A COMPLETE MANUAL ON CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Chapter: 3

CLAY PRODUCTS(4 marks)

3.1) Introduction:
Clay is a naturally occurring material that is found almost everywhere on the surface of the earth making
the soil cover or the soft ground. It is so widespread in its occurrence that in common language it is often
referred to as earth.

Clay has been widely used for building, pottery and modeling purposes. The clay is characterized by its
fineness (particle size about 2microns) and is derived from weathering and decomposition of igneous
rocks or as a result of hydrothermal process which is associated with volcanic activity. Clay is composed
mainly of silica, alumina and water and is often contaminated with an appreciable amount of iron, alkalis
and alkaline earth. Clay often contains group of crystalline substances known as clay minerals which are of
two types, kaolinite group and pyrophyllite group. Clay when wet has a very high degree of plasticity
and can be easily moulded in any desired shape. Clay when wet contains water in two forms, namely, free
water and combined water. Free water is removed by drying, but to remove combined water, the clay has
to be heated beyond certain limit temperature. Then, it becomes soft and products lose their shape. The
limit of temperature depends on the quality of the clay. Building bricks, tiles, clay blocks, porcelain etc
are the main products which are commonly used in engineering works. Clay is popularly used as mud
mortar in Terai as well as in Hills of our country.

CERAMICS:

These are the inorganic compound formed by the combination of metals and non metals. Silicates,
metallic oxides, carbides, hydrides, sulfides etc are the major constituent of the ceramics. Earlier the term
ceramics were applied to products made from natural earth that has been exposed to higher temperature.
Today, the field of ceramics covers a widely diversified group of product of specialized industries like
glass, cement, limes, electronic ceramics etc.
Type of ceramics:-

1. Traditional Ceramics:- (Clay products)

Clay products include important engineering material such as bricks, tiles, porcelain etc. Clay basically
consists of kaolinite (Al2si2O5(OH)4 ) which gives the plasticity to clay. When all clay is mixed with
water, it shows the plastic behavior and can be moulded to the desired shape. Then they are dried slowly
to remove the moisture.
2KAlsi308 + 2H2o + Co2 = Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 + K2Co3 + 4Sio2

felspar orthoclase + carbonic acid = kaolinite + pot. Carbonate + silica colloids

2) New generation ceramics.

a) Refractory:

A refractory material may be defined as a nonmetallic material suitable for constructing lining of
furnaces. Operated at high temperature such a material must be chemically and physically stable at high
temperature. These materials consist of high melting oxides or combination of oxides or silica,

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aluminium, magnesium, calcium etc. These are used in high temperature furnaces, gas turbines, missiles,
nuclear reactor etc.

b) Glass

The glass can be defined as an inorganic product that has been cooled to rigid conditions without
crystallization. Silica is a perfect glass forming material. But silica has high melting point and cannot be
fused at reasonable cost. Hence, some oxides of metal are added to lower the fusions point. Addition of
25% by weight of sodium oxide decreases the melting point to around 80%.

Part A: Bricks
Bricks may be defined as structural unit of rectangular shape and convenient size that are made from
suitable types of clays by different processes involving moulding, drying and burning. Even at present,
brick is the most basic and favoured material for common constructions though out the world. Popularity
of brick as a material of constructions is because of their local and cheap availability, strength, durability,
reliability and insulating property against heat and sound.

3.2) Constituents of brick earth:

In general it is observed that any soil that contains one-fourth part of clay and three by fourth parts of
sand and silt is suitable for making bricks. A good brick earth should be such that when prepared with
water it can be easily moulded, dried and burnt without cracking or warping. However, a suitable brick
earth should have various constituents in the following proportion.

i) Alumina or clay (20% - 30%)

It shows the plastic character in wet condition, and is capable of being moulded to any shape. When
alumina is greater than 30%, brick will become more plastic and also shrink more and develop
cracks on drying. If it is less than 20%, it may be difficult to mould to proper shapes and develop
cracks on moulding. So it provides plasticity resistance against shrinkage and makes the brick hard.

ii) Silica or sand (50% to 60%)

Silica is present in clay in two forms: as a constituent of clay minerals and also as free silica in the
form of sand or quartz.

Silica is infusible except at very high temperature but in the presence of alumina in nearly equal
proportions and the oxide of iron it fuses at low temperature. Unlike silicate of Alumina its
presence in clay produces hardness, resistance to heat, durability and prevents shrinkage and
warping. Excess of it makes the bricks brittle.

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iii) Lime (4% to 6%)

When present in small quantities in finely divided state it reduces shrinkage of brick, helps silica to
melt at lower temperature and binds the particles of the brick together resulting in greater strength
of brick. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape.

iv) Iron oxide (4% to 6%)

Iron oxide acts as a flux, it lowers down the softening temperature of silica and other clay
component during firing. The iron oxide imparts the very characteristic red colour to the burnt
brick. The excess of iron oxide make the brick too soft during the burning stage, they suffer
deformation in shape and make the dark blue colour. A deficiency of iron oxide in the clay may
make their burning difficult and also give a yellowish appearance.

v) Magnesia: (1% to 2%)

Small quantities of magnesia in brick earth make the brick of yellowish colour and reduce
shrinkage. But excess of magnesia will lead to the decay of bricks.

3.3)Manufacture of bricks:
The process of manufacture of brick is carried out in a number of stages. It is essentially a sequential
process i.e. next stage is reached only when the previous stage has been completed in all respects. No
jumping over or omission of a particular stage is possible. Each stage has its own significance in the
process. These stages are listed below.

1) Selection of suitable type of clay

2) Preparation and Tempering of Mud

3) Moulding of brick unit

4) Drying of moulded brick

5) Loading of the dried brick in kiln

6) Firing or burning of dried brick.

7) Cooling of the unit

8) Unloading of the kiln

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3.4)Good qualities of bricks:

1) It should have a rectangular shape, regular surface and red coloured appearance.

2) It should confirm in size to the specified dimension (230 × 110 × 55) mm.

3) It should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with one another.

4) It should be well burnt and should possess sharp edges.

5) A good brick should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight. At any case absorption should not
exceed 25%.

6) A good brick should posses required compressive strength not less than 35kg/cm2. A very rough test for
testing strength of brick is that brick falling freely from a height of about 1m on to a hard surface floor should not
break.

7) It should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by a finger nail i.e. impression shouldnot be made on the
surface.

8) Specific gravity should be greater than 1.8.

9) A good building brick should have a uniform appearance throughout its body. This can be checked by
taking a brick from a lot and breaking it into two parts. The broken surface in both half should have same
appearance and structure.

3.5)Classification of bricks:
Based on the process of making they are classified as Chimney made brick (popularly called local brick
& are widely available) & and machine made brick (popularly called Chinese brick in Nepal & are
available in certain cities only).

Based on the burning process they can be classified as:

1. Sun dried or katcha bricks: After moulding, they are dried in the sun & used and called Kacho
brick. Being weak, they are used in cheap and temporary type of construction and should not be
used in the places exposed to heavy rains.
2. Burnt or pakka bricks: depending upon the rate of burning, the size, shape, the finishing, the
porosity, the strength, hardness, colour etc bricks are classified in the following ways as below:

First class brick (Class 'A')

Second class brick
Third class brick
Fourth class brick(Over burnt brick)

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S.N. Class of Compressive Burnt Water Appearance Colour

brick strength content and shape
(kg/cm2)

1 First Not less then Well Less then Good Dark Red
105 15%

2 Second 70 to 105 Well 15 to 20% Good Medium Red

3 Third 35 to 70 Poorly 20 to 25% Poor Light red or

yellowish

4 Fourth Not define Over Not define Poor Dark blue

(Jhama)

1. First class brick:

These have the following properties:

i) It is well burnt and possesses a uniform yellow or red colour.

ii) It is regular in shape and size. Its edges are sharp and are at right angles.
iii) It shouldn't absorb water more than 15% of its dry weight after 24 hours of immersion in cold
water.
iv) Its crushing strength should not be less than 105kg/cm2 It is
v) sufficiently hard and sound. It should not show efflorescence.

Uses:
All permanent character sound works.
I. Used as fair face exposed brickwork with pointing.
II. Used in flooring and in reinforced brickwork.
III. Used as cladding, carving & in arch structures.

2. Second class brick

These posses the following properties

I. It is also well burnt but may be irregular in shape and size.

II. It should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight after 24 hours of immersion in cold
water.
III. Minimum crushing strength should be 70 kg/cm2 It
IV. should not show efflorescence.

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V. It may not have uniform colour. It

VI. should be sound.

Uses:

I. Used in the brick work with the plastered face.

II. Used as brick ballast in RCC work and in lime concrete.

3. Third class brick

I. It is not usually well-burnt and is generally under-burnt.
II. They emit a dull sound when struck against each other.
III. It shouldn't absorb water more than 25% of its dry weight after 24 hours of immersion in cold
water.
IV. It may show efflorescence.
V. They are usually soft and its crushing strength may be less than 60 kg/cm2
VI. These are not used for important and permanent works.

Uses:

Used as temporary construction not subjected to heavy loads or heavy rains.

4. Jhama or Fourth class bricks or Over burnt bricks

I. Irregular in shape and dark in colour due to over burning.
II. They are over burnt and distorted bricks.
III. They are generally comparatively hard and strong.
IV. They are irregular in shape and size.
V. It also produces metallic ringing sound when struck together

Uses:

Despite their good strength, Jhama bricks are unfit for use in building construction; this is
because of their distorted shape and irregular size. However they are used in broken form in
road constructions, foundations and floors as a coarse aggregate material.

3.6)Standard tests for brick:

Certain tests are necessary to be conducted before any brick is accepted or rejected. Followings are some
of the tests which reveal the suitability of bricks. The tests are:

i) Water Absorption Test

ii) Crushing Strength (Compressive Strength ) Test
iii) Efflorescence Test
iv) Structure Test
v) Shape and Size Test
vi) Soundness Test
vii) Hardness Test

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i) Water Absorption Test: In this test any brick is chosen from the heap and weight dry. For
taking dry weight, the dry brick should be kept in an oven at 105 to 1150C for some time. The
brick is then immersed in water maintained at temperature of 27±2 0C for 24 hrs, and
weighed after brick is whipped with damp cloth. The increase in weight of brick after
immersion in water indicates the amount of water absorbed by brick.

Weight of absorbed water

Water Absorption capacity =
Dry Weight of brick

ii) Crushing Strength (Compressive Strength) Test: In this test, well burnt bricks are
selected. Specimen is immersed in water for 24 hrs. The frog of the brick is filled with
1:3 mortar and the brick is stored under damp jute bags for 24 hrs followed by immersion in
clean water for 3 days. The sample is then placed between the plates of Compression Testing
Machine. Load is applied axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 and maximum load at which
the specimen fails is noted.

Compressive Strength 3.5 N/mm2 for common bricks

14 N/mm2 for high quality bricks
If no testing machine is available at the field, strength can be roughly judged from the force
required to break the brick with hammer. The brick should not break when fallen flat on the
ground from a height of 1 m.

iii) Efflorescence Test: The soluble salts if present in the brick, cause efflorescence on the
surface of the brick. To find soluble salts in brick, it is immersed in water for 24 hrs. It is then
taken out and allowed to dry in shade. The absence of grey or white deposits on the surface
indicates absence of soluble salts. If white deposits cover about 10% surface, the
efflorescence is said to be slight, and it is considered as moderate when the white deposits
cover about 50% on surface. For more than 50%, it becomes heavy and is considered as
serious.

iv) Structure Test: A specimen brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be
homogeneous, compact and free from any defects e.g. Holes, lumps etc.

v) Shape and Size Test: All the face of the brick should be truly rectangular and sharp edges. It
should be of standard sizes. 20 bricks of standard size (190*90*90) mm are randomly
selected and staked lengthwise, breadth-wise and height-wise then,
Total Length = 3680 to 3920 mm Total
Breadth= 1740 to 1860 mm Total
Height= 1740 to 1860 mm

vi) Soundness Test: Soundness of a brick is estimated by striking two specimen bricks with each
other. The bricks should not break and emit clear ringing sound.

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vii) Hardness Test: This test is carried out by making a scratch on brick surface with the help of
finger nail. If no impression is left on the surface, then the brick is sufficiently hard.

Physical and mechanical properties of brick (not in syllabus)

Physical properties of brick

a) Shape: The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has well defined and sharp
edge and corner. The surface of brick is regular and even.

b) Size: The size of a brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place
to place in the same country. In Nepal, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is
230mm*110mm*55mm. which with motar joints gives net dimensions of
240mm*120mm*65mm.

c) Colour: The most common colour of building bricks fall under the class Red. It may vary
from deep red to light red. Very dark shades of red indicate over burning where as yellow
colour is often indicative of under burning.

d) Density: The density of brick depends mostly on the type of clay used and the method of
brick moulding. In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 to 1900 Kg/cm3

Mechanical Properties

a) Compressive strength: It is the most important property of bricks especially because they
are to be used in load bearing walls. The compressive strength of bricks depends on the
composition of the clay and degree of burning. It may vary from 35Kg/cm2 to more than 200
Kg/cm2.

b) Flexure Strength: Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are likely to
develop in a bending. It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building bricks
should not be less than 10 Kg/cm2. Best grade bricks often posses' flexural strength over 20
Kg/cm2. Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall posses a shearing strength of
50 to 70 Kg/cm2.

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Part B: Tiles

3.7) Tiles and their Types:

Tiles are thin slabs used for covering roofs, for flooring or for making drains and may be formed of brick
earth burnt in kilns or concrete. Brick earth used for manufacturing bricks tiles is more pure and is
prepared more thoroughly than the one used for manufacturing bricks. Tiles, being thinner require careful
burning. These are thinner than bricks and have greater tendency to crack and warp in drying. These are
more liable to break. Tiles may be glazed or non- glazed according to surface finish and the treatment
upon which it is acted.

Types:
According to their uses:
1. Roofing Tiles:

Roofing tiles are flat or may be made to different shape so as to provide safe and leakage proof drain
out of rainwater from the roof area. They also protect the building from direct sunlight. There are
number of varieties available as roofing tiles. These are pan tiles, pot tiles, allhabad tiles, mangalore
tile, concrete tiles etc.

a. Flat Tiles: These are ordinary rectangular tiles and are of various dimensions. They are laid
in cement or lime mortar.
Types of flat tiles:
i. Slate Tiles: Size found are 60cm*30cm*15mm and 50cm*25cm*10mm. They
should be reasonable straight, of uniform colour, texture etc.
Water absorption 21% by weight after soaking for 24 hrs.

ii. Burnt Clay Flat Terracing Tile: They should be uniform in shape, size and be free
from irregularities (e.g. bends, twists, cracks etc). Water absorption 20% by
weight. Compressive strength should not be less than 7.5 N/mm2
b. Pot Tiles or Country Tiles: These are also known as pan tiles. They are hand moulded, first
into flat tiles then to the required shape on wooden pattern and burnt into a kiln after drying.
They are of semicircular in section and used alone or with flat tiles generally in rural areas.
c. Corrugated Tiles: They have corrugation. While placing, a side lap of one or two
corrugation is formed. It gives good appearance.

2. Flooring Tiles:

These are used for covering surface of floor of the buildings. These may be glazed or unglazed as
required or as per the purpose. They are found in variety of shapes, sizes and colours. These are usually
found in rectangular or square shapes. Floor tiles used for bathrooms, kitchen and hospital floors are
usually vitrified and glazed where as those used in terrace, footpath, etc are non vitrified and unglazed.
Sanitary tiles, mosaic tiles, porcelain or glazed tiles, cement tiles are some of floor that are in use.

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3. Wall Tiles:

These are used for covering the surface of walls. These are usually glazed and the inner side of tiles is
unglazed and rough to ensure a good bond. Wall tiles are used in walls of toilets, bathroom, kitchen, wash
basins etc. They may however be used in cladding in exposed walls.

4. Drain Tiles:

Those tiles which are manufactured from clay for the purpose of lining of drains are called drain tiles. In
shape, they may be circular or semicircular. Their size is determined by the exact purpose for which they
have to be used e.g. in irrigation drains, in road drains or in domestic drains. These were usually unglazed
but now a day they are glazed and are very useful.

5. Glazed and Non glazed Tiles:

Glazing is simply the process of covering of the surface of ceramic materials such as brick tiles, stone
wares, porcelain products, etc with an impervious layer usually transparent film of glaze. It is usually a
glassy coat of about 0.1 to 0.2 mm thickness and is burnt with the material at high temperatures. Its main
purpose is to protect them from possible chemical attack and to improve its aesthetic view. It also produce a
smooth surface and is impervious to liquids. Glazing can create material of various optical properties,
colours and appearance. Opaque and transparent glazing can be done as required. Desired colour can be
obtained by addition of oxides of various metals such as iron oxide, copper oxide, etc. Common salt
(NaCl), lead oxide etc can be used to produce glazing. Non-glazed tiles are not subjected to such glazing
phenomenon. These are usually not so attractive and may be subjected to environmental and chemical
effects.

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3.8) Earthenware and Glazing:

Earthenware:

The clay product which is manufactured from ordinary clay mixed with sand and crushed pottery
by burning at low temperature is known as earthenware. It is generally soft and porous material.
They are liable to damage by atmospheric action. They should not absorb water more than 18 %
by weight. Earthenware is used for making ordinary drain pipes, partition block, electrical cable
material etc.

Uses: They are used for making ordinary drain pipes, partition blocks, electric cable conduits etc.
Glazed earthenware tiles are used for finishing floors and walls of kitchens, bathrooms etc.

Types:

1. Terra Cotta:
o It is high quality earthenware which is used as a substitute for stone for ornamentation of
buildings.
o Light in weight and can be easily cleaned.
o Available in several colors and desired shapes. o
Not affected by acid and atmospheric agencies.
2. Porcelain:
o This is fine earthenware which is white, thin and semi transparent having zero water
absorption
o It is also called white ware.
o It is prepared from clay, feldspar, quartz and minerals.
o The constituents are finely ground and then are thoroughly mixed in liquid state. The
mixture is given desired shape and is burnt at high temperature.
o These are used for sanitary wares, electric insulation, crucibles, reactor chamber etc.

Glazing:

It is the process of forming some transparent film over the surface of brick, tiles, earthenware and
stoneware to improve upon their appearance and also to protect them from the action of weather,
sewage, chemical or other destroying agents. A glaze is a glassy coat of thickness about 0.1 to 0.2
mm thickness applied on the surface of an earthen ware items and then fused into place by
burning at high temperature. Glazing may be transparent like glass or opaque like enamels. For
obtaining coloured glazes, the oxide and salts of various metal or special refectory colouring
agents are added.

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Types:

1. Transparent Glazing:
o Transparent film is formed.

1.1)Salt Glazing:
Salt glazing is most commonly used, since this make the items impermeable. It consists of
sodium chloride(NaCl) in the kiln when burning is at peak (12000C -1300 0C). The heat of the
kiln volatizes the salt, which enters into the pores of the burning items and combines with the
silica in clay to make soda silicate. This soda silicate so formed combines with alumina, lime and
iron in the clay to form a permanent thin, transparent surface coating.

1.2)Lead Glazing:

o Clay items are burned thoroughly and then dipped in a solution of lead oxide and tin
oxide. The particles of lead and tin adhere to the surface of clay items.
o After this, the items are returned in kiln where the particles melt forming a film of glass
over the outer layer.
o This method is used for items of inferior clay which cannot withstand high temperature
required for salt glazing.

2. Opaque Glazing:
o This is known as enamelling.
o Borax, kaolin, chalk, colouring matter, feldspar, oxides of tin, zinc, lead etc are mixed
and ground to fine paste (known as slip) in the presence of water.
o The items to be glazed is dried first and then dipped into the slip and then burned in the
furnace at the temperature of about 1200C. During this process the composition gets
completely vitrified and forms uniform glaze of desired colour.
o In this process burning and glazing are done simultaneously.

Some Terminologies:

Efflorescence: Alkaline salts if present in finished bricks absorb moisture from

atmosphere and create damp conditions. On drying the moisture evaporates
leaving behind grey and white powder deposits on the brick which spoil the
appearance. The phenomenon is called efflorescence. It should always be dry
brushed away before plastering a wall, wetting it will carry the salts back into the
wall to reappear later.

Vitrification: to convert the mass into glass like substance

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