TISSUES AND SUPPORTING SYSTEMS

All living things have basic characteristcs which enables them to carry out all life actvitese .ovement is
one of the characteristcs of living thingse.ovement in plants and animals is possible by the tssues and
supportng systems which includes bones and cartlagese These structures are connected together and
are called supportng systemse

THE SKELETON

The skeleton is the bony framework of the body which provides support, shape and protecton to the
soft and delicate organs in an organismeskeleton is found mainly in animals which enables them to move
from one place to anothere

FORMS OF SKELETON

There are three forms of skeletons:

(i) Curtclese (ii) Bonese (III) Cartlages

- CURTICLES : This is a layer that is composed of a protein called chitn, which is a non- living
substanceeAn organisms sheds old Curtcles( moultngn ecdysis) and replaces new onese Curtcles are
found mainly in Arthropods like crab,insect,scorpion, prawne

Structure of an insect curtclee

- BONES: This is a tssue and a major component of vertebral skeletone It is made up of bone cells
(osteocytes), protein fbres ( collagen), and minerals made up of calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonatee Examples of organisms with bones are vertebrates like bony fshes,toad,liiard,
pigeon,goat,rate
Transverse secton of a compact bonee

- CARTILAGES: This is a tssue found in the skeleton of complex carbohydrateseIt consists of living cells
( chondroblasts), carbohydrates and protein fbrese It is a tough,fexible and semi- transparent tssue that
has great tensile strengthecartlages are found in cartlagenous fshes like shark,ray, and mammalse The
functons of cartlage are:

- It prevent fricton between two bones and allow smooth and free movemente

- it absorbs shock between bones

- it keeps the trachea open for air fow into the lungse

- it allows contracton and expansion of the thorax in the ribse

TYPES OF CARTILAGES :

1) Hyaline Cartlage: It is found in the trachea and bronchi which keeps them open, surfaces of moveable
joints, and protruding part of the nose which support ite

2) Fibro- Cartlage: It is found in the discs between the small bones (vertebra)

3) Elastc Cartlage: This is found in the external ear( pinna) and epiglottse

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BONES AND CARTILAGES

Skeleton is the hard,bony framework on which the body is builte The functons of the skeleton includes
the following:

1, protectone 5, muscle atachment

2, supporte 6, shape

3,movemente 7, manufacture of white and red blood cellse

4, breathing

TYPES OF SKELETON

There are three main types of skeletone

1) Hydrostatic Skeleton: This is a type of skeleton that is possessed by soft- bodied animals which have
fuid pressure to support ite The fuid helps to maintain the shape and forme It is found in earthworm and
anemonese

2) Exoskeleton: This type of skeleton is found outside the body of the animale This is common in
organisms which possess Curtcles made up of chitne Exoskeleton support, gives shape and protect the
organismse Exoskeleton are found in euglena, paramecium,Hydra, earthworm,snail, insect, .illipede etce
3) Endoskeleton: This is a type of skeleton found inside the body of an organisme It is made up of bones
and cartlagese Examples of organisms with endoskeleton are fshes, toad, liiard,bird, mammalse

THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON

The skeletal system in vertebrates are grouped into two major parts:

1e Axial Skeletone 2e Appendicular Skeleton

THE AXIAL SKELETON: This is comprised of the skull, ribs, sternum and vertebral columne

✓ THE SKULL: The skull is the bone that is covering and protectng the braine The skull is made up of
several fat bones joined together by joint called suturese The skull is divided into three parts:

a) The Cranium (brain box) which covers the braine

b) The Facial Skeleton which support the nose, eyes and cheekse

c) The Jaws ( maxillae and mandible) which contains the teethe

Functions of the skull

1e It protects the brain

2e It gives shape to the head

3e It protects vital and delicate organs like eyes,nose, braine

4e It carries the teeth for chewing foode

✓ THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN: This is also known as the backbone which protects the spinal corde It is
made up of fve groups of bones called vertebraee

FEATURES OF A TYPICAL VERTEBRAE

A typical vertebrae possess these features:

1) Neural Spine: This is for the atachment of muscle and ligamentse

2) Neural Canal: This is for the passage of spinal corde

4) Facet: This is a small, smooth, fat or slight depressed area on a bone, usually a point of contact with
another bonee

5) Zygaphysis: These are artcular surfaces for the artculaton of successive vertebraee They are grouped
into

Pre- Zygapophysis: This faces inward and upward

Post-iygapophysis: This faces outward and downwarde

TYPES OF VERTEBRAE

1. Cervical vertebrae: There are seven cervical vertebrae found in the necke The frst is called Atlas,
while the second is Axise The third to seventh are normal typical cervical vertebraee

Atlas vertebrae.

- it has a large neural canal

- it has a fat and broad transverse process

- it has short neural Spine or absent in somee

-absence of centrum

- it has a vertebraterial canal for blood vessel passagee

It's functon is to permit nodding of the head,as it fts into the occipital condyle of the skulle
 Axis vertebrae

- it has a broad fat centrum

- it artculates with Atlas through odontoid process

- it has large, fatened neural Spine

- transverse process is reduced to a pin like structure

- it has a vertebraterial canal

It's functon is to allows the head to be turned or twisted easilye

2. Thoracic vertebrae: It is found in the chest regionein man, they are twelve in numbere

Features of Thoracic vertebrae

- It has a long prominent neural Spine

- it has a pair of short transverse process

- presence of demifacet and artcular surfaces

- it has large neural canal and neural arch

- it has a large cylinderical centrume

It's functon are: to aid atachment of ribs,it provides atachment for shoulder muscle, and back to
neural Spinee It assist in breathing alongside the ribse
3. Lumber vertebrae: It is located in the upper abdomeneIn man, they are fve in numbere

Features of Lumber vertebrae

- It has large, fatened, transverse process

- it has a broad, fat neural Spine

- it has a large and thick centrum

- it has well developed pre and post Zygapophysis

- it has Anapophysis and metapophysis for atachment of abdominal musclese

It's functons are: it provides atachment for abdominal muscles,it bears considerable weight of the
bodye

4. Sacral vertebrae: it is located in the lower abdomeneit is fused together in man to form the sacrume
They are fve in number in mane

Features of sacral vertebrae

- it has a neural Spine reduced to a small notch

- it has a large centrum

- it has a large winglike transverse process

- it has a small neural canal

It's functon is to provide support rigidity and strength to the pelvic girdlese

5. Caudal vertebrae: it is located in the tail regione They are fused together to form coccyxe They are four
in number in mane

Features of caudal vertebrae

- it has no neural Spine

- it has no neural canal

- it appears as a solid, rectangular mass of bones

- it has no transverse process

It's functon is to support the tail and provides atachment for tail musclee

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The appendicular skeleton is made up of the limbs and limb girdlee The limbs are made up of fore and
hind limbs, while the girdles are divided into pectoral and pelvic girdlese

1e The pectoral girdle: It is found around the shoulder regioneit is made up of three bones namely(i)
scapular - shoulder blade (ii) clavicle- collar bone (III) coracoide The pectoral girdle provides frm support
for the fore limbs ( arms)
2. The pelvic girdle: it is found around the waiste It has two halves which are joined together by a line of
fussion called pubis symphysis. It is made up of three bones namely( i) ilium (ii) ischium ( iii) pubise The
ischium and pubis encloses an opening called obturator foramen for passage of nerves, blood vessel
and musclee

3. The fore limbs: This is the upper arm bone called humeruse It has a rounded head which fts and
artculate with the glenoid cavity of the scapulaeit has fve digits called pentadactyl limbse

4. The Hind limbs: This is made up of the thigh bone called femur, which is the largest and strongest
bone in the bodye It is rounded at the proximal end to form a head which fts into acetabulum of the
pelvic girdle to form a hip jointe