Exam 1

QUESTION ONE (20 marks)

a) Describe the following Raster data structures: (4 marks)

i. Block Coding
Block coding is a raster data compression technique where adjacent cells (pixels) with
the same value are grouped together and represented as a single block. Each block is
defined by its location, value, and size (width × height), which reduces data
redundancy.

ii. Quad Tree Data Structure

The Quad Tree structure divides the raster data into quadrants recursively until each
quadrant contains uniform data or reaches a minimal size. It is an efficient way to
store sparse raster data and reduces memory usage by avoiding unnecessary data for
homogeneous areas.

b) Explain the role of the following disciplines in GIS (4 marks)

i. Cartography
Cartography involves the design and production of maps. In GIS, it provides the
principles for symbolizing, labeling, and visualizing spatial data effectively.

ii. Remote Sensing

Remote sensing collects data about the Earth's surface using satellites or aerial
sensors. In GIS, it provides up-to-date imagery used for land cover classification,
monitoring changes, and environmental analysis.

iii. Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry extracts measurements and features from photographs. In GIS, it's
used to generate accurate 3D models and topographic maps.

iv. Surveying
Surveying provides precise ground-based measurements of positions and elevations. It
supplies accurate spatial data inputs for GIS analysis and mapping.

c) Explain the following types of error visualizations and projection types used to
solve them: (9 marks)
i) The ‘circular room’ visualization

Explanation: All directions appear correct, but shapes and sizes are distorted
—commonly seen in azimuthal projections.

Projection: Azimuthal (e.g., Stereographic Projection).

ii) The ‘square room with flat walls’ visualization

 Explanation: Maintains straight grid lines, preserving direction and shape but
distorts size—commonly seen in cylindrical projections.

Projection: Mercator Projection.

iii) The ‘tepee’ visualization

Explanation: Shape and size are well preserved near the center but distorted
at the edges—commonly seen in conic projections.

Projection: Albers Equal Area or Lambert Conformal Conic.

d) Describe the process of digitizing in QGIS (3 marks)

Load the base map or raster image onto QGIS.

Create a new vector layer (point, line, or polygon).

Start editing the layer using the "Toggle Editing" tool.

Use the "Add Feature" tool to digitize features manually by clicking on the
map.

Save edits and stop editing to finish.

QUESTION TWO (15 marks)

a) Describe topology and explain the three major elements that characterize
topology (4 marks)
Topology in GIS refers to the spatial relationships between geographic features. It
ensures data integrity and supports spatial analysis.

Three elements of topology:

Connectivity – How features are linked, like roads connecting at intersections.

Adjacency – Features that share boundaries, like adjacent land parcels.

Containment – One feature enclosed within another, such as a lake inside a

park boundary.

b) Steps in QGIS tasks:

i) Creating a new Raster layer (2 marks)

Go to Raster > Conversion > Translate (Convert format).

Select input data and format, and set output location.

ii) Use a color ramp on the same layer (3 marks)

 Right-click the raster layer > Properties.

Go to Symbology, choose Render type (e.g., Singleband pseudocolor).

Select a color ramp and apply.

iii) Georeferencing a raster image (3 marks)

Open Georeferencer from the Raster menu.

Load the image and add Ground Control Points (GCPs) by matching known
coordinates.

Select transformation settings and start georeferencing.

Save the raster with spatial reference

iv) Measuring the area of a given polygon (3 marks)

Use "Measure Area" tool from the toolbar.

Click along the polygon boundary or select an existing feature.

Ensure the correct CRS is set for accurate units.

QUESTION THREE (15 marks)

a) Explain three major technologies for remote sensing (6 marks)

Optical Sensors – Capture reflected sunlight; useful in land cover mapping.

Thermal Sensors – Detect emitted infrared radiation; used for temperature

studies.

Radar (SAR) – Uses microwave signals; effective in cloudy or dark

conditions for terrain analysis.

b) GIS terms and importance:

i) Digitizing (1 mark)
Converting physical maps or images into digital vector format. Essential for creating
spatial data layers.

ii) Georeferencing (2 marks)

Assigning real-world coordinates to a raster/image. Enables accurate overlay and
spatial analysis.

iii) Coordinate Reference System (CRS) (2 marks)

Defines how spatial data is mapped on Earth using a datum and projection. Ensures
data aligns correctly in space.
c) Differentiate:

i. Geographic vs Projected Coordinate Systems (2 marks)

Geographic: Based on latitude and longitude (e.g., WGS84).

Projected: Translates earth’s curved surface to flat maps using a projection

(e.g., UTM).

ii. Geocentric vs Local Datums (2 marks)

Geocentric Datum: Earth-centered (e.g., WGS84), applies globally.

Local Datum: Fits a specific region more accurately (e.g., NAD27 for North
America).

QUESTION FOUR (15 marks)

a) Three methods Mary can use to query features in her QGIS project (9 marks

Attribute Query (Select by Expression) – Use SQL-like expressions to filter data

(e.g., "population > 10000").

Spatial Query – Select features based on their spatial relationship (e.g., towns
within a county).

Identify Tool – Click on a feature to view its attributes instantly.

b) Projection file name of kcau.shp (2 marks)

kcau.prj

c) Four steps in creating digital datasets by manual input (4 marks)

Prepare a base map or satellite image.

Create a new vector layer in QGIS.

Digitize features using drawing tools.

Save edits and export data in desired format.

Exam 2

QUESTION ONE (20 marks) –

Compulsory
a) Using examples, describe three types of vector data
used in GIS. (3 marks)

Point – Represents a single location (e.g., school, tree, well).

Line – Represents linear features (e.g., roads, rivers, pipelines).

Polygon – Represents area features with boundaries (e.g., lakes, land parcels,
buildings).

b) Explain the following terms with reference to GIS:

(i) Layer (2 marks)

A layer is a collection of geographic data representing one theme, like roads or rivers,
displayed on a map.

(ii) Delimited Text (2 marks)

Delimited text files store tabular data with fields separated by characters like commas
or tabs (e.g., CSV files), which can be imported into QGIS using coordinates.

(iii) Attribute Table (2 marks)

An attribute table contains non-spatial data about features in a layer, such as name,
population, or land use.

(iv) Transparency/Opacity (2 marks)

This controls the visibility level of a layer. A 0% opacity means fully transparent,
while 100% means fully visible.

c) Describe at least three different ways of querying

data in QGIS. (6 marks)

Attribute Query (Select by Expression) – Query features based on attribute

values (e.g., “Area > 500”).

Spatial Query – Selects features based on their spatial relationships (e.g.,

towns within a district).

Identify Tool – Click on a feature to view its attribute data instantly.

d) Attribute data stored in GIS consists of three basic

types. Name them using examples. (3 marks)
 Text/String – Descriptive information (e.g., "Town Name" = "Nairobi").

Numeric – Quantitative values (e.g., "Population" = 50000).

Date/Time – Temporal data (e.g., "Survey_Date" = 2023-06-15).

QUESTION TWO (15 Marks)

a) Explain how each of the following is performed in
QGIS:

i) Setting the tranparency of a raster image (3 marks)

Right-click the raster layer > Properties > Transparency tab.

Set the global transparency percentage or no-data value for transparent pixels.

ii) Creating a new vector layer (3 marks)

Go to Layer > Create Layer > New Shapefile Layer.

Choose geometry type (point, line, polygon), define attributes, and save.

iii) Georeferencing a raster image (3 marks)

Open Georeferencer from the Raster menu.

Load the image, add ground control points (GCPs), define CRS and
transformation, then start georeferencing.

b) Give the meaning of the following abbreviations:

i) OTF (2 marks)
On-the-Fly – Refers to real-time projection of layers to match a common CRS in the
map view.

ii) DEM (2 marks)

Digital Elevation Model – A raster representation of terrain elevation data.

iii) CRS (2 marks)

Coordinate Reference System – A system used to map spatial data accurately using
coordinates.

QUESTION THREE (15 Marks)

a) Definitions and Concepts
i) Define digitizing in GIS (2 marks)
Digitizing is the process of converting analog map features into digital format by
tracing them as vector features.

ii) Steps involved in the creation of a GIS database (7 marks)

Define objectives and scope.

Collect spatial and attribute data

Choose an appropriate CRS.

Create spatial layers (digitize or import).

Input attribute data into tables.

Validate and clean the data.

Store and manage data using a GIS database system.

iii) Define Internet GIS with examples (3 marks)

Internet GIS enables GIS functionalities over the web, allowing users to view, query,
and analyze maps remotely.
Example: Google Earth, ArcGIS Online.

b) Major sources of spatial data (3 marks)

Remote Sensing – Satellite or aerial imagery.

Surveying and GPS – Ground-based accurate coordinates.

Existing Maps and Reports – Scanned and digitized data from physical
records

Government or Open Data Portals – Authoritative spatial datasets.

QUESTION FOUR (15 Marks)

a) Describe the importance and process of each task in
QGIS:

i) Setting selected symbology color (2 marks)

Enhances visual distinction.

Right-click the layer > Properties > Symbology > Choose color/style.
ii) Measuring area of a polygon (2 marks)

Use the Measure Area tool.

Click around the polygon or select an existing feature with correct CRS.

iii) Georeferencing a raster image (2 marks)

As explained above, this links an image to spatial coordinates for accurate

mapping.

iv) Digitizing (2 marks)

Used to create new spatial features.

Create a vector layer > Toggle editing > Use Add Feature to trace features >
Save.

b) Explain the three major elements that characterize

topology (4 marks)

Connectivity – How lines connect at nodes (e.g., road junctions).

Adjacency – How polygons share borders (e.g., counties sharing a boundary).

Containment – One feature inside another (e.g., a school within a town

boundary).

c) Steps involved in putting a GIS to work (4 marks)

Problem Definition – Understand the spatial problem or need.

Data Collection and Preparation – Gather and organize spatial and attribute
data

Data Analysis – Use GIS tools to analyze patterns, relationships, or changes.

Presentation and Decision-Making – Display results via maps, reports, or

web applications to support decisions.
Exam 3

QUESTION ONE: GIS Fundamentals (20

Marks)
a) Difference Between Map Projection and Coordinate
Reference System (CRS)

Map Projection: A mathematical transformation that converts the 3D curved

surface of the Earth into a 2D flat map. It introduces distortions in shape, area,
distance, or direction (e.g., Mercator, UTM).

Coordinate Reference System (CRS): Defines how spatial data is placed on

Earth using a datum, projection, and units. It includes both geographic
(latitude/longitude) and projected systems (meters/feet).

Key difference: Projections are components of CRS. CRS defines the full spatial
referencing framework.

b) Three Families of Map Projections

Cylindrical Projections

Earth's surface is projected onto a cylinder.

Preserves direction but distorts area near poles.

Example: Mercator Projection (used in navigation).

Conic Projections

Uses a cone placed over Earth

Preserves area and shape near standard parallels.

Example: Albers Equal Area Conic.

Azimuthal (Planar) Projections

Projects onto a flat plane touching the globe at a point.

Preserves direction from the center point.

Example: Stereographic Projection.

c) Four Main Sources of GIS Data

Remote Sensing – Imagery from satellites or drones.

 Field Surveying – On-site collection of GPS coordinates.

Existing Maps and Plans – Paper maps or CAD drawings digitized.

Public Datasets – Government portals like Kenya Open Data or global

databases like USGS.

d) Two GIS Editing Modes

Sketch Mode: Used during initial digitizing to draw features manually.

Modify Mode: Used to update or correct existing features (e.g., moving a

vertex or correcting an error in a shape).

e) Two Types of Digitizing Errors

Overshoots: Line crosses its intended boundary

Undershoots: Line ends before it reaches its intended boundary.

Both affect topological relationships and need correction using snapping or editing
tools.

f) Two Core Components of Metadata in a Map

Spatial Reference Information – Describes the CRS and datum.

Content Description – What the dataset represents (e.g., roads, towns), its
scale, accuracy, and collection method.

QUESTION TWO: GIS Project Execution

(15 Marks)
a) What is Geoprocessing?

Geoprocessing involves spatial data operations like buffering, intersecting, clipping,

and merging. It enables spatial analysis and data manipulation for decision-making.

b) Four Factors for Successful GIS Implementation

Clear Objectives – Defined purpose and outcomes.

Data Availability – Accurate and relevant spatial and attribute data.

Skilled Personnel – Trained staff in GIS tools and analysis.

 Management Support – Funding, leadership backing, and resource
allocation.

c) Three Technques to Represent Map Scale

Verbal Scale – e.g., "1 cm represents 1 km".

Representative Fraction (RF) – e.g., 1:50,000 (unitless ratio).

Graphic Scale (Bar Scale) – Visual bar that shows actual ground distance.

d) GIS Staff Roles Diagram & Description

[Diagram Suggestion: Flowchart with roles branching from a GIS Manager]

GIS Manager – Oversees project strategy and decisions.

GIS Analyst – Performs spatial analysis and creates maps.

GIS Technician – Manages data entry and editing.

Database Administrator – Maintains the GIS database.

IT Support – Handles software, hardware, and networking.

QUESTION THREE: Visualization & Land

Information (15 Marks)
a) What is Data Visualization?

Data visualization in GIS involves displaying spatial data in maps, graphs, or 3D

views to aid understanding and decision-making (e.g., heat maps for population
density).

b) Five Common Map Elements

Title – Describes the map’s theme or purpose.

Legend – Explains symbols and colors used.

Scale Bar – Shows distance representation.

North Arrow – Indicates orientation.

Coordinate Grid – Provides geographic context using latitude/longitude.

c) What is a Land Information System (LIS)?

An LIS is a type of GIS focusing on land ownership, boundaries, use, and value. Used
for property management, taxation, and land planning.

d) Four Services by Kenya's NLIMS ("Ardhi Sasa")

Land Registration – Digital land ownership records.

Title Search – Instant verification of land titles.

Survey & Mapping – Access to cadastral maps and data.

Land Transfers – Secure online transaction of land ownership.

e) Four Vector Data Processes

Buffering – Creating zones around features.

Clipping – Cutting data using a boundary.

Merging – Combining multiple layers/features.

Dissolve – Generalizing features by attribute.

QUESTION FOUR: Spatial Data & GPS

(15 Marks)
a) Characteristics of Spatial Data

Location – Defined by coordinates.

Attributes – Descriptive info (e.g., name, type).

Topology – Relationships (connectivity, adjacency).

Scale/Resolution – Level of detail captured.

b) Two Types of CRS

Geographic CRS (GCS) – Uses latitude and longitude (e.g., WGS 84).

Projected CRS (PCS) – Converts GCS to flat coordinates (e.g., UTM,

Transverse Mercator).

c) What is GPS?

The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based navigation system that provides

real-time location and time information anywhere on Earth.
d) How a GPS Receiver Computes Position

Measures time taken for signals from at least 4 satellites to reach the receiver.

Uses trilateration to calculate distance and determine position.

e) Four Types of Resolutions in Remote Sensing

Spatial Resolution – Size of the smallest object detected (e.g., 30m, 10m).

Spectral Resolution – Ability to distinguish different wavelengths.

Temporal Resolution – Frequency of data collection.

Radiometric Resolution – Sensitivity to detect subtle differences in

reflectance (e.g., 8-bit vs 16-bit).

EXAM 4

✅ QUESTION ONE (20 marks) - Compulsory

a) Two Plug-ins in QGIS and Their Use (4 marks)

Georeferencer Plugin

Use: Enables georeferencing of raster images by assigning them spatial

coordinates using ground control points (GCPs).

Example: Georeferencing a scanned paper map for use in spatial

analysis.

OpenLayers / QuickMapServices Plugin

Use: Allows access to online basemaps such as Google Maps, Bing

Maps, OSM.

Example: Adding a satellite basemap for visual reference while

digitizing.

b) Three Geometric Types of Vector Data (6 marks)

Point

Represents a single coordinate location (x, y).

Example: Locations of wells or schools.

 Line (Polyline)

Represents linear features using a series of connected points.

Example: Roads, rivers, pipelines.

Polygon

Represents area features enclosed by lines.

Example: Lakes, land parcels, forest boundaries.

c) Difference Between DEM, CAD, and GIS (6 marks)

Term Meaning Use

DEM (Digital A raster-based
Used for terrain analysis
Elevation representation of terrain
(e.g., slope, drainage)
Model) elevations
Used in engineering,
CAD
Software for technical architecture (not
(Computer-
drawing and design spatially aware by
Aided Design)
default)
GIS
A system for managing, Used in spatial analysis,
(Geographic
analyzing, and mapping, decision-
Information
visualizing spatial data making
System)

d) Transparency vs Opacity in QGIS (4 marks)

Transparency: The degree to which a layer allows the background to show

through.

A higher transparency means more see-through.

Set in layer properties > transparency tab.

Opacity: The inverse of transparency; the degree of visibility of a layer.

100% opacity = completely visible, 0% = invisible.

Adjusted using the opacity slider in QGIS.

✅ QUESTION TWO (15 marks)

a) Features of Good Ground Control Points (GCPs) (5 marks)

Clearly visible and identifiable on both the image and reference map
 Well-distributed across the image

Permanently fixed (e.g., building corners, road intersections)

Non-changing features over time

High positional accuracy

b)

i) Data “Information” as a GIS Component (3 marks)

Raw spatial and attribute data is processed into meaningful information.

Helps in analysis, decision-making, and visualization.

Example: Raw rainfall data → rainfall distribution map.

ii) Process of Creating Vector Data in QGIS (4 marks)

Create new shapefile layer (point, line, or polygon)

Toggle editing

Use the “Add Feature” tool to digitize

Save edits and attributes

c) Impact of the Internet on GIS (3 marks)

Web GIS: Access GIS data and tools via browsers.

Real-time data: GPS tracking, live weather feeds.

Crowdsourcing: Platforms like OpenStreetMap.

Cloud storage: Data sharing and collaboration.

✅ QUESTION THREE (15 marks)

a) GIS Terms (8 marks)

i) Panning

Moving the map display without changing the zoom level.

ii) Zoom to Full Extent

Adjusts the map to display all loaded layers fully.

iii) Scale Dependent Rendering

Layers appear/disappear based on zoom level to prevent clutter.

iv) Coordinate Reference System (CRS)

System to define how geographic data is placed on Earth's surface (e.g.,

WGS84, UTM).

b) Three Characteristics of a GIS Field (3 marks)

Name – Identifies the field (e.g., "Population").

Type – Data type (e.g., integer, string).

Width/Length – Number of characters or digits stored.

c) Four Characteristics of a Full-Fledged GIS Package (4

marks)

Data Input and Editing Tools

Storage and Management of Spatial/Attribute Data

Query and Analysis Capabilities

Visualization and Output Tools

✅ QUESTION FOUR (15 marks)

a) Raster vs Vector Model (6 marks)

Feature Raster Vector

Structur
Grid cells (pixels) Points, lines, polygons
e
Storage Image-like Database
Continuous data (e.g. elevation, Discrete features (roads,
Best For
temperature) parcels)
File Size Large Smaller (usually)

b) Four Key Components of Spatial Data Quality (4 marks)

Positional Accuracy – How close features are to their real-world location.

Attribute Accuracy – Correctness of attribute data.

Completeness – Inclusion of all necessary data.

 Consistency – Logical relationships between features are maintained.

c) On-the-Fly Projection in QGIS (5 marks)

Definition: Allows layers with different CRS to align by reprojecting them

automatically.

Use for Raster: Ensures rasters overlay correctly with vector layers

Use for Vector: Vector layers align even if they have different CRS (e.g.,
WGS84 vs UTM).

Found in Project → Properties → CRS settings.