1 Porticulate Mature of Electromagnetic Radiation

1.1 Describe the phenomenon of photoelectric emission

light Uv light of a
Photoelectric effect occurs when

suitably high frequency falls on a metal surface electrons

are emitted from this metal surface These are referred to
as photoelectrons and can be recognized by the means

of a Gold leaf electroscope

Some of EM radiation

iyld.pe
polished

Tae

Gold leaf
given a negative charge and this
electroscope is

causes of leaves to diverge due tothe repulsion ofchanges

The sheet of polished line is placed at the top of the cop

of the electroscope UV light for a
mercury vapour top
is then illuminated on the zinc plate and of is observed
that the leaves is due to the loss of negative charge
which would have occurred when photoelectrons were emitted
from the zinc surface Electroscope was
given a positive charge
and then the zinc plate placed on the cap there was no
change in the divergence of the leaves when the
Therefore there was
Zone was illuminated with au no change

of positive charge and photoelectrons were unable to leave the

they were held in place by electrostatic attraction
electroscope
as

of the positive charges on the electroscope

hans of Photoelectric Emissions

1 The photo current which is the number of photoelectrons
per
Second is proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation
photocurrent intensity ofincorrect

2
The of the photoelectrons is directly
maximum KineticEnergy

proportional to the frequency of theincident radiation

and is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation

photoelectrons are emitted with a of Kinetic energies from
range
200 up to a maximum value Ekmax Io
3
for any particular metal there is a minimum frequency of
radiation that will cause photoemission This minimum
frequency is called the threshold frequency and below this
frequency no photoemission takes place
Qumhmanmaglete
radiation is made up of individual
mots called PHOTONS Photons are a basic not of
electromagnetic radiation that behaves as a discrete

particle
E hf
He ff
E Energy of a photon
h planets constant 6.63 10 3 Js
C speed of light 3.0 08ms
A wavelength
f frequency of the incident radiation

Photon model explanation

The intensity of the incident radiation is a measure ofthe

number of incident photons
per
second and when these
photons strike the
metal surface there is a direct transfer
of energy from each photon to a particular electron Hence a
greater intensity of incident light means a greater number of
photons per second stroking the metal surface and this would

mean a greater number ofphotoelectrons emittedpersecond as

 observed

When the frequency of theincident lightis the

increased

energy of each photon is increased E hf causing the

photons now to transfer a greater amount of
energy to the
electronswhich in turn causes those photoelectrons to
now have a greater KE when
they leave the metal
surface When the incident radiation is below the
threshold frequencythe energy of thephoton is low and the
energy transferred to each electron in the metal is toolow
for it to escape from the metal surface The
energy
is not continuous and the electrons cannot absorb more than
one quantum at time and are therefore mable to
any
escape the metal

Threshold frequency minimum frequency of electromagnetic

radiation that is required to cause photo electron
emission

10

Workfunction function of energy of a material is the

incident
minimum that at photon must have to cause
 y
the photoelectron emission

hfo
KEmax hf or KEmax monk hf 0

Cut off wavelength 1 is the maximum wavelength of the

incident electromagnetic radiation required for to
electrons

be emitted

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to frequency
 I I intensity ofincident electromagnetic
2
radiation Wm
P incident power w

A Surface Area m

lev is the energy transformed by an electron

as it moves through a potential difference of IV

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X RAY Production
Principle of X Production
ray
When high energy electrons strike a metal target such as
very
tungsten the electrons decelerate rapidly and while most of

their Phonetic energy is dissipated in the form of heat

a small part about 1 is converted to X radiation

Additionally the high energy electrons will sometimes cause

energy level transitions of electrons on the target atoms
and cause the emission of X rays

Bremsstrahlung Process
This process leads to a continuos spectrum This is
due to the conversion of the Kinetic energy of the high
energy electron to X radiation when the brakes are
imposed on the electron as of collicles with an obstacle
When an incoming high speed election of kinetic energy
Eo strokes of the target atoms the electron will lose
one

an amount of energy DE and

part of this energy will
be the energy of an X ray photon The electron will be
deflected
by the collision and of is now referred to as a
Scattered electron This scattered electron whose
energy
is
now less than Eo will now
go on to collude withanother
atom and produce another X ray photon which will have an
energy that is different from that of the first photon The
electron scattering
process will continue and a series of
photons of different energies are produced caring the
formation of a Continuous X
ray spectron The electron
will stop producing photons when it has come to rest

The K shell Emission Process

When an incoming high speed electron strikes a target

atom that electron may knock out one of theelectrons
in the K shell low energy shell which is close
to the nucleus leaving a hole in that shell An
electron in one of the higher shells will now
jump
into that lower K shell to fill the vacancy and in
doing so it will give up some of its energy byemitting
an X The 1h shell is that shell for n 1
ray photon
the h shell is the one for which n 2 and the M shell
for n 3 When a vacancy is created in the K shell
due to the ejection of on electron and an electron from

the h shell fills that vacancy the emitted radiation is

called the Kx lone in the spectrum I the vacancy
in the K shell is filled by an electron from the M shell

then the emitted radiation is called the KB lone in

the spectron The distribution of wavelengths in the
entire spectrum showing both the continuous spectrum
and the lone spectrum is given below

Relative
intensity
t

Wavelength pm
Amon
The Kp love has greater energy due to its smaller
wavelength but has a smaller intensity The sharp peaks
are due to k shell emission while the continuous spectrum

is due to Bremsstrahlung
Production of rays
forget

Coolingal
orwater
pf
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tube
w
lead
xrays shield
window

The cathode is a cool of tungsten across which

is connected
to the mains supply As a current flows
through it electrons are emitted These electrons are then
accelerated through a of about looker
potential difference

which is applied across arcode to the cathode The

anode is made of copper and has a small block
of tungsten fixed it The tungsten is the target for the
on

high speed electrons As the electrons collude with the

tungsten 99 of their Kinetic energy is converted into heat
and the remaining 1 is converted into X
ray photons
Tungsten is a suitable material as it can withstand

very high without melting The lead

temperatures

Shield is a necessary safety design to prevent the escape

of x rays from all points other than the window The
high temperatures developed by the collisions between the
electrons
and the target must be controlled by means of a
cooling fluid which oil Oil does not
is typically evaporate

as water does and hence there is no danger of a

vapour pressure build up

Absorption of Xrays
I I in
e
E jux
Linear absorption Coefficient
JU

Attentiation is the gradual decrease in intensity

E UQ
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AGE
 1.12 Discuss how the line spectra provide evidence for
discrete energy levels in isolated atoms

When an electron absorb energy for example of the

material is heated or of of is inactivated with electromagnetic

energy and move

waves an electron absorb
may
fromits onotrally low to
energy state level higher level
loothon this higher energylevel the electron has more

energy
and is considered to be unstable The stability
of the electron is determined
bytheamount of energy it
possesses the greater the amount of energy the more
unstable of is The the higher energy then
electron at
tries to
regain its stability and
it does this by enotting
the energy that it previously absorbed This energy
is emitted in the form of light or some other type
of electromagnetic radiation for example X rays
Hence for different
every
level transitions a distinct

wavelught comes with a

particular amountof
energy
which leads to a spectrum of brightly
Coloured homes

DE hf EA Ep DE hF
Lone spectra for discrete
provide evidence energy levels
Each line on the spectrum indicates a particular

energy level transition and an observation of the

spectrum of isolated atoms reveals that the lines
are separate and distinct from each other The emission
Spectrum for any atom is seen as a series of
brightly coloured lines against a dark background

The wave particle nature of Matter

Evidence of this wave nature of matter was provided

by experiments on Electron diffraction When a beam

of high speed electrons is directed at a thin film of
graphite it was found that a series of diffraction rings
was produced on a screen positioned behind the graphite
film

Electron
beam
Refraction

graphite ring
pattern
film
Electromagnetic
exhibit interference and diffraction
radiation
and these two phenomena indicate the electromagnetic
radiation have a wave Nature while the Photoelectric
effect indicates a particulate nature of electromagnetic
radiation
a
I
Genger Marsden Experiment

Vacuum

Microscope

1 Zone Sulphide Screen

metalbox
withalpha
source
pipe to vacuumpun

In an evacuated metal box a stream of alpha particles

was directed to strike a thin Sheet of gold fool

The alpha Zinc sulphide screen
particles were detected
by
which was mounted at the end of a microscope When
an alpha particle strokes the zinc sulphide Serven a tiny flash
of light called a scintillation is seen This flash is due to
the transfer of the kinetic energy of the alpha particle

to an electron in the zone sulphide which causes

on
energy
level transition and the emission of a

photon of a light

Results indicate
1 The atom contained a positively charged nucleus which was

responsible for deflection of the positively charged alpha

particle
Thepositive charge contained
very tiny
2 was in a

volume of the atom which was the reason why only

few Alpha particles experienced deflection
any
3 Most of the mass of the atom was contained in the
needeus some if the mass was spread out the
over

entire atom as proposed

by Thomson most of thealpha
particles would have struck this mass and would not have
been able to pass through the atom
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Radioactive

Radioactive decay and randan

spontaneous process

whereby an custake nucleus attempts to become

stable by disintegrating into another nucleus

and entting any one or more of the following

2 particles β
parties as well as X rays

Tehannetttle
decay being unpredictable
Spontaneous the decay process is
not affected
by conditions external to the nucleus

G in
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Activity is the number of nuclei decaying persecond

SI unit is bequeal Bg
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Decay constant probability of decay or a nucleus

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