DEFINNITION OF TERMS

• Support – this is the ability of

an organism to bear its own
mass/weight and maintain its
body form
• Movement- this is the process
by which an organism displaces
parts of its body or the whole
of its body from one place to
another. aogagah@yahoo.com
SUPPORT AND
MOVEMENT IN
ANIMALS

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• Animals need support due to the
fluid nature of their protoplasm.
Multicellular animals require a
rigid framework to support their
bodies off the ground and to
maintain their shapes. This is
performed by the skeleton

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IMPORTANCE OF SUPPORT
AND MOVEMENT IN
AIMALS

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 SUPPORT
• Helps in the maintainance
of the body shape
• Helps in supporting the
body off the ground
• Forms a rigid framework
for the body against forces
such as compression and
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 FUNCTIONS OS THE SKELETON
• Support- the skeleton forms a rigid
framework for the body against forces such
as compression and tension. This helps the
body to maintain its body shape and
supporting the body off the ground
• Protection- offers protection to the delicate
internal organs against physical injury. The
skull protects the brain; the vertebral column
protects the spinal cord while the ribcage
protects the lungs and the heart.
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 Surport cont.
• Attachment of the skeletal muscles-
provides points for the attachment of the
skeletal muscles which contract and relax
bringing about movement.
• Production of white blood cells and red
blood cells- the white and the red bone
marrow produce the white and the red
blood cells respectively.
• Act as levers by which the body moves-
long bones such as the femur and humerus
act as levers by which the body moves.
• Storage of calcium and phosphorous
• Provides shock absorbing
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mechanism
 TYPES OF SKELETONS

• Exoskeleton
• Hydroskeleton/
hydrostatic skeleton
• Endoskeleton

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 HYDROSKELETON
• This is a type of skeleton
consisting of a fluid under
pressure. The fluid is
surrounded by circular and
longitudinal muscles. This
type of skeleton is found in
soft bodied organisms e.g.
earthworms. This enables
them to move and burrow
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 EXOSKELETON
• This is a type of skeleton
found on the outside of
the organism and is made
of chitin secreted by the
epidermis. It is sclerotized
or hardened with proteins.
It is found in the phylum
arthropoda mainly in the
class insecta.
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 Functions of the exoskeleton
• It is impervious/ impermeable to
water and therefore protects the
animal from dehydration or
desiccation.
• Provides protection against
microbial infection
• Provides protection against
mechanical injury
• Provides points for muscle
attachment hence movement.
• Supports the body off the ground
i.e. supports tissues and organs
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 NB
• The exoskeleton prevents
increase in the size of the
organism and therefore it
must be shed periodically
a process called moulting/
ecdysis.

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 ENDOSKELETON
• This is a type of skeleton
which is internal to the
muscles. It is made up of
bones and cartilage. It is
found in the vertebrates.
• It is made up of living
tissue
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Bone Cartilage
It is rigid It is flexible
Has calcium Lack calcium
and and
phosphorous phosphorous
deposits which deposits hence
makes it very not very hard
hard
Made up of Made up of
bone cells chondroblast
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 NB
phosphorous confers
toughness while calcium
confers hardness

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•SUPPORT AND
MOVEMENT IN
MAMMALS

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• This is brought about
by muscles and
bones. The
mammalian skeleton
comprises of:
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular
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 THE AXIAL SKELETON
Consists of:
• The skull
• The sternum
• RibS
• Vertebral column

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 Two parts of Skeleton
Axial skeleton Appendicular
skeleton
skull pectoral girdle
pectoral limb
ribs (arm)
pelvic girdle
sternum
pelvic limb
vertebral column
(leg)
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 THE SKULL
• Also called the cranium
• It is made up of many small bones
joined together to form immovable
joints called sutures.
• It also comprises of the upper
jaw /maxilla and the lower jaw/
mandibles.
• The maxilla is fused to the cranium
while the lower jaw articulates
with the cranium forming a hinge
joint which is movable.
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• There are perforations on the
cranium such as the foramina and
fissures to allow nerves, blood
vessels and the lymph vessels to
pass through to and from the brain.
• At the posterior of the cranium are
two smooth projections called
occipital condyles which articulate
with the first bone of the vertebral
column called atlas to form a hinge
joint. This allows for the nodding of
the head. aogagah@yahoo.com
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 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKULL
• Encloses and protects the
brain
• protects the olfactory organs,
eyes and the inner and middle
ear

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 THE
VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
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 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
It consists of bones called
the vertebrae.
The number of the
vertebrae varies from
species to species
There are 33 vertebrae in
the human skeleton
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The vertebrae are placed
end to end and therefore
run from the base of the
skull to the pelvis
The bones are separated
from each other by
cartilage called
intervetebral disc

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GET READY FOR BIOLOGY

IT IS TIME FOR THE BONES

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FUNCTIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
•Support the trunk
•Protects the spinal cord

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The basic structure of a
vertebra

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 FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF
VERTEBRA
• Centrum- supports the weight of
the vertebra and the entire
vertebral column
• Neural arch- encloses the neural
canal
• Transverse process- provides the
surface area for the attachment
of the skeletal muscles and
ligaments
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Neural spine- provides the
surface area for the
attachment of the skeletal
muscles and ligaments
Articular facets- they are four
in number. Two are found in
the anterior and are known as
prezygapophyses while two
are found at the posterior and
are known as the post-
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GET READY FOR BIOLOGY

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT

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 FUNCTIONS OF
INTERVETEBRAL DISC
Acts as a cushion that
absorbs shock
Reduces friction between
bones
Makes the vertebral
column flexible by allowing
for certain degree of
movement between the
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 TYPES OF VETEBRAE
Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae
Sacral vertebrae
Coccyx/ coccygeal
vertebrae
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 THE
CERVICAL
VERTEBRAE

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•These are the bones/
vertebrae found at the
neck region.
• They are 7 in number in
human beings.
• The first bone of the
cervical vertebrae is
called the atlas
•The second one is called
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THE ATLAS

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Broad Vertebrateri
facets al canal
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Vertebraterial
canal
facets
Large

Wide Neural
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 transverse
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1.Has a broad
(facets)surface for the
articulation with the
condyles of the skull to
form a hinge joint which
allows for nodding of the
head.
2.Has a small neural spine
3.Has no centrum
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5. Has broad and wing like
transverse processes to
offer a large surface area
for the attachment of
the neck muscles.
6. Has a wide neural canal
for the passage of the
large spinal cord of the
neck
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 NB
• The wide neural canal of
the atlas also fits into the
odontoid process of the
axis to form pivotal joint

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 Axis Odontoid
Process

Atlas
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CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE AXIS

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Has a broad neural spine
Has a wide neural canal
Has wing like transverse
process
Has a broad centrum which
projects in front to form an
odontoid process. The
odontoid process forms a peg
which fits into the neural canal
of the atlas forming a joint
which allows the turning/
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 Axis Cont.
• Lacks prezygapophyses
• Has vertebraterial canal

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 Neural
spine

postzygapophysi
Odontoid
Process

Vertebrateri
al canal

s
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CHARACTERISTICS
OF CERVICAL
VERTEBRAE

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Have a short neural spine
Has a small but wide
centrum
Has a wide neural canal
Has vertebraterial canals
for the passage of blood
vessels/ vertebral artery

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Have broad and branched
transverse process
Has the prezygapophyses
and the post-post-
zygapophyses

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Anterior view A B A

D
E
Side view
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 A
B C

D
E

F
H
G
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aogagah@yahoo.com
THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE
•Found in the thoracic
region articulating with the
ribs.
• They are 12 in number in
human beings.

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 CHARACTERISTICS
Has a long neural spine
which offers a large surface
area for the attachment of
back muscles.
Has a large centrum and
on its side are capitulum
demifacet
Has short transverse
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 NB
• Tubercular facet on each
transverse process which
articulates with the
tuberculum of the rib and
a capitular demifacet on
the centrum which
articulates with the
capitulum of the rib
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 A
B

E
C

D
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 Neural
Capitulum spine
demifacets

Tuberculum
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LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

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They are five in number in
human beings
It is found in the lumbar
region of the body

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 CHARACTERISTICS
Has a large and broad
centrum to offer support
Has a broad neural spine
Has long and broad
transverse process to
provide a large surface
area for the attachment of
the abdominal muscles
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Have metapophyses on
either sides of the neural
spine, anapophyses near
the transverse process and
hypapophyses which offers
additional surface area for
the attachment of the
abdominal muscles.

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FUNCTIONS
OF THE
LUMBAR
VERTEBRAE
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To bear stress due to the
effect of locomotion and the
force of gravity
Provides support and
allows the body to bend
sideways and rotate
Provides surface for the
attachment of abdominal
muscles
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 SACRAL VERTEBRAE
oFound in the sacral region
of the body
oThey are five in number in
human beings

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 CHARACTERISTICS
Have large and broad
centrum to offer support
Have narrow neural canal
Have reduced neural
spine
The first anterior sacral
vertebra is large with wing
like transverse process
which articulates with the
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The vertebrae are fused to
form a rigid structure called
sacrum. This makes the
sacrum firm and firm to
bear the body weight and
spread it to the legs
through the pelvic girdle.

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 CAUDAL VERTEBRAE /
COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE
Found in the tail region
The number differs from
one animal to another
depending on the size of
the tail.
In human beings there
are four caudal vertebrae
which are fused to form a
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 CHARACTERISTICS
Have reduced neural spine
Have reduced
zygapophyses
Neural canal is absent
Neural arch is absent
The centrum is very large
i.e. makes the entire bone
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