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UNIT V - ROBOTIC
AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY
Ref book:
Mikell P. Groover, “Automation, Production systems and Computer
Integrated Manufacturing”, Prentice Hall India Pvt. Ltd., 2011.

UNIT V - ROBOTIC AUTOMATION IN INDUSTRY

Flexible Manufacturing Systems – Components,Planning and
implementation issues, Benefits and applications;
Automated Storage Retrieval Systems (ASRS) – types, components and
operating features;
Automated processing/machining – Transfer lines;
Automatic assembly – System configuration, parts delivery,
applications;
Automatic inspection – types, procedure, accuracy;
Overview – Internet of Robotic Things – Cloud robotics.

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Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)

• Components
• Planning and implementation issues
• Benefits and applications;

e-BOOK CHAPTER: (This PPT material is in brief. Refer the chapters below for more details)
FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS -Page 460
16.1 What is FMS? -Page 462
16.2 FMS Components -Page 469
16.3 FMS Applications and Benefits -Page 480
16.4 FMS Planning and Irnplernentation Issues -Page 485

Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS)

• FMS is a highly automated Group Technology (GT) machine cell, consisting of
a group of processing workstations (usually CNC machine tools),
interconnected by an automated material handling and storage system, and
controlled by a distributed computer system.
• The reason the FMS is called flexible is that it is capable of processing a
variety of different part styles simultaneously at the various workstations,
and the mix of part styles and quantities of production can be adjusted in
response to changing demand patterns.
• The FMS is most suited for the mid-variety, mid-volume production range.
• FMS are sometimes used to denote the term flexible machining system OR a
more appropriate term for an FMS would be flexible automated
manufacturing system.

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Types of FMS
(Refer next slide)

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Single Machine Cell

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Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC)

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FMS COMPONENTS
There are several basic components of an FMS:
(1) workstations,
(2) material handling and storage system, and
(3) computer control system.

In addition, even though an FMS is highly automated,

(4) people are required to manage and operate the system.

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Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems (ASRS)

- types, components and operating features;

e-BOOK CHAPTER: (This PPT material is in brief. Refer the chapters below for more details)

11.4 Automated storage systems -Page 335

11.4.1 Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems

Introduction in next few slides...

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Automated storage systems divide into two

general types:
(1) Automated Storage/Retrieval
Systems and
(2) carousel storage systems.

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Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems:

• An Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems (AS/RS) can be defined as a
storage system that performs storage and retrieval operations with
speed and accuracy under a defined degree of automation.
• At the most sophisticated level, the operations are totally automated,
computer controlled, and fully integrated with factory and/or
warehouse oporarions.
• Automated storage/retrieval systems are custom designed for each
application

AS/RS Types and Applications.

• Several important categories of automated storage/retrieval system

can be distinguished. The following are the principal types:
• Unit load AS/RS
• Deep-lone AS/RS
• Miniload AS/RS
• Man-on-board AS/RS
• Automated item retrieval system
• Vertical lift storage modules (VLSM)

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Unit load AS/RS

• The unit load AS/RS is typically a large automated system designed to
handle unit loads stored on pallets or in other standard containers.
• The system is computer controlled, and the SIR machines are
automated and designed to handle the unit load containers.
• A unit load AS/RS is pictured in Figure 11.5.
• The unit load system is the generic AS/RS.
• Other systems described below represent variations of the unit load
AS/RS.

Deep-lane AS/RS
• The deep-lane AS/RS is a high-density unit load storage system that
is appropriate when large quantities of stock are stored, but the
number of separate stock types (SKUs) is relatively small.
• Instead of storing each unit load so that it can be accessed directly
from the aisle (as in a conventional unit load system), the deep lane
system stores ten or more loads in a single rack, one load behind the
next.
• Each rack is designed for "flow-through," with input on one side and
output on the other side. Loads are picked from one side of the rack
by an SIR-type machine designed for retrieval, and another machine is
used on the entry side of the rack for load input.

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Miniload AS/RS
• This storage system is used to handle small loads (individual parts or
supplies) that are contained in bins or drawers in the storage system.
• The SIR machine is designed to retrieve the bin and deliver it to a P &
D station at the end of the aisle so that individual items can be
withdrawn from the bins.
• The P&D station is usually operated by a human worker. The bin or
drawer must then be returned to its location in the system.
• A miniload AS/RS system is generally smaller than a unit load AS/RS
and is often enclosed for security of the items stored.

Man-on-board AS/RS
• A man-on-board (also called man-aboard) storage/retrieval system
represents an alternative approach to the problem of retrieving
individual items from storage.
• In this system, a human operator rides on the carriage of the S/R
machine whereas the mini load system delivers an entire bin to the
end-of-aisle pick station and must return it subsequently to its proper
storage compartment. the man on-board system permits individual
items, to be picked directly at their storage locations.
• This offers an opportunity to increase system throughput.

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Automated item retrieval system

• These storage systems are also designed for retrieval of individual
items or small product cartons: however. the items are stored in
lanes rather than bins or drawers.
• When an item is retrieved, it is pushed from its lane and drops onto a
conveyor for delivery to the pickup station.
• The operation is somewhat similar to a candy vending machine,
except that an item retrieval system has more storage lane, and a
conveyor to transport items to a central location.
• The supply of items in each lane is periodically replenished, usually
from the rear of the system so that there is flow-through of items,
thus permitting first-in.first-out inventory rotation

Vertical lift storage modules (VLSM)

• These are also called vertical lift automated storage/retrieval systems
(VL-AS/RS).
• AIl of the preceding AS/RS types are designed around a horizontal
aisle.
• The same principle of using a center aisle to access loads is used
except that the aisle is vertical.
• Vertical lift storage modules, some with heights of 10 m {30 ft) or
more, are capable of holding large inventories while saving valuable
floor space in the factory.

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Applications of AS-RS technology

• Most applications of AS-RS technology have been associated with
warehousing and distribution operations. An ASiRS can also be used
to store raw materials and work-in-process in manufacturing.
• Three application areas can be distinguished for automated
storage/retrieval systems:
(1) unit load storage and handling,
(2) order picking, and
(3) work-in-process storage systems.

(1) unit load storage and handling

• Unit load storage and retrieval applications are represented by the
unit load AS/RS and deep-lane storage systems.
• These kinds of applications are commonly found in warehousing for
finished goods in a distribution center, rarely in manufacturing.
• Deep-lane systems are used in the food industry.

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(2) order picking

• As described above, order picking involves retrieving materials in less
than full unit load quantities.
• Miniload. man-on-board. and item retrieval systems are used for
this second application area.

(3) work-in-process storage systems

• Work-in-process (WIP) storage is a more recent application of
automated storage technology.
• While it is desirable to minimize the amount of work-in-process, it is
also important to effectively manage WIP that unavoidably does exist
in a factory.
• Automated storage system either automated storage/retrieval
systems or carousel systems, represent an efficient way of storing
materials between processing steps, particularly in batch and job
shop production.
• In high production, work-in-process is often carried between
operations by conveyor systems, which thus serves both storage and
transport functions.

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Automated storage systems help to regain control over WIP. Reasons

that justify the installation of automated storage systems for work-in-
process include:
• Buffer storage in production
• Support of just-in-time delivery
• Kitting of parts for assembly
• Compatible with automatic identification systems
• Computer control and tracking of materials
• Support of factory-wide automation

Components and Operating Features of an AS/RS:

• Virtually all of the automated storage/retrieval systems described
above consist of the following components, shown in Figure 11.5:
(1) storage structure,
(2) S/R machine,
(3) storage modules (e.g., pallets for unit loads), and
(4) one or more pickup-and-deposit stations.
In addition, a control system is required to operate the AS/RS.

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Automated Production Lines - Transfer lines

e-BOOK CHAPTER: (This PPT material is in brief. Refer the chapters below for more
details)
18.1 Fundamentals of Automated Production Lines - Page 565
• 18.1.1 System Configurations - Page 566
• 18.1.2 Workpart Transfer Mechanisms - Page 569 upto 572
• 18.1.3 Storage Buffers
• 18,1.4 Control of the Production Line

18.2 Applications of Automated Production lines

• 18.2.1 Machining Systems - Page 575 upto 578
• 18.2.2

Introduction:
• The manufacturing systems considered in this topic are used for high
production of parts that require multiple processing operations.
Each processing operation is performed at a workstation, and the
stations are physically integrated by means of a mechanized work
transport system to form an automated production line.
• Machining (milling, drilling, and similar rotating cutter operations) is
a common process performed on these production lines, in which
case the term transfer line or transfer machine is used.
• In our classification of manufacturing systems, transfer lines are of
fixed routing or parts, automated, single model systems.

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Other applications of automated production line, include

• robotic spotwelding in automobile final assembly plants,
• sheet metal pressworking, and
• electroplating of metals.
• Similar automated lines are used for assembly operations; however,
the technology of automated assembly is sufficiently different that
will be discussed in the next topic (automated assembly).

Their application is therefore appropriate only under the following

conditions:
• High product demand, requiring high production quantities.
• Stable product design. Frequent design changes are difficult to cope
with on an automated production line.
• Long product life, at least several years in most cases.
• Multiple operations are performed on the product during its
manufacture

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When the applicatlon satisfies these conditions. Automated

production lines provide the following benefits:
• Low direct labor content
• Low product cost because cost of fixed equipment is spread over
many units.
• High production rates.
• Production lead time (the time between beginning of production and
completion of a finished unit) and work-in-process are minimized.
• Factory floor space is minimized.

Fundamentals Of Automated Production Lines:

• An automated production line consists of multiple workstations that
are linked together by a work handling system that transfers parts
from one station to the next.as depicted in Figure 18.1.

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Cont..
• A raw work part enters one end of the line, and the processing steps are
performed sequentially a, the part progresses forward (from left to right in
our drawing).
• The line may include inspection stations to perform intermediate quality
checks.
• Also, manual stations may also be located along the line to perform certain
operations that are difficult or uneconomical to automate.
• Each station performs a different operation, so that the sum total of all the
operations is required to complete one unit of work.
• Multiple parts are processed simultaneously on the line, one part at each
workstation.
• In the simplest form at production line, the number of parts on the line at
any moment is equal to the number of workstations, as indicated in our
figure.

Cont..
• Depending on workpart geometry, a transfer line may utilize pallet
fixtures for part handling.
• A pallet fixture is a workholding device that is designed to
(1) fixture the part in a precise location relative to its base and
(2) be moved. located, and accurately clamped in position at successive
workstations by the transfer system.
• The term palletized transfer line is sometimes used to identify a
transfer line that uses pallet fixtures or similar workholding devices.
• The alternative method of work part location is to simply index the
parts themselves from station-to-station. This is called a free transfer
line, whose obvious benefit is that it avoids the cost of the pallet
fixtures.

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System Configurations:
• Although Figure 18.1 shows the flow of work to be in a straight line,
the work flow can actually take several different forms, We classify
them as follows: (1) in-line, (2) segmented in-line, and (3) rotary.

(1) in-line:
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of
stations in a straight line arrangement, as in Figure 18.1.

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(2) segmented in-line:

• The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-
line transfer sections, where the segments are usually perpendicular
to each other. Figure 18.2 shows several possible layouts of the
segmented in-line category.
• There are a number of reasons for designing a production line in
these configurations rather than in a pure straight line, including:
(1) available floor space may limit the length of the line,
(2) it allows reorientation

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(3) rotary:
• In the rotary configuration. the workparts are attached to fixtures
around the periphery of a circular worktable, and the table is indexed
(rotated in fixed angular amounts) to present the parts to
workstations for processing.
• A typical arrangement is illustrated in Figure 18.4.The worktable is
often referred to as a dial, and the equipment is called a dial indexing
machine, or simply, indexing machine.

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Workpart Transfer Mechanisms:

• The work part transfer system moves parts between stations on the
production line.
• Transfer mechanisms used on automated production lines are usually
either synchronous or asynchronous.
• Synchronous transfer has been the traditional means of moving parts
in a transfer line.
• However. applications of asynchronous transfer systems are
increasing because they provide certain advantages over synchronous
parts movement. (1) greater flexibility. (2) fewer pallet fixtures
required, (3) easier to rearrange or expand the production system.

Cont.
Workpart transfer mechanisms are divided into two categories:
(1) linear transport systems for in-line systems
Some of the linear transport systems provide synchronous movement,
whereas others provide asynchronous motion.
and
(2) rotary indexing mechanisms for dial indexing machines.
The rotary indexing mechanisms all provide synchronous motion.

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(1) Linear Transfer Systems:

• Most of the material transport systems provide a linear motion, and

some of these are used for workpart transfer in automated
production systems.
• These include powered roller conveyors. belt conveyors, chain-driven
conveyors, and cart-on-track conveyors. Figure 18.5 illustrates the
possible application of a chain or belt driven conveyor to provide
continuous or intermittent movement of parts between stations.

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• Many machining type transfer lines utilize various walking beam

transfer systems, in which the parts are synchronously lifted up from
their respective stations by a transfer beam and moved one position
ahead to the next station.
• The transfer beam then lowers the parts into nests that position them
for processing at their stations.
• The beam then retracts to make ready for the next transfer cycle. The
action sequence is depicted in Figure 18.6.

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(2) rotary indexing mechanisms for dial indexing

machines
• Several mechanisms are available to provide the rotational indexing
motion required in a dial indexing machine. Two representative types
arc explained here: Geneva mechanism and cam drive.
Geneva mechanism:
• The Geneva mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index
the table through a partial rotation,as illustrated in Figure 18.7.If the
driven member has six slots for a six station dial indexing table, each
turn of the driver results in 1/6 rotation of the work table or 60°.The
driver only causes motion of the table through a portion of its own
rotation.

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• In general,
θ = 360º/ns
where θ = angle of rotation of worktable during indexing (degrees of rotation), and
ns = number of slots in the Geneva.
• Total cycle time as:
Tc = 1/N
where Tc = cycle time (min), and N = rotational speed of driver (rev/min).
• Of the total cycle time, the dwell time, or available operation time per cycle, is given
by:
Ts= (180+θ)/360N
where Ts = available service or processing time or dwell time (min), and the other
terms are defined above.
• Similarly, the indexing time is given by:
Tr= (180-θ)/360N
where Tr = indexing time (min), also referred as the repositioning time

Cam drive:
• Various forms of cam drive mechanisms, one of which is illustrated in
Figure 18.8, are used to provide an accurate and reliable method of
indexing a rotary dial table.
• Although a relatively expensive drive mechanism, its advantage is that
the cam can be designed to provide a variety of velocity and dwell
characteristics.

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Applications of Automated Production lines

- Machining Systems -Transfer Lines:
• In a transfer line, the workstations containing machining work heads
are arranged in an in-line or segmented in-line configuration, and the
parts are moved between stations by transfer mechanisms such as
the walking beam system.
• It is the most highly automated and productive system in terms of the
number of operations that can be performed to accommodate
complex work geometries and the rates of production that can be
achieved.
• It is also the most expensive of the systems.
• The transfer line can include a large number of workstations, but the
reliability of the system decreases as the number of stations is
increased.

Among the variations in features and options found in transfer lines are
the following:
• Workpart transport can be synchronous or asynchronous.
• Workparts can be transported with or without palletfixtures,
depending or part geometry and ease of handling.
• A variety of monitoring and control features can be included to
manage the line.

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• Two variants of the rotary transfer machine are

the center column machine and the trunnion machine.
• In the center column machine, vertical machining heads are mounted on
a center column in addition to the stationary machining heads located on
the outside of the horizontal worktable, thereby increasing the number
of machining operations that can be performed.
• The center column machine, pictured in Figure 18.11, is considered to be
a high production machine that makes efficient use of floor space.

• The trunnion machine gets its name from a vertically oriented worktable
or trunnion to which workholders are attached to fixture the parts for
machining.
• Since the trunnion indexes around a horizontal axis, this provides the
opportunity to perform machining operations on opposite sides of the
work part.
• Trunnion machines are most suitable for smaller workparts than the
other rotary machines.

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Automated Assembly Systems

(Fundamentals of Automated Assembly Systems)
1. System Configurations
2. Parts Delivery at Workstations
3. Applications

e-BOOK CHAPTER: (This PPT material is in brief. Refer the chapters below for
more details)

19.1 Fundamentals of Automated Assembly Systems - Page 601

19.1.1 System Configurations - Page 602
19.1.2 Parts Delivery at Workstations - Page 604
19.1.3 Applications - Page 601

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Introduction:
• An automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated assembly
operations to combine multiple components into a single entity. The single entity
can be a final product or a subassembly in a larger product. In many cases, the
assembled entity consists of a base part to which other components are attached.
The components are joined one at a time (usually), so the assembly is completed
progressively.
• A typical automated assembly system consists of the following subsystems;
(1) one or more workstations at which the assembly steps are accomplished,
(2) parts feeding devices that deliver the individual components to the workstations,
and
(3) a work handling system for the assembled entity.
In assembly systems with one workstation, the work handling system moves the base
part into and out of the station.
In systems with multiple stations, the handling system transfers the partially
assembled base part between stations.

Control functions required in automated assembly machines are the

same as in the automated processing lines of TRANSFER LINES:
(1) sequence control,
(2) safety monitoring, and
(3) quality control.
The issue of memory control versus instantaneous control is especially
relevant in multi-station automated assembly systems.

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System Configurations:
• Automated assembly systems can be classified according to physical
configuration.
• The principal configurations, illustrated in Figure 19.1, are: (a) in-line
assembly machine, (b) dial type assembly machine, (c) carousel
assembly system, and (d) single station assembly machine.
• Table 19.1 summarizes the possible combinations of work transfer
systems that are utilized with these assembly system configurations.

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Parts Delivery at Workstations:

In each of the configurations described above, a workstation

accomplishes one or both of the following tasks:
(1) a part is delivered to the assembly workhead and added to the
existing base part in front of the workhead (in the case of the first
station in the system, the base part is often deposited into the work
carrier), and/or
(2) a fastening or joining operation is performed at the station in which
parts added at the workstation or at previous workstations are
permanently attached to the existing base part.

The parts delivery system typically consists of the

following hardware:
1. Hopper
2. Parts feeder
3. Feed track
4. Escapement and placement drive

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Automatic inspection – types, procedure,

accuracy;
e-BOOK CHAPTER: (This PPT material is in brief. Refer the chapters
below for more details)

22.1 Inspection Fundamentals - Page 681

22.1.1 Types of Inspection - Page 682
22.1.2 Inspection Procedure - Page 683
22.1.3 Inspection Accuracy - Page 687
22.1.4 Inspection vs Testing

22.3 Automated Inspection

22.4 When and Where to Inspect
22.4.1 Off-Line and On-Line Inspection - Page 694

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INSPECTION FUNDAMENTALS:
• The term inspection refers to the activity of examining the product, its components,
sub-assemblies, or materials out of which it is made, to determine whether they
conform to design specifications.
Types of Inspection:
1. Inspection for variables, in which one or more quality characteristics of interest are
measured using an appropriate measuring instrument or sensor.
2. Inspection for attributes, in which the part or product is inspected to determine
whether it conforms to the accepted quality standard. The determination is sometimes
based simply on the judgment of the inspector. In other cases: the inspector uses a gage
to aid in the decision. Inspection by attributes can also involve counting the number of
defects in a product.

Examples of the two types of inspection are listed in Table 22.1.

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Inspection Procedure:
A typical inspection procedure performed on an individual item, such as a part, subassembly, or final product,
consists of the following steps:
1. Presentation-The item is presented for examination.
2. Examination-The item is examined for nonconforming feature(s).
• In inspection for variables, examination consists of measuring a dimension or other attribute of the part or
product.
• In inspection for attributes, this involves gaging one or more dimensions or searching the item for flaws.

3. Decision-Based on the examination. a decision is made whether the item satisfies the defined quality
standards.
• The simplest case involves a binary decision, in which the item is deemed either acceptable or unacceptable.
• In more complicated cases, the decision may involve grading the item into one of more than two possible
quality categories. such as grade A, grade B. and unacceptable.

4. Action-The decision should result in some action, such as accepting or rejecting the item, or sorting the item
into the most appropriate quality grade. It may also be desirable to take action to correct the manufacturing
process to minimize the occurrence of future defects.

Inspection Accuracy:
Items of good quality are incorrectly classified as not conforming to
specifications, and nonconforming items are mistakenly classified as conforming.
These two kinds of mistakes are called Type I and Type II errors.
• A Type I error occurs when an item of good quality is incorrectly classified as
being defective. It is a "false alarm."
• A Type II error is when an item of poor quality is erroneously classified as
being good. It is a "miss."

These error types are portrayed graphically in Table 22.2.

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A Type I error occurs when an item of good quality is incorrectly

classified as being defective. It is a "false alarm."
A Type II error is when an item of poor quality is erroneously classified
as being good. It is a "miss."

• The term inspection accuracy refers to the capability of the inspection process to avoid these
types of errors.
• Measures of Inspection accuracy are classified by an inspector (or automatic inspection
system) into either of two categories, conforming or nonconforming.
• Considering this binary case,
• let P1 = proportion of times (or probability) that a conforming item is classified as conforming,
and
• let P2 = proportion of times (or probability) that a nonconforming item is classified as
nonconforming.
• In other words. both of these proportions (or probabilities) correspond to correct decisions.
• Thus,
• (1 - P1) = probability that a conforming item is classified as nonconforming (Type I error). and
• (1 - P2) = probability that a nonconforming item is classified as conforming (Type II error)
• q is actual fraction defect rate

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If we let q = actual fraction defect rate in the batch of items. A table of possible
outcomes can be constructed as in Table 22.3 to show the fraction of parts correctly
and incorrectly c1assified and for those incorrectly classified, whether the error is
Type I or Type II.

The two values P1 & P2 can be combined into a single measure of inspection accuracy
(A) by taking a simple average:
A = (P1 + P2)/2

where
A = measure of inspection accuracy that ranges between
zero (all inspection decisions incorrect) and 1.0 (all decisions correct = perfect
accuracy);
P1 = probability that a conforming item is classified as conforming; and
P2 = probability that a defective item is classified as defective, as previously defined.

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AUTOMATED INSPECTION:
Automated inspection can be defined as the automation of one or
more of the steps involved in the inspection procedure. There are a
number of alternative ways in which automated or semi-automated
inspection can be implemented:
1. Automated presentation of parts by an automatic handling system
with a human operator still performing the examination and decision
steps
2. Automated examination and decision by an automatic inspection
machine, with manual loading (presentation) of parts into the
machine
3. Completely automated inspection system in which parts
presentatian, examination. and decision are all performed
automatically.

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when and where to inspect:

Inspection can be performed at any of several places in production:
(1) receiving inspection, when raw materials and parts are received
from suppliers,
(2) at various stages of manufacture, and
(3) before shipment to the customer.

our principal focus is on case (2), that is, when and where to inspect
during production.

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NOTE: Study the following topics by definition, not all the contents as in
the materials given below because it is given as OVERVIEW in syllabus.

Refer the file

“Internet_of_Robotic_Things_Concept_Technologies_and_Challenges”
in google drive
for the topic: Internet of Robotic Things

Refer the file “Cloud_robotics_Current_status_and_open_issues” in

google drive
for the topic: Cloud robotics

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GROUP TECHNOLOGY:

• Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar

parts are identified and grouped together to take advantage of their
similarities in design and production. Similar parts are arranged into
part families where each part family possesses similar design and/or
manufacturing characteristics.

Group technology offers substantial benefits to

companies that have the perseverance to
implement it.The benefits include:
• GT promotes standardization of tooling, fixturing. and setups.
• Material handling is reduced because parts are moved within a
machine cell rather than within the entire factory.
• Process planning and production scheduling are simplified
• Setup times are reduced, resulting in lower manufacturing lead times.
• Work-in-process is reduced.
• Worker satisfaction usually improves when workers collaborate in a
GT cell.
• Higher quality work is accomplished using group technology.

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The three methods for group technology(GT) are;

(1) visual inspection,

(2) parts classification and COding, and
(3) production flow analysis.

Cellular manufacturing
• Whether part families have been determined by visual inspection.
parts classification and
• coding, or production flow analysis, there is advantage in producing
those parts using group
• technology machine cells rather than a traditional process-type
machine layout. When the
• machines are grouped, the term cellular manufacturing is used to
describe this work organization. Cellular manufacturing is an
application of group technology in which dissimillar machines or
processes have been aggregated into cells, each of which is dedicated
to the production of a part or product family or a limited group of
families.

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 11/25/2022

The typical objectives in cellular manufacturing

are similar to those of group technology:
• To shorten manufacturing lead times
• To improve quality
• To reduce work-in-process inventory
• To simplify production scheduling
• To reduce setup times

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