CHAPTER THREE

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
To compose effective messages, you need to apply certain specific communications principles.
They tie in closely with the basic concepts of the communication process and are important for
both written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for choice of content and style
of presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message, called the Seven C’s namely
clarity, completeness, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, consideration, and courtesy.
1. Clarity
This is getting your message understood by others. The receiver must interpret your message
with the same meaning in your (sender’s) mind.
Guidelines
a. Choose short, familiar, and conversational words. Avoid Greek, Latin or other technical words
Say Don’t say
-After - Subsequent
-Home - Domicile
-Payment - Remuneration
-Registration form - Slip
b. Construct short sentences and paragraphs.
Generally short sentences and paragraphs are preferred; however a pleasing Varity of length is
also desirable. The average length of sentences suggested is 17-20 words.
c. Unity –have one main idea in sentence, and any other points or ideas must be closely related to
it. Similarly in paragraph, have one main idea. Usually a topic sentence is a good way to express
the main idea. The other sentences should contain details to develop the main idea.
d. Coherence – words should be correctly arranged so that they clearly express the intended
meaning.
e. Include examples, illustration, and visual aids when desirable. Some important statements,
words, or phrases may be underlined, numbered, typed in capital or italics.
2. Completeness
Your message is complete when it contains all facts the receiver needs. Incomplete messages:
- Result in additional expenses - Leads to confusion and debates
- Spoil goodwill

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Guidelines
a. Answer all question asked; both implied and stated.
b. Give something extra when desirable. Sometimes customers may not know what they should
ask or their questions may be inadequate.
c. Check for the five W‘s and any other essentials. The five W’s questions include what, when,
where, who, why and others like how and how much. This method is especially useful when you
request for information or provide information.
Example: To order merchandise makes clear
-What you want and how much
-When you need it
-Where it is to be sent
- To whom it is to be sent
-How payment will be made
3. Conciseness
This is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing
completeness and other “C” qualities.
Guidelines
a. Eliminate wordy expressions
Wordy Concise

 Consensus of opinion - Consensus

 Date of the policy - Policy date
 During the year of - During
 In accordance with your request - As you requested
 In due course - Soon
 In spite of the fact that - Although

b. Include only relevant words, phrases or statements: Avoid the irrelevant ones.
c. Stick to the purpose of the message
d. Omit information obvious to the communicating parties- don’t repeat at length what
The sender has already said.

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 e. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, repetitions and excessive
adjustments.
4. Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite and vivid rather than general and
vague.
Guidelines
a. Use specific facts and figures
E.g. Say Don’t say
- Our FIAT 110 truck - our delivery truck
-Product F42 has won 1st prize. - Our product has won prize.

b. Don’t repeatedly use vague words like many, large, fast, early, good, beautiful etc.
Except in situations when:
- You have no sufficient data to be specific
- You want to be diplomat
- Exact figures are not important
5. Correctness
Communication is correct when it bears real information and uses formally appropriate titles of
persons, words etc. to express matters.
This can be explained by the following guidelines.
a. Use the right level of language. There are three levels of language –formal, informal,
and sub formal.
The formal level of language is used for scholarly dissertation, master and doctoral thesis,
government agreements, legal documents, etc.
-The informal language refers to the language of business used for letters, memos, reports etc.
E.g. Formal: Anticipated Procure Inventory
Informal: Expect get stock
The substandard level of language is incorrect.
Say Don’t Say
Isn’t, aren’t, - Ain’t
I can hardly -I can’t hardly

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b. Check the accuracy of words, figures and facts. The following words are often confusing: a
and an, anxious and eager, between and among, counsel and council etc.
c. Maintain acceptable writing mechanisms. This refers to: Spelling errors, Punctuation marks,
Capitalization, Grammatical accuracy, Sentences and paragraph structures, Format for memos,
letters, reports etc.
d. Choose non-discriminatory expressions
E.g. -Equal treatment of sexes
-Use humankind rather than mankind
-Use chairperson rather than chairman.
6. Consideration
Consideration refers to giving thoughtful attention to the receiver/ sender. You have to prepare
every message with the receiver in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place.
Try to visualize your readers/ listeners with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and
probable reactions to your messages.
Guidelines
a. Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’. People are usually concerned about themselves
than about others. They are likely to read your messages when they see their names and
the pronoun ‘you’ rather than ‘I’ or ‘we’
E.g.
-‘We pay 8% interest’ is not preferred rather say ‘you earn 8% interest’
- Say ‘Congratulations on your successes rather than ‘I want to send my congratulations on
your success.
b. Show interest in readers/ listeners or show reader benefits. Your message should show interest
in and concern for the reader’s needs or viewpoints. Whenever possible and true, show how your
receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or announces. If so, they will be more
likely to react favorably.
c. Emphasize the positive, pleasant facts. For most people negative words like no, impossible, I
cannot etc. have unpleasant emotions. By making clear what you can or will do, you (by
implication) make clear what you cannot do without using a single negative word.
E.g. Say-As soon as your signature card reaches us, we will gladly open an account for you.
Don’t say-It is impossible to open an account for you today.

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d. Apply integrity and Ethics- integrity refers to high moral standards as honesty, sincerity,
decent character etc. Ethics on the other hand is concerned with what is right human conduct.
7. Courtesy
Courtesy is a combination of consideration and showing good manners. You can be courteous in
your business communication by being thoughtful, appreciative, and sincerely tactful.
a. Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle others
b. Do not ignore answering customers’ or employees’ inquires no matter how busy you are.
Sometimes silence (neglect) may be considered significantly discourtesy. Totally
ignoring inquires communicates unfavorable nonverbal messages that may lead to loss of
business or employee morale.
c. Avoid blunt behavior. Blunt behavior is common cause of discourtesy. Consider the
following responses to an inquire
Blunt -Obviously, if you had read your policy carefully you would be able to
answer this question yourself.
Polite - Sometimes policy wording is a little hard to understand. I am glad to clear up these
questions for you.

CHAPTER FOUR
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
Internal and External Communication
Each organization has its own approach to transmitting information, both within the organization
and to the outside world. Depending on where the business communication occurred we can
categorize communication into External and Internal.
External Communication

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External communication is communication with people outside an organization. It is the
organization’s means of establishing contact with the outside word. Externally it has to
communicate with other business houses, banks, government offices, the press, customers,
suppliers and the general public. It can be done through business letters, press releases,
advertisements, leaflets, invitations, telegrams, tele-messages, proposals, etc. Messages to
persons outside the organization can have a far-reaching effect on its reputation & ultimate
success. The right letter, proposal, or personal conversation can win back a disgruntled customer,
create a desire for a firm’s product or service, help negotiate a profitable sale, encourage
collections, motivate performance, in general create good-will.
Internal Communication
Internal communication involves transmission of information within the organization. Among
various ways of communicating within companies are memos, Reports, Meetings, face-to-face
discussions, teleconference, videoconference, notices, etc. Internal communication is a vital
means of attending to matters of company concern. Internal communication is of two types,
formal or official and informal. To maintain a healthy flow of information, effective managers
use both formal and informal communication channels.
Formal Communication
Formal communication flows along the organization’s lines of authority. Formal channels of
communication are intentionally defined & designed by the organization. They represent the
flow of communication within the formal organizational structure. Formal communication may
move vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Vertical communication can follow downward (from
superiors to subordinates) or upward (from subordinates to superiors), horizontal communication
flows between employees of equal or comparable ranks/status, whereas diagonal communication
is the exchange of information among employees in different work units.
A. Downward Communication
This type of communication flows from a superior to a subordinate. The managing director
communicating with the department managers, a manager giving a directive to an assistant
manager or a supervisor, a foreman instructing a worker are all engaged in the process of
downward communication. Usually, this type of communication involves job directions,
assignment of tasks & responsibilities, performance feedback, certain information concerning the
organization’s strategies & goals. Speeches, policy & procedure manuals, employee handbooks,

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company leaflets, briefings on the organization’s mission & strategies, staff meetings, & job
descriptions are all examples of downward communication.
Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:
 Job instructions – directions about what to do or how to do it. “When you stock the
shelves, put the new merchandise behind the old stock.”
 Job rational-explanations of how one task relates to other tasks. Explaining the
relationship between a task & other organizational tasks. “We rotate the stock like that so
the customer won’t wind up with state merchandise.”
 Policy & procedures: practice of the organization or rules, regulations and benefits of the
organization. “Don’t try to argue with unhappy customers. If you can’t handle them
yourself, call the manager”
 Feedback-Information about how efficiently a person is performing. “You are really
catching on fast. If you keep up the good work, you’ll be an assistant manager by the end
of the year”.
 Indoctrination-Information aimed at motivating employees by impressing the
organizations mission upon them and specifying how they should related to it. Efforts to
encourage a sense of mission & dedication to the goals of the organization. “If everyone
will put in a little extra effort, we can become the number one producer of X
components.”
Limitations of Downward Communication
1. Under–communication and over-communication- Downward communication is often
marred by either under or over communication. A superior may either talk too little or too
much about a job. Sometimes the superior acts in a presumptuous manner; they
communicate the decisions but withhold relevant background information about how
those decisions were arrived at. Under communication may also involve incomplete
instructions, which will surely lead to unsatisfactory performance. Over communication
or talking too much, on the other hand may lead to leakage of confidential information.
2. Delay- The lines of communication in downward communication being very long,
transmitting information to the lowest worker - process.
3. Loss of information- Unless communication is fully written, it is not likely to be
transmitted downwards in its entirety. Part of it is mostly certain to be lost. In fact, it has

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 been experimentally verified that only 20% of the communication sent downward
through five levels of management finally get to the workers’ level.
4. Distortion- In the long lines of communication, information is not only lost, but even
distorted. Exaggerating, making under-statements, giving unconscious twists to the facts
are a part of human nature. Whenever a piece of information passes on from one
individual to another, it loses a little of its authenticity. By the time it reaches its
destination, it may not contain even an iota of truth.
5. Built in resistance- Downward communication smacks of too much authoritarianism.
The subordinate do not get any opportunity of participating in the decision-making
process. They are expected to receive the policy decisions and directives without
questioning their appropriateness, utility or validity which they resent.
B. Upward Communication
Upward Communication- is transmission of information from subordinates to superiors
through organizational hierarchy. It is flow of opinions, ideas, complaints, and other kinds of
information from subordinates up to managers. Upward communication is important for several
reasons. First managers need to know how their subordinates feel about their jobs, their working
conditions and the company policies and procedures. Second, upward communication
encourages workers to discuss particular job related problems, which may affect productivity.
Third, it provides managers with feedback on the workers reactions to policy change,
developments in their departments and so on. When workers are encouraged to communicate
with upper level managers, workers will less resist downward messages such as policy changes.

However, upward communication is not as successful as downward communication because of

the following reasons:

 Subordinates fear to expose failure of their superiors (boss)

 Being afraid of punishment
 Feel of subordinates being inferior
To encourage workers upward communication, managers should prepare suggestion boxes so
that workers can express their feelings without fear. Engaging workers in focus groups will also
enhance effective upward communication since get together will form sense of informal

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atmosphere where workers feel free to express their feelings. An “open door policy” where
managers are always available to deal with ideas, suggestions, and comments of employees has
also a great contribution in encouraging up ward communication.

Ways to improve upward communication

To encourage upward communication, managers can use the following ways.
 Open door policy- employees feeling that manager’s doors are always open to them.
Whatever they like, they can walk into manager’s room, without any hesitation and talk
with him/her about their problems.
 Complaints-and-suggestions boxes- At some convenient places in the office or the
factory, complaints and suggestion boxes should be installed. Employees are encouraged
to drop their complaints or suggestions, if any, into these boxes.
 Social gatherings- frequently arranging social gatherings in different departments. These
gatherings offer a very informal atmosphere in which employees shed their inhibitions
and feel free to talk about their problems.
 Direct correspondence- Sometimes the manager may directly write to an employee and
ask him to communicate with him, or the employees may write to their high-ups on their
own initiative.
 Reports- Employees are required to submit reports about the progress of their work at
regular intervals.
 Counseling- encouraging employees to seek counsel of their superiors on their personal
problems. As they feel encouraged to talk about themselves freely, they provide the
managers with valuable information. While counseling helps the employees solve their
problems, the information provided by them is utilized by the managers to give a better
shape to their future policies.

Limitations of Upward Communication

Though no one can dispute the utility and importance of upward communication, it is not very
easy to have smooth upward flow. Moving against the force of gravity, which seems to be very
difficult, upward communication suffers from a number of limitations, more prominent of which
are the following:

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 1. Employees are usually reluctant to initiate upward communication. The managers might
keep their doors open, but they cannot force the employees to walk into their rooms,
employees do experience an awe of authority and fight shyness of contacting their
superiors (status).
2. Employees often feel that if they communicate their problems to their superiors, it may
adversely reflect on their own efficiency. If a supervisor experiences some difficulty in
getting cooperation from his workers and point it out to the department manager, the
latter might feel that the supervisor himself is incompetent. If a clerk who has just joined
the office complains that the filling system of the office is in total disarray, his superior
might conclude that the clerk is not efficient enough to handle filing properly.
3. Upward communication is more prone to distortion than downward communication. In
downward communication, distortion is often unconscious. But upward communication
is deliberately distorted. Some managers lose their coolness if they are confronted with
unpleasant or unpalatable facts. Some information, particularly of the unpalatable sort is
suitably exciting before it is passed on to them. While transmitting communication
upwards, the transmitter is always conscious of how it will be received and he cannot
resist the temptation of sugar coating the information.
4. Sometimes in the process of upward communication workers become too bold, ignore
their immediate superiors and directly approach the top most authorities with their
suggestions or complaints. This proves harmful in two ways: The officers who have been
by-passed feel slighted while the high-ups get suspicious of the worker’s intentions. The
relations between the workers and their immediate superiors get stained and work suffers.
5. Any negligence shown towards upward communication makes the workers cynical. They
carry the impression that the opportunity to communicate upward, management will
claim to have provided to them is only an eyewash.
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION vs. UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Downward Communication Upward Communication

 Downward communication flow is from higher to
 Flow is from lower to upward.
lower.
 These messages provide the information that
 It is essentially directive in nature and demands
lower level employees possess and essentially
action by superiors.
non-directive.
 Orders, inst5ructions, information, counseling,  Reports, ideas, suggestions, complaints,

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 interviews, lectures, conferences, etc. are the protest, attitude surveys, union, publications,
downward communication. etc. are the upward means of communication.
 Downward communication travels fast  Upward communication tends to travel slowly.
 Basic purpose is to translate plans into concrete  Basic objective is to obtain feedback on action/
action. results.

C. Horizontal Communication (Lateral Communication)

Horizontal communication involves exchange of information among individuals on the same
organizational level, such as across or within departments. Horizontal information informs,
supports, & coordinates activities both across and within departments. Considerable horizontal
communication in organizations stems from staff specialists, in areas such as engineering,
accounting, & human resources management, who provide advice to managers in various
departments. Horizontal communication is important to help coordinate work assignments, share
information on plans and activities, negotiate differences and develop inter personal support,
thereby creating a more cohesive work unit. The more that, individuals or departments within an
organization interact with each other to accomplish their objectives the more frequent and
intense will be the horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is especially important
in an organization for the following purposes:
 To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on part of
an important project.
 To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number of items
assembled each hour.
 To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new
survey.
 To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between co-workers.
 To build rapport: peer support.
Limitations of Horizontal Communication

 Rivalry among individuals and departments can influence individuals to hide

information that is potentially damaging to themselves or that may aid others.
 Specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the work of their
own unit and have little appreciation for the work and communication needs of others.

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  Lack of motivation when subordinate horizontal communication is not encouraged or
rewarded workers may not be interested to communicate horizontally.
D. Diagonal Communication (Cross Channel Communication)
Diagonal communication is the exchange of information among employees in different work
units who are neither subordinate nor superior to each other. Staff specialists use cross channel
communications frequently because their responsibilities typically involve many departments
within the organization. Because they lack line authority to direct those to whom they
communicate, they must often rely on their persuasive skills, as for instance when the human
resource department encourages employees to complete a job satisfaction questionnaire. Some
organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different functional areas,
even different levels of the hierarchy. With more & more firms reducing the number of
management layers & increasing the use of self-managed work teams, many workers are being
required to communicate with others in different departments & on different levels to solve
problems & coordinate work. For instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas
(accounting, marketing, operations, & human resources) to work on a specific product project to
ensure that all points of view are considered.

2. Informal communication

In addition to formal channels, organizations also have informal channels of communication.

Informal communication arises from the social relationships that evolve in the organization and
they are not available or feasible through formal channels.

Not all messages flow along the official paths prescribed by the organizations chain of
command. Many messages flow along an informal network commonly called the “grapevine”.

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Informal channels exist because of their unique advantages and because of the weakness inherent
in formal channels of communication. Informal channels allow people to handle predictable
routine situations well, because they tend to be filled with oral rather than written messages, they
are effective means of transmitting broad, general kind of information. But communication
through formal channels is so laborious process that involves long delays between the times a
worker first sends a message and the time a reply is received, consequently, formal channels are
inefficient means:

 for meeting unanticipated communication needs

 for managing crises
 for effectively communicating complex or detailed information
 for sharing information
All organizations have informal networks, but the type of information the grape vine carries
depends on the general condition of the organization. If an organization’s managers are fairly
open with employees and send all necessary information through formal channels, the grapevine
usually carries personal interest items. However when the formal communication channels fail
to do the job, the grapevine begins to carry information about the organization. In other words
“the grapevine busies itself with official matters only when the formal channels of
communication fail to deliver, are not understood, or are not accepted by the people for whom
the message are intended.

Researchers have found that although some entirely false rumors are spread by the grapevine,
information passed by this means is 75 to 95 percent are accurate. Informal messages may be
more accurate than formal ones because status, power and rank differences are temporarily set
aside.

Managers who listen carefully to the informal communication network find it a useful source of
information about employee concerns and problems. Some managers “leak’’ new ideas or
proposals to the grapevine to test the workers’ response. If an idea is greeted with hostility, they
drop it or revise it, if the idea is received positively they introduce it in to official channels.

Characteristics of Informal Communication

1. It is very fast and spontaneous -easy and fast to disseminate information

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 2. It is not entirely reliable- it might not be accurate information and even sometimes it
might be impossible to know the source.
3. Its messages are difficult to stop or counter once they get started.
4. It is accessible to every person in the organization -once disseminated there is no
limitation
5. It can be supportive or obstacle to management effort.

Types of informal Communication

1. Single strand chain –one person communicates with only one another. Information is often
distorted in this type of communication
.
A B C D

2. Gossip Chain-one individual disseminates the information to others. So information

distortion can be minimized.

D E
C
F
B

3. Probability Chain: communication is random, so information is transmitted in a

random manner without specific selection.

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 F
C
G
B D

4. Cluster Chain: is similar to probability but their major difference is in cluster

chain there is a specific selection of individuals when disseminating information.

F
H G
I
C
D

E B

Importance of the Grapevine

 Safety-valve- Apprehensions experienced by workers on matters like promotions and
retrenchments become an obsession with them. Talking about them may not alleviate their
fears, but it certainly provides them emotional relief. Since the grapevine does not follow any
formal channel, nobody can be held accountable for anything he has said. While relaying the
information to another fellow, a person is quite free to give it a twist he likes. This twist helps
him to express his personal emotions. Thus the grapevine acts as a kind of safety valve for
the pent-up emotions of the subordinates.
 Promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion- The existence of the grapevine proves
that all workers are interested in their associates. The very fact that they talk among

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 themselves helps to promote organizational solidarity and cohesion. Properly used grapevine
may even raise the morale of the workers.
 Supplement to other channels- All information cannot be transmitted to the employees
through the official channels. If there is some useful information unsuitable for being
transmitted through official channels, it can be transmitted through the grapevine, thus it acts
as a supplement to other channels of communication.
 Quick transmission- The speed with which information is transmitted through the grapevine
is just remarkable. Rumors, they say spread like wild fire in the forest. Just spot a leader of
the grapevine and give him some information, cleverly describing it as “top secret” and
within minutes, it will have reached everybody.
 Feedback – The grapevine provides feedback to the management. It enables them to know
what subordinates think about the organization and its various activities.
Limitations of Grapevine
 Distortion- One of the major drawbacks of the grapevine is that it may spread baseless or
distorted news, which may sometimes prove harmful even to the employees. If a supervisor
is summoned to the manager’s room and is kept busy there for a couple of hours, all kinds
of rumors have spread about him before he comes out. The grapevine respects nobody and it
may ascribe the worst possible motives to the noblest people.
 Incomplete information- The grapevine information is usually incomplete, so there is the
likelihood of being misunderstood or misinterpreted.
 Damaging swiftness- The swiftness with which the grapevine transmits information may
even be damaging. It may spread and cause serious damage before the management
becomes aware of it and it can take any rectifying steps.
How to use the Grapevine Effectively
Because of the damaging effect the grapevine is capable of producing; some managers are highly
suspicious of it and want to stop it completely. They don’t realize that the grapevine can neither
wither nor die. The more they try to block its flow, the greater the force with which it will erupt.
Instead of trying to curb it growth, it is much better to feed, water and cultivate it so that it can be
used for the benefit of the organization.
The grapevine can be effectively used in the following ways:

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  The managers should to spot the leaders. They should try to find out the people who are
most active on the grapevine and keep them well informed so that harmful rumors do not
reach the employees.
 The grapevine should be used to feel the pulse of the employees. The management can
carefully listen to the grapevine, sense the mood of the employees and modify the
policies accordingly.
 If there is any false rumor, the management should immediately use the official channels
to contradict and to dispel the fears of the employees.
 If the workers are associated with the decision making, the rumormongers will be
automatically frustrated.

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