when the temperature is 40.00C?
(b) suppose the ends of the rail are rigidly clamped at 0.00C so that expansion is
prevented. What is the thermal stress set up in the rail if its temperature is raised
to 40.00C take the Young modulus of the steel to be 20 x 1010Nm-2 and coefficient
of linear expansion is 11 x 10-6(0C)-1
c) What is the length of the unclamped segment if the temperature drops to
- 40.00C?
(2)The active element of a certain laser is a glass rod 30.0 cm long by 1.50 cm in
diameter. If the temperature of the rod increases by 65.0°C, what is the increase
in (a) its length, (b) its diameter, and (c) its volume? (Assume that = 9.00x10-6
°C-1.)
Solution
1. (a) Recall that,
∆𝐿
𝐿𝑖
=⍺∆T
so that
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖 ⍺∆T
= 30.0 x 11 x 10-6 x 40.0
∆L = 0.013m
𝐿𝑓 = 30.0 + 0.013 = 30.013m
(b) The thermal stress is the same as the tensile stress in the situation in which the ray expands freely.
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young Modulus = Young Modulus = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹 ∆𝐿 0.013
Tensile stress, 𝐴
= 𝑌 𝐿 = 20 𝑥 1010 ( 30.0 )
𝑖
= 8.7 𝑥 107 𝑁/𝑚2
c) ∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖 ⍺∆T
In this case there will be a decrease in length when the temperature decreases. We assume ⍺ is constant over the
entire range of temperature.
Therefore, if there is increase in the length by 0.013m when the temperature increases by 40.00C, there will be a
decrease in the length by 0.013m if the temperature decreases by 40.00C.
The new length at the colder temperature is 30.0 – 0.013 = 29.987m
 ∆𝐿
2(a) =⍺∆T
𝐿𝑖

so that
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖 ⍺∆T
∆L = 0.30 x 9 x 10-6 x 65.0= 1.76 × 10−4 𝑚
b) Before, I can find an increase in the area of a (cylindrical) rod, I need to get the increase in the
cross-sectional area first,
∆𝐴 𝑑2 0.0152
=β⍺∆T , Area of a rod, 𝐴𝑖 = π𝑟 2 = π = 3.142 × = 1.77 × 10−4 𝑚2
𝐴𝑖 4 4

so that
∆𝐴 = 𝐴𝑖 β∆T=𝐴𝑖 2⍺∆T
= 1.77 × 10−4 x 2× 9 x 10-6 x 65.0
∆A = 2.07 × 10−7 𝑚2
∆𝑉
c) =γ∆T but γ = 3⍺, 𝑉𝑖 = π𝑟 2 ℎ (cylinder volume)
𝑉𝑖
𝑑2 0.0152
=π ℎ = 3.142 × ×0.30= 5.31 × 10−5 𝑚3 so,
4 4

∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑖 3⍺∆T= 5.31 × 10−5 x 3 x9 x 10-6 x 65.0 = 9.32 × 10−11 𝑚3

3)

A poorly designed electronic device has two bolts attached to different parts of the device that
almost touch each other in its interior as shown in the figure. The steel and brass bolts are at
different electric potentials, and if they touch, a short circuit will develop, damaging the device.
The initial gap between the ends of the bolts is 5.0μm at 27.00C. At what temperature will the
bolts touch? Take coefficient of linear expansion for steel and brass respectively to be
11 𝑥 10−6 /0C and 19 𝑥 10−6 /0C.
Solution
At a particular change in temperature, ∆T,
The steel will increase in length by ∆𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿𝑖,𝑠 ⍺𝑠 ∆T
so also the brass will increase by ∆𝐿𝑏 = 𝐿𝑖,𝑏 ⍺𝑏 ∆T at the same temperature
change.
Therefore, ∆𝐿𝑠 + ∆𝐿𝑏 = 5.0 𝑥10−6𝑚
𝐿𝑖,𝑠 ⍺𝑠 ∆T +𝐿𝑖,𝑏 ⍺𝑏 ∆T = 5.0 𝑥10−6
(𝐿𝑖,𝑠 ⍺𝑠 +𝐿𝑖,𝑏 ⍺𝑏 )∆T = 5.0 𝑥10−6

5.0 𝑥10−6
∆𝑇 =
𝐿𝑖,𝑠 ⍺𝑠 +𝐿𝑖,𝑏 ⍺𝑏

5.0 𝑥10−6
∆𝑇 =
(0.010 x 11 x 10−6)+(0.030 x 19 x 10−6)
∆𝑇 = 7.40C
The temperature at which the bolts will touch is now 270C+7.40C
= 34.40C
 EXERCISE

3)

A poorly designed electronic device has two bolts attached to different parts of the device
that almost touch each other in its interior as shown in the figure. The steel and brass bolts
are at different electric potentials, and if they touch, a short circuit will develop, damaging
the device. The initial gap between the ends of the bolts is 5.0μm at 28.700C.
a) At what temperature will the bolts touch? Take coefficient of linear expansion for steel
and brass respectively to be 11 𝑥 10−6 /0C and 19 𝑥 10−6 /0C.
b)determine respectively, the change in the length of the steel and the brass at that
temperature.
4) when the temperature of an Aluminium rod was increased by 𝑥0C, the ratio of its
original length to the final length was 0.9995052. if the linear expansivity of the rod is
11 𝑥 10−6 /0C, what is 𝑥?
Solution to Q4
∆𝐿 𝐿𝑓 −𝐿𝑖
From = α∆𝑇 = = α∆𝑇 (1)
𝐿𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝐿𝑖
The ratio of the original length to the final length, = 0.9995052
𝐿𝑓

so that, 𝐿𝑖 = 0.9995052𝐿𝑓
∆𝑇 = 𝑥0C and α = 11 𝑥 10−6 /0C
𝐿𝑓 −𝐿𝑖
Using all these in equation (1) = α∆𝑇
𝐿𝑖
𝐿𝑓 −0.9995052𝐿𝑓
= 11 𝑥 10−6 𝑥
0.9995052𝐿𝑓
(1−0.9995052)𝐿𝑓
= 11 𝑥 10−6 𝑥
0.9995052𝐿𝑓
1−0.9995052
= 11 𝑥 10−6 𝑥
0.9995052
0.0004948 0.0004950
= 11 𝑥 10−6 𝑥 so that 𝑥= = 45.00C
0.9995052 11 𝑥 10−6
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics:
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Units of energy include calorie and Joule.
1 Calorie = 4.186 J
This equality is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
The heat capacity C of a particular sample of a substance is defined as the
amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of that sample by 1°C.
e.g. if the energy needed to raise the temp. of a sample by T is Q, then

𝑄
𝐶= so that,
∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Dividing the above equation by the mass, m, of the substance
produces a quantity called specific heat, c (Energy needed to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of a sample by 1°C.
𝐶 𝑄
i.e c = = ,
𝑚 𝑚∆𝑇
Which implies that 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Specific heat capacity is a measure of how thermally insensitive a
substance is to the addition of energy.
The higher the c, the more energy must be added to a given mass
of the material to cause a particular temperature change.
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics

The above equation means if temperature increases, Q is +ve and heat

flows into the system.
If temperature decreases , Q is -ve and heat flows out of the system.
c varies with temperature, however for small temp. interval the variation
is small and can be neglected. For example, for change in temp. of water
from 0oC to 100oC the variation is only about 1%.
When the variation can not be neglected then

𝑇𝑓
𝑄 = 𝑚 න 𝑐𝑑𝑇
𝑇𝑖
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Conservation of Energy
Qcold = -Qhot
i.e. mccc Tc= -mhch Th
If the initial temps. of the cold and hot substances are T1 and T2,
and when in contact reached a final temp. Tf. Then
mccc(Tf-T1)= -mhch(Tf-T2)
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Latent Heat
There are situations in which the transfer of energy to a substance does not result
into a change in temperature.
This is always the case when phase change occurs.
Two common phase changes are: Change between Solid and liquid and Change
between liquid and gas:
Solid to liquid-melting
Liquid to solid – freezing
Liquid to gas – Vaporisation
Gas to liquid – Condensation
Other change is between Solid and gas.
Solid to gas – Sublimation (Iodine, Camphor, Ammonium Chloride, Naphthalene)
Gas to Solid – Desublimation/Deposition
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
The amount of energy transfer during the phase changes is also
dependent on mass.
The energy transfer per unit mass during a phase change is called
latent heat, L.
i.e. L = Q/m Q = mL
L depends on the nature of phase change, so there are:
Latent heat of fusion for melting and
Latent heat of vaporization for boiling
Calculate the total amount of energy that must added to
change 1g of ice at -30oC to steam at 120oC as shown in
the figure below:

Example
 Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Solution
Part A:

Part B

Part C

Part D

Part E

The total amount of energy that must added to change 1g of ice at -30oC to steam
at 120oC is the sum of the five energies = 3.11 x103 J
 Worked Examples
1. A 0.05kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.00C and then dropped
into a light insulated beaker containing 0.400kg of water
initially at 20.00C. the final equilibrium temperature of the
mixed system is 22.40C. Find the specific heat capacity of the
metal assuming the energy absorbed by the container is
negligible. Take the specific heat capacity of water to be
4186J(kg0C)-1
 solution
(1) Recall that,
Qcold = -Qhot
Assumptions: we assume that the system is sealed and some of
water that may vaporize when the ingot is dropped cannot
escape;
Since the container is light and insulated, it means the mass and
heat absorbed by the container is negligible.
i.e. mccc Tc = -mhch Th

mwcw Tw = -mmcm Tm (w=water and m= metal)

mwcw(Tf-Ti)= -mmcm(Tf-Ti)
 mwcw(Tf −Tw)
cm =
−mm (Tf −Tm)

0.40 x 4186(22.4−20.0)
cm =
−0.05(22.4−200.0)

0.40 x 4186(22.4−20.0) 1667.2 x2.4 4018.56

cm = = =
0.05(200.0−22.4) 0.05 x 177.6 0.05 x 177.6

cm = 452.5Jkg−1K−1 = 4.53x102Jkg-1K-1
1. What mass of steam initially at 1300C is needed to warm
200.0g of water in a 100.0g glass container from 200C to
500C?
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.33 x 105Jkg-1
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26 x 106Jkg-1
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.09 x 103Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.19 x 103Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of steam = 2.01 x 103Jkg-1K-1
Specific heat capacity of the metal = 8.37 x 102Jkg-1K-1
2) Recall that,
Qcold = -Qhot
In this case, the gaseous water i.e. the steam (hot body) undergoes three
processes:
A decrease in temperature from 1300C to 1000C;
Condensation into liquid water at 1000C and lastly;
A decrease in temperature of the water from 1000C to 500C
Energy involved in the first stage,
𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 T1
𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (100 − 130)

𝑄1 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑥2.01 x 103(-30)
𝑄1 = −6.03𝑥104𝑚𝑠 J
Energy involved in the second stage,
𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑙𝑠
𝑄2 = −𝑚𝑠 𝑥2.26 x 106
𝑄2 = −2.26 x 106𝑚𝑠 J

Energy involved in the last stage,

𝑄3 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 T3
𝑄3 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (50 − 100)

𝑄3 = 𝑚𝑠 𝑥4.19𝑥103(−50)
𝑄3 = −2.095𝑥105𝑚𝑠 J
Energy transfer in the three stages 𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 = −6.03𝑥104𝑚𝑠 + −2.26 x 106𝑚𝑠 + −2.095𝑥105𝑚𝑠

𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 = −2.53𝑥106𝑚𝑠 𝐽
The water and the container undergo only one process, an increase in temperature from 20.00C to
50.00C
The amount of energy transfer in this process is:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 T + 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑐 T
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =0.2x4.19 x 103(50.0−20.0)+0.1x8.37 x 102(50.0−20.0)
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 =2.514x104+ 2.511 x 103=2.77 x 104J
Recall that, Qcold = -Qhot
2.77 x 104= − −2.53𝑥106𝑚𝑠

2.77𝑥104
𝑚𝑠 =
2.53𝑥106
𝑚𝑠 = 1.09𝑥10−2 𝑘𝑔 = 10.9𝑔
 WORKED EXAMPLE
1. In an x-ray tube, 1018 electrons per second arrive with a speed of 2 x106ms-1 at
a metal target of mass 0.2kg and specific heat capacity 500Jkg-1K-1. If the mass
of an electron is 9.0 x 10-31Kg and assuming 98% of the incident energy is
converted into heat, find how long the target will take to rise in temperature
by 500C assuming no heat loss.

SOLUTION
1
1) The K.E of an object is 𝑚𝑉 2 ,
2
1
K.E of an electron arriving at the target in a second = 𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(2.0𝑥106 )2 )
2
K.E of all the electrons arriving at the target in a second =
1
𝑥9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥(2.0𝑥106 )2 )𝑥1018 = 1.82𝐽
2
 SOLUTION
In time t, the total K.E of all the electrons arriving at the target
will be 𝐾. 𝐸 = 1.82𝑡𝐽
98
but remember that 98% of 1.82𝑡𝐽 is converted to heat= 𝑥1.82 =
100
1.8𝑡𝐽
The amount of energy transferred by the electrons = amount of
energy absorbed (gained) by heat by the metal target i.e.
1.8𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑇
1.8𝑡 = 0.2𝑥500𝑥50

0.2 𝑥 500 𝑥 50 5000

𝑡= =
1.8 1.8
𝑡 = 2777.7 = 2780𝑠 = 46.3𝑚𝑖𝑛
2. Water flows at the rate of 0.150kgmin-1 through a tube and
is heated by heater dissipating 25.2W. The inflow and outflow
water temperature are 15.20C and 17.40C respectively. When
the rate of flow is increased to 0.2318kgmin-1 and the rate of
heating to 37.8W, the inflow and outflow temperature remain
unchanged. Find
(a) the specific heat capacity of water
(b) the rate of loss of heat from the tube
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2) recall that Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
(a) 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑇 + 𝐻𝐿 where 𝐻𝐿 is the rate of heat loss and 𝑚 is mass per unit time
In the first case,
0.150
25.2 = × 𝑐 × 17.4 − 15.2 +𝐻𝐿
60
In the second case,
0.2318
37.8 = × 𝑐 × 17.4 − 15.2 + 𝐻𝐿
60
0.0025 × 𝑐 × 2.2 +𝐻𝐿 = 25.2
0.0025 × 𝑐 × 2.2 +𝐻𝐿 = 25.2 i
0.0039 × 𝑐 × 2.2 +𝐻𝐿 = 37.8 ii
0.0055𝑐+𝐻𝐿 = 25.2 iii
0.0085𝑐+𝐻𝐿 = 37.8 iv
 Solve equations (iii) and (iv) simultaneously
Subtracting equation (iii) from equation (iv), we have
0.0030𝑐 = 12.6

12.6
𝑐= = 4200𝐽 = 4.2 × 103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
0.0030
(b) Substitute the value of c into equation (iii)
0.0055 × 4200 + 𝐻𝐿 = 25.2
23.1 +𝐻𝐿 =25.2
𝐻𝐿 = 2.1𝑊
A certain metallic object with mass 1.5Kg has a specific heat capacity that varies with
temperature according to the equation: 𝑐 𝑇 = 0.8 + 0.005𝑇 𝐾J/kg.K where T is the
temperature in kelvin. Find the heat energy required to raise the temperature of the metal
from 250K to 350K.
SOLUTION
𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑚 ‫𝑇𝑑)𝑇(𝑐 𝑓 𝑇׬‬
𝑖
350
𝑄 = 1.5 ‫׬‬250 (0.8 + 0.005𝑇) × 103 𝑑𝑇
0.005𝑇 2 350
𝑄 = 1.5 × 103 [0.8𝑇 + ]250
2
0.005 350 2 0.005 250 2
𝑄 = 1.5 × 103 0.8 350 + − 0.8 250 +
2 2

𝑄 = 1.5 × 103 (280 + 306.25 − (200 + 156.25)]

𝑄 = 1.5 × 103 (586.25 − 356.25)
𝑄 = 1.5 × 103 (230.00)
𝑄 = 345 × 103 𝐽 = 345𝐾𝐽
ASSIGNMENT:
In an x-ray tube, 1018 electrons per second arrive with a speed of 3
x106ms-1 at a metal target of mass 0.2kg and specific heat capacity
500Jkg-1K-1. If the mass of an electron is 9.0 x 10-31Kg and assuming 96.5%
of the incident energy is converted into heat, find how long the target will
take to rise in temperature by 500C assuming there is 7.5% heat loss.
2) what will be the final temperature of 200g of hot water at 800C mixed
with 100g of ice when just have of the ice has melted? (Specific heat
capacity of water= 4186Jkg-1K-14 and the latent heat of fusion of ice
=3.330 x 105Jkg-1.
3) The amount of heat energy required to raised the temperature of a
material by 100C is 54500J. What is the heat capacity of the material?
4) A 2 kg block of a substance has a specific heat capacity that varies with
temperature according to the equation: 𝑐 𝑇 = 0.5 + 0.01𝑇 𝐾J/kg.K where
T is the temperature in Kelvin. Find the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of the block from 300 K to 400 K.
Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
A gas kept at a very low pressure i.e. a low-density
gas is referred to as Ideal gas.
For an ideal gas, PV/nT is always constant (R) at
all pressures.
The equation that relates the state variables;
volume V, temperature T and pressure P of a gas is
known as “equation of state”.
The equation is very complicated, but simple for
gases maintained at a very low pressure (or low
density).
Such low-density gas is referred to as Ideal gas.
Suppose an ideal gas is confined in a cylindrical
container whose volume can be varied by means of
moving piston.
Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
Experiments have shown that, for such a system:
(1)When the gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure is inversely
proportional to its volume (Boyle’s law) i.e P 1/V
(2)When the pressure of the gas is kept constant, its volume is directly
proportional to its temperature (Charles law) i.e. V T
These two observations are summarized by the equation of state for an
ideal gas:
PV = nRT (*)
where R is a constant (called Gas constant) and n = m/M
using the fact that, n=N/NA and k = R/NA , We have another
form of equation of state of an ideal gas as;
PV = N k T (**)
Equations (*) and (**) are also known as ideal gas law.
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is one of the applications/examples of the law of
conservation of energy. Because it describes systems in which energy
changes/conversion are taking place.
The law states that when a controlled-mass (closed) system is altered
adiabatically, the network associated with the change of state is the same for all
possible processes between two equilibrium states.

The 1st law of thermodynamics explains that, the only energy change is that of
internal energy, which is due to transfers of energy by heat or work.

The first law makes no distinction between the results of heat and the results of
work.

According to the first law, a system’s internal energy can be changed either by an
energy transfer by heat to or from the system or by work done on or by the
system.
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Internal energy
This is all the energy of a system that is associated with its
microscopic components—atoms and molecules—when viewed
from a reference frame at rest with respect to the object.

Internal energy includes translation, vibration and rotation of

molecules, potential energy between molecules
Kinetic energy of the system due to its motion through space is
not included in internal energy.

For a monoatomic ideal gas, the only type of energy available for
its microscopic component is associated with translational motion.

More generally, in solids, liquids, and molecular gases, internal

energy includes other forms of molecular energy.
Heat and 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Heat
This is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system
due to a temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.

When you heat a substance, you are transferring energy into it by

placing it in contact with surroundings that have a higher temperature.

Both heat and work are ways of changing the energy of a system.
Heat: it is Heat, when the transfer is as a result of temperature.
difference.

Example of energy transfer by work is when a gas is compressed by

piston or when the piston is released and the gas expands.
Work and Heat in Thermodynamics Processes
In thermodynamics, the state of a system is described using variables like
pressure, volume, temperature and internal energy. As a result of that,
these quantities belong to a category called state variables.

Macroscopic state of an isolated system can be specified only if the

system is in thermal equilibrium internally.

In the case of a gas in a container, internal thermal equilibrium requires

that every part of the gas be at the same pressure and temperature.
Assumption: we assume that the expansion or contraction of the gas is
quasi-static.
Quasi-static expansion or contraction is the one that is slow enough to
allow the system to remain essentially in thermal equilibrium at all times.
Work and Heat in Thermodynamics Processes
Consider a gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston

The volume of the gas at equilibrium is V, and it exerts a pressure P on

the cylinder’s wall and on the piston.
Work and Heat in Thermodynamics Processes

The total work done by the gas as its volume changes

from initial, say Vi to the final volume, say Vf is
𝑊 = 𝑃∆V i.e.
𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖
For infinitesimal change in the volume
𝑉
𝑊 = ‫𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑓 𝑉׬‬
𝑖
Work and Heat in Thermodynamics Processes
Please Note the following
In expansion, dV is positive, therefore, the work done is +ve.
We say in this case that ‘the work is done by the gas’.
In compression, dV is negative, therefore, the work done is -ve.
This can be interpreted as ‘the work is done on the gas’.
If the volume remains unchanged, dV is zero, and the work
done is zero
In thermodynamics, positive work represents a transfer of
energy out of the system.
Exercise
Which of the following is not true of a gas that does work
during a thermodynamic process?
a) The gas expands
b) The gas does work on another system
c) Energy is transferred out of the system
d) the gas is compressed