MF-Tyre/MF-Swift 6.

Equation manual

Copyright © 2013
TNO
The Netherlands
http://www.delft-tyre.nl/

Document revision: 20130706

Table of Contents

1 THE MAGIC FORMULA, STEADY-STATE BEHAVIOUR............................................................. 4

1.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 4

1.2 LONGITUDINAL FORCE FX ........................................................................................................... 9
1.3 LATERAL FORCE FY ................................................................................................................. 11
1.4 OVERTURNING MOMENT MX ..................................................................................................... 16
1.5 ROLLING RESISTANCE MOMENT MY .......................................................................................... 17
1.6 SELF ALIGNING MOMENT MZ ..................................................................................................... 18

2 BASIC TYRE PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................ 21

2.1 LOADED RADIUS ...................................................................................................................... 21

2.2 EFFECTIVE ROLLING RADIUS ..................................................................................................... 23
2.3 CONTACT PATCH DIMENSIONS .................................................................................................. 24
2.4 RELAXATION BEHAVIOUR .......................................................................................................... 25
3 MF-SWIFT ..................................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 CONTACT PATCH SLIP MODEL ................................................................................................... 29

3.2 RIGID RING .............................................................................................................................. 30
3.3 OBSTACLE ENVELOPING MODEL ................................................................................................ 33

4 MISCELLANEOUS ....................................................................................................................... 38

4.1 MOTORCYCLE CONTOUR ELLIPSE (MF-TYRE/MF-SWIFT 6.1 AND 6.2) ....................................... 38

4.2 GYROSCOPIC MOMENT............................................................................................................. 38
4.3 VERTICAL STIFFNESS AND DAMPING TYRE ................................................................................. 38
4.4 ROAD SURFACE SIMULATION SETTINGS ..................................................................................... 40
5 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 41

Copyright © 2013 TNO 2/41

© 2013 TNO
All rights reserved.
This document contains proprietary and confidential information of TNO. No part of this
publication may be reproduced and/or published by print, photoprint, microfilm or any other
means without the previous written consent of TNO.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this document, the publisher and
the author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions in this document or from the use
of programs and source code that may accompany it. In no event shall the publisher and the
author be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage caused or alleged to
have been caused directly or indirectly by this document.

The terms and conditions governing the licensing of MF-Tyre consist solely of those set forth
in the document titled ‘License conditions of MF-Tyre software’. The terms and conditions
governing the licensing of MF-Swift and MF-Tool consist solely of those set forth in the
written contracts between TNO and its customers.

MF-Tool, MF-Tyre and MF-Swift are part of the Delft-Tyre product line, developed at TNO,
The Netherlands.

MF-Tool, MF-Tyre, MF-Swift and Delft-Tyre are a registered trademarks of TNO.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 3/41
1 The Magic Formula, steady-state behaviour

1.1 Introduction

The Magic Formula is an empirical model to describe the non-linear tyre forces and moments
occurring in the tyre contact patch for various rolling, sliding, loading conditions and tyre orientation.
The Magic Formula can be considered as a nonlinear function with multiple inputs and outputs, see
Figure 1.

normal to the road

Fz
 Fx RΩ
F Ω γ
M Fy
 Mx Vx Fz Re Rl
Magic Mz
t My ρ
Formula C
F Fx Mx S Fy M
Mz Vsx Vsy nd p
lane

M
y grou

Vx
Figure 1: Magic Formula inputs and outputs
P

For steady-state rolling conditions the following input variables can be distinguished:
 vertical force Fz
Vsx V V V  Re
 longitudinal slip    x r  x
Vx Vx Vx

 Vsy 
 side slip  F  arctan  , M  F

 Vx 
 inclination angle 

 turn slip t  
V
 F     1     sin   ,  M   F
1
 spin
V
 forward velocity Vx
 velocity V  Vx2  Vsy2

In addition the following variables are defined;

 longitudinal slip velocity Vsx
 lateral slip velocity Vsy
 wheel rotational velocity 
 effective rolling radius Re (see also section 2.2)

Copyright © 2013 TNO 4/41

The following output variables are calculated:
 longitudinal force Fx
 lateral force Fy
 overturning moment Mx
 rolling resistance moment My
 self aligning moment Mz

Note: The difference between the side slip angles F and M vanishes for steady-state conditions,
but becomes of importance for the dynamic tyre behaviour (the same applies for the spin quantities
 F ,  M ).

In the Magic Formula various model parameters are made dimensionless using the unloaded tyre
radius R0 , reference forward velocity Vref and nominal vertical load Fz 0 . Starting with MF-Tyre 6.1 a
nominal tyre pressure P0 is introduced to make the parameters regarding tyre pressure
dimensionless. The following equations hold:

load dependency
scaled nominal load: Fz'0  Fz 0 Fz 0
Fz  Fz'0
vertical load increment: df z 
Fz'0

inflation pressure dependency

P  P0
pressure increment: dpi 
P0

Note: The parameters R0 , Fz 0 , Vref , P0 should be fixed before performing the parameter identification
and should never be changed afterwards!

In the turn slip equations a camber reduction factor  is defined.

   p1 1  p 2 df z 

This reduction factor occurs in a number of expressions. Pacejka gives the following guidelines:
 motorcycle tyres:   is close to zero
 radial car tyres:  may reach values up to 0.7
 truck tyres  may become slightly over 1

Limitations on the inputs of the Magic Formula

The Magic Formula is an empirical tyre model which can accurately represent tyre measurements.
When the inputs are far outside the measurement range (e.g. extremely high vertical loads or very
large camber angles) the extrapolation capabilities of the model can possibly fail. To prevent this from
happening the inputs to the Magic Formula are bounded and the Magic Formula is not evaluated
outside this range. So:

Copyright © 2013 TNO 5/41

  min     max
 min   F   max and  min   M   max
 min     max
Pmin  P  Pmax

For the vertical force also a range is defined, but additionally scaling of forces/moments is applied if
the lower boundary is exceeded:
Fz  Fz ,min : Magic Formula evaluation for Fz,min + linear scaling
Fz ,min  Fz  Fz ,max : Normal Magic Formula evaluation
Fz  Fz ,max : Magic Formula evaluation for Fz,max + warning message
Simple example: the vertical force equals 0.5 times Fz , min then the Magic Formula is evaluated for
Fz , min and the resulting forces/moments are multiplied with a factor 0.5.

Magic Formula versions

The first version of the Magic Formula was developed in 1987 [1], since then a number of new (and
special) versions have been created.

In 1996 TNO introduced the commercial software MF-Tool for the Magic Formula parameter
identification and tyre model MF-Tyre 5.0. These products were based on the equations presented in
the 1996 paper of Pacejka [2] and implemented in a number of leading multibody simulation packages
like ADAMS and DADS. Over the years some improvements were made (e.g. addition of the
overturning moment, improved combined slip, etc.) and MF-Tyre 5.1 and MF-Tyre 5.2 were released
consecutively. MF-Tyre was specifically intended for passenger car and truck tyres running at
relatively small inclination angles (up to 10 degrees). For motorcycles running at much larger camber
angles the Magic Formula equations had to be modified, this resulted in the tyre model MF-MCTyre
1.0 and an improved version MF-MCTyre 1.1 at later stage.

In MF-Tyre 6.0 the Magic Formula equations were modified, so that a single model can handle both
car and motorcycle tyres. Also turn slip was added to represent for example the self-aligning moment
occurring when twisting the tyre at standstill. Further, in MF-Tyre 6.1 the equations were extended to
incorporate the effects of tyre inflation pressure changes. In MF-Tyre 6.2 the MF-Swift functionality is
made available for motorcycle, further the loaded radius is upgraded for large side slip and camber
angles.

The MF-Tyre/MF-Swift tyre software is backward compatible up to MF-Tyre 5.0. Since the equations
have been modified over the years, the keyword FITTYP is present in the tyre property file to identify
the Magic Formula version. The following convention applies:
FITTYP=5 MF-Tyre 5.0 and MF-Tyre 5.1
FITTYP=6 MF-Tyre 5.2
FITTYP=21 MF-Swift 1.x (based on MF-Tyre 5.2)
FITTYP=50 MF-MCTyre 1.0
FITTYP=51 MF-MCTyre 1.1
FITTYP=60 MF-Tyre/MF-Swift 6.0
FITTYP=61 MF-Tyre/MF-Swift 6.1
FITTYP=62 MF-Tyre/MF-Swift 6.2

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Note: Please do not change the value of FITTYP! FITTYP is used to select the appropriate Magic
Formula equations. Once the parameters have been fitted with a specific FITTYP you should never
change its value afterwards.

In the next sections the Magic Formula equations are presented. The description covers MF-Tyre 5.2,
MF-MCTyre 1.1, MF-Tyre 6.0, MF-Tyre 6.1 and MF-Tyre 6.2.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 7/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[MODEL]
FITTYP Magic Formula version number 62 62 61 61 60 60 6 21 52
TYRESIDE Position of tyre during measurements x x x x x x x x x
Vref LONGVL Reference speed x x x x x x x x x

[DIMENSION]
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tyre radius x x x x x x x x x

[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
P INFLPRES Tyre inflation pressure x x x x
P0 NOMPRES Nominal pressure used in (MF) equations x x x x

[VERTICAL]
Fz 0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load x x x x x x x x x

[INFLATION_PRESSURE_RANGE]
Pmin PRESMIN Minimum allowed inflation pressure x x x x
Pmax PRESMAX Maximum allowed inflation pressure x x x x

[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
Fz ,min FZMIN Minimum allowed wheel load x x x x x x x x x
Fz , max FZMAX Maximum allowed wheel load x x x x x x x x x

[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
 min KPUMIN Minimum valid wheel slip x x x x x x x x x
 max KPUMAX Maximum valid wheel slip x x x x x x x x x

[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
 min ALPMIN Minimum valid slip angle x x x x x x x x x
 max ALPMAX Maximum valid slip angle x x x x x x x x x

[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
 min CAMMIN Minimum valid camber angle x x x x x x x x x
 max CAMMAX Maximum valid camber angle x x x x x x x x x

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
Fz0 LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load x x x x x x x x x

[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
p1 PECP1 Camber w.r.t. spin reduction factor parameter in camber stiffness x x x x x x
Camber w.r.t. spin reduction factor varying with load parameter in camber
p 2 PECP2 stiffness x x x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 8/41

1.2 Longitudinal force Fx

Fx  Dx sinCx arctanBx x  Ex Bx x  arctanBx x   SVx   Gx

Pure slip:
 x    S Hx
C x  pCx1  Cx
Dx   x  Fz   1
 x   pDx1  pDx 2df z  1  p px3dpi  p px4dpi 2  1  pDx3 2  x
 
Ex  pEx1  pEx 2 df z  pEx 3df z2  1  pEx 4 sgn  x   Ex  1
 
K x  Fz   pKx1  pKx2 df z  exp  pKx3df z  1  p px1dpi  p px2dpi 2  Kx
K x
Bx 
Cx Dx
MF-Tyre 5.2, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2: S Hx   pHx1  pHx 2 df z   Hx
q Fz My  SVx 
S Hx  
sy1
MF-MCTyre 1.1:
K x
SVx  Fz   pVx1  pVx 2 df z  Vx  x   1

Combined slip:
cosCx arctanBx s  Ex Bx s  arctan Bx s 
Gx 
cosCx arctanBx S Hx  Ex Bx S Hx  arctan Bx S Hx 
 s   F  S Hx
Bx  (rBx1  rBx 3 2 ) cos{arctan[rBx 2 ]}xa

C x  rCx1
Ex  rEx1  rEx 2 df z
S Hx  rHx1

when combined slip is not used: Gx  1

Turn slip:

 1  cosarctan Bx R0F 

Bx  pDx1 1  pDx 2df z cosarctan pDx 3 
when turn slip is not used: 1  1

Copyright © 2013 TNO 9/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
Cx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor x x x x x x x x x
 x LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient x x x x x x x x x
Ex LEX Scale factor of Fx curvature factor x x x x x x x x x
Kx LKX Scale factor of slip stiffness x x x x x x x x x
Hx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift x x x x x x x x
Vx LVX Scale factor of Fx vertical shift x x x x x x x x x
x LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx x x x x x x x x x

[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
pCx1 PCX1 Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force x x x x x x x x x
p Dx1 PDX1 Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
pDx 2 PDX2 Variation of friction Mux with load x x x x x x x x x
pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with camber x x x x x x x x x
pEx1 PEX1 Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
p Ex 2 PEX2 Variation of curvature Efx with load x x x x x x x x x
p Ex3 PEX3 Variation of curvature Efx with load squared x x x x x x x x x
p Ex 4 PEX4 Factor in curvature Efx while driving x x x x x x x x x
pKx1 PKX1 Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
pKx 2 PKX2 Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load x x x x x x x x x
p Kx 3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load x x x x x x x x x
p Hx1 PHX1 Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom x x x x x x x x
pHx 2 PHX2 Variation of shift Shx with load x x x x x x x x
pVx1 PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
pVx2 PVX2 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load x x x x x x x x x
rBx1 RBX1 Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction x x x x x x x x x
rBx2 RBX2 Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa x x x x x x x x x
rBx3 RBX3 Influence of camber on stiffness for Fx combined x x x x x x x
rCx1 RCX1 Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction x x x x x x x x x
rEx1 REX1 Curvature factor of combined Fx x x x x x x x x x
rEx2 REX2 Curvature factor of combined Fx with load x x x x x x x x x
rHx1 RHX1 Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction x x x x x x x x x
p px1 PPX1 Linear pressure effect on slip stiffness x x x x
p px 2 PPX2 Quadratic pressure effect on slip stiffness x x x x
p px 3 PPX3 Linear pressure effect on longitudinal friction x x x x
p px 4 PPX4 Quadratic pressure effect on longitudinal friction x x x x

[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
pDx 1 PDXP1 Peak Fx reduction due to spin parameter x x x x x x
p Dx 2 PDXP2 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with varying load parameter x x x x x x
pDx 3 PDXP3 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with kappa parameter x x x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 10/41

1.3 Lateral force Fy

Fy  Gy Fyp  SVy

Pure slip: MF-Tyre


Fyp  Dy sin Cy arctanBy y  Ey By y  arctan By y   SVy 
 y   F  S Hy
C y  pCy1Cy

Dy   y  Fz   2
 y   pDy1  pDy 2df z  1  p py3dpi  p py4dpi 2  1  pDy 3 2  y

 
E y   pEy1  pEy 2 df z   1  pEy5 2   pEy 3  pEy 4 sgn  y  Ey  1
  

K y  pKy1  Fz'0  1  p py1dpi  sin  pKy 4 arctan    1  pKy3   Ky   3
 Fz
  pKy 2  pKy5 Fz 0  1  p py2 dpi 

2 '
 
  

K y 0  pKy1  Fz'0  1  p py1dpi  sin  pKy 4 arctan 
 Fz
  Ky
 pKy 2 Fz 0  1  p py2 dpi 

'
 
MF-Tyre 5.2: K y 0   p Hy 3 K y 0  Fz  pVy 3  pVy 4 df z Ky
MF-Tyre 6.0: K y 0   pKy6  pKy7 df z Fz Ky
MF-Tyre 6.1, 6.2: K y 0   pKy6  pKy7 df z Fz Ky  1 p py5dpi 

K y
By 
C y Dy

S Hy 0   pHy1  pHy 2 df z  Hy

MF-Tyre 5.2: S Hy  pHy 3    Ky

K y 0  SVy
MF-Tyre 6.0, 6.1, 6.2: S Hy   0   4 1
K y

S Hy  S Hy 0  S Hy
 
SVy 0  Fz pVy1  pVy 2 df z  Vy y
SVy  Fz  pVy 3  pVy 4df z    Ky y 2
SVy  SVy 0 2  SVy

Copyright © 2013 TNO 11/41

Pure slip: MF-MC-Tyre 1.1

C y arctanBy y  E y By y  arctan By y 

Fyp  Dy sin    SVy
 C arctanB   E B   arctan B   
 y   F  S Hy
C y  pCy1Cy
C  pCy 2C
Dy   y  Fz
 y  pDy1  exp  pDy 2df z  1  p py3dpi  p py4dpi 2  y 1  pDy 3 2 
  

K y  pKy1  Fz'0  1  p py1dpi  sin  pKy 2 arctan    1  pKy5  Ky   3
 Fz 2

  pKy3  pKy 4 Fz 0  1  p py2 dpi 


2 '
 
  

K y 0  pKy1  Fz'0  1  p py1dpi  sin  pKy 2 arctan 
 Fz
  Ky
 
 P Ky 3 Fz
'
0  
1  p py 2 dpi 

K y 0   pKy6  pKy7 df z Fz Ky  1 p py5dpi 
K y
By 
C y Dy
K y 0
B 
C Dy

Ey  pEy1  pEy 2 2   pEy 3  pEy 4 sgn  y  Ey
E  pEy 5E
S Hy   pHy1  PHy 2df z  Hy
SVy  Fz  pVy1  PVy 2 df z  Vy y 2
SVy  Fz  pVy 3  pVy 4df z    Ky y 2

Combined slip (all models):

braking induced plysteer
DVy   y Fz rVy1  rVy 2 df z  rVy 3 cosarctanrVy 4 F   2
SVy  DVy sin rVy 5 arctan rVy 6 Vy

weighting function:

G y 

cos C y arctanB y  s  E y B y  s  arctan B y  s 

cos C y arctanB y S Hy  E y B y S Hy  arctan B y S Hy  
 s    S Hy
By  (rBy1  rBy 4 2 ) cos{arctan[rBy 2 ( F  rBy 3 )]} y
C y  rCy1
E y  rEy1  rEy 2 df z
S Hy  rHy1  rHy 2 df z

when combined slip is not used: SVy  0 , Gy  1

Copyright © 2013 TNO 12/41

Turn slip:
0  0

  
 2  cos arctan By R0  F  pDy 4 R0  F 
By  pDy1 1  pDy 2df z cosarctan pDy 3 tan F 

 
 3  cos arctan p Ky1 R0 2 F 2 
 4  1  S Hy  SVy K y
SHy  DHy sin CHy arctan BHy R0 F  EHy BHy R0 F  arctan BHy R0 F 
CHy  pHy1
DHy  pHy 2  pHy 3df z
EHy  pHy 4
K y 0
K yR 0 
1 

BHy   K yR 0 CHy DHy K y 0 
when turn slip is not used:  0 , 2 , 3 , 4  1

Copyright © 2013 TNO 13/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor x x x x x x x x x
 y LMUY Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient x x x x x x x x x
Ey LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor x x x x x x x x x
Ky LKY Scale factor of cornering stiffness x x x x x x x x x
 Ky LKYC Scale factor of camber stiffness x x x x x x
Kz LKZC Scale factor of camber moment stiffness x x x x x x
Hy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift x x x x x x x x x
Vy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift x x x x x x x x
 y LYKA Scale factor of kappa influence on Fy x x x x x x x x x
Vy LVYKA Scale factor of kappa induced 'plysteer' Fy x x x x x x x x x
 Ky LKC Scale factor of camber stiffness x
C LCC Scale factor of camber shape factor x
E LEC Scale factor of camber curvature factor x

[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
pCy1 PCY1 Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces x x x x x x x x x
pCy 2 PCY2 Shape factor Cfc for camber forces x
p Dy1 PDY1 Lateral friction Muy x x x x x x x x x
p Dy 2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load x x x x x x x x x
p Dy 3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared camber x x x x x x x x x
pEy1 PEY1 Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
p Ey 2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load x x x x x x x x x
p Ey 3 PEY3 Zero order camber dependency of curvature Efy x x x x x x x x x
p Ey 4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with camber x x x x x x x x x
p Ey 5 PEY5 Camber curvature Efc x x x x x x x
p Ky 1 PKY1 Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom x x x x x x x x x
p Ky 2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value x x x x x x x x x
p Ky 3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with camber x x x x x x x x x
p Ky 4 PKY4 Peak stiffness variation with camber squared x x x x x x x
p Ky 5 PKY5 Lateral stiffness depedency with camber x x x x x x x
p Ky 6 PKY6 Camber stiffness factor x x x x x x x
p Ky 7 PKY7 Load dependency of camber stiffness factor x x x x x x x
p Hy1 PHY1 Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
p Hy 2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load x x x x x x x x
p Hy 3 PHY3 Variation of shift Shy with camber x x
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom x x x x x x x x
pVy 2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load x x x x x x x x
pVy3 PVY3 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber x x x x x x x x
pVy 4 PVY4 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber and load x x x x x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 14/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
rBy1 RBY1 Slope factor for combined Fy reduction x x x x x x x x x
rBy 2 RBY2 Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha x x x x x x x x x
rBy3 RBY3 Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction x x x x x x x x x
rBy 4 RBY4 Influence of camber on stiffness of Fy combined x x x x x x x
rCy1 RCY1 Shape factor for combined Fy reduction x x x x x x x x x
rEy1 REY1 Curvature factor of combined Fy x x x x x x x x x
rEy 2 REY2 Curvature factor of combined Fy with load x x x x x x x x x
rHy1 RHY1 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction x x x x x x x x x
rHy 2 RHY2 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load x x x x x x x x x
rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
rVy 2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load x x x x x x x x x
rVy 3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber x x x x x x x x x
rVy 4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha x x x x x x x x x
rVy 5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa x x x x x x x x x
rVy 6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa) x x x x x x x x x
p py1 PPY1 Pressure effect on cornering stiffness magnitude x x x x
p py 2 PPY2 Pressure effect on location of cornering stiffness peak x x x x
p py 3 PPY3 Linear pressure effect on lateral friction x x x x
p py
py44 PPY4 Quadratic pressure effect on lateral friction x x x x
p py5 PPY5 Influence of inflation pressure on camber stiffness x x x x

[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
p Ky 1 PKYP1 Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin x x x x x x
pDy 1 PDYP1 Peak Fy reduction due to spin parameter x x x x x x
p Dy 2 PDYP2 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with varying load parameter x x x x x x
pDy 3 PDYP3 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with alpha parameter x x x x x x
p Dy 4 PDYP4 Peak Fy reduction due to square root of spin parameter x x x x x x
pHy 1 PHYP1 Fy-alpha curve lateral shift limitation x x x x x x
p Hy 2 PHYP2 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter x x x x x x
pHy 3 PHYP3 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift varying with load parameter x x x x x x
p Hy 4 PHYP4 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter x x x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 15/41

1.4 Overturning moment Mx


M x  R0 Fz Mx qsx1VMx  qsx 2 1  p pmx1dpi   qsx3
Fy
 Fz 0
  Fz  
2
  F 

 qsx 4 cos qsx5 arctan  qsx6    sin qsx7  qsx8 arctan  qsx9 y 
  Fz 0    Fz 0 
   
 F  
 qsx10 arctan  qsx11 z    R0 Mx Fy qsx13  qsx14    Fz qsx12  
 Fz 0   
alternative equation

Important note:
The formula for Mx consists of two separate equations that are separated with the “+” sign. The
default equation is the first part with coefficients qsx1, qsx2, … , qsx11. When using this formulation qsx12,
qsx13 and qsx14 must be equal to zero! The second part contains an alternative formulation with
coefficients qsx12, qsx13 and qsx14 and might be used for special motorcycle tyres. When using this part
coefficients qsx1, qsx2, … , qsx11 must be set to zero. Combinations of both equation parts lead to
erroneous results and should consequently not be applied.

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
Mx LMX Scale factor of overturning moment x x x x x x x x x
VMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift x x x x x x x x x

[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]
qsx1 QSX1 Overturning moment offset x x x x x x x x x
q sx 2 QSX2 Camber induced overturning couple x x x x x x x x x
q sx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple x x x x x x x x x
q sx 4 QSX4 Mixed load, lateral force and camber on Mx x x x x x x
q sx5 QSX5 Load effect on Mx with lateral force and camber x x x x x x
q sx 6 QSX6 B-factor of load with Mx x x x x x x
q sx 7 QSX7 Camber with load on Mx x x x x x x
q sx8 QSX8 Lateral force with load on Mx x x x x x x
q sx9 QSX9 B-factor of lateral force with load on Mx x x x x x x
qsx10 QSX10 Vertical force with camber on Mx x x x x x x
qsx11 QSX11 B-factor of vertical force with camber on Mx x x x x x x
qsx12 QSX12 Camber squared induced overturning moment x x x x
qsx13 QSX13 Lateral force induced overturning moment x x x x
qqsx
sx14
14 QSX14 Lateral force induced overturning moment with camber x x x x
p pmx1 PPMX1 Influence of inflation pressure on overturning moment x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 16/41

1.5 Rolling resistance moment My

 V 
4

 F V 
MF-Tyre 5.2, 6.0, MF-MCTyre 1.1: M y   R0 Fz My qsy1  qsy 2 x  qsy3 x  qsy 4  x  
Fz 0 Vref V 

  ref  

MF-Tyre 6.1, 6.2:

 V 
4
 F  qsy 7  p  qsy 8 
 F V   qsy5 2  qsy6 Fz  2  z 
M y   R0 Fz 0My qsy1  qsy 2 x  qsy3 x  qsy 4  x     
Fz 0 Vref V  Fz 0  Fz 0   p0  

  ref   

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
 My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque x x x x x x x x x

[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
q sy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance torque coefficient x x x x x x x x x
q sy 2 QSY2 Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx x x x x x x x x x
q sy 3 QSY3 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed x x x x x x x x x
q sy 4 QSY4 Rolling resistance torque depending on speed ^4 x x x x x x x x x
q sy 5 QSY5 Rolling resistance torque depending on camber squared x x x x
q sy 6 QSY6 Rolling resistance torque depending on load and camber squared x x x x
q sy 7 QSY7 Rolling resistance torque coefficient load dependency x x x x
q sy 8 QSY8 Rolling resistance torque coefficient pressure dependency x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 17/41

1.6 Self aligning moment Mz

MF-Tyre 5.2, MF-MCTyre 1.1: M z  t  Fy  SVy   M zr  s  Fx

MF-Tyre 6.0, 6.1, 6.2: M z  t  Fy 0  G y 0  M zr  s  Fx

where Fy 0  Gy 0 is the side force with zero inclination angle

(  0 ) and zero turnslip (φt = 0)
MF-MCTyre 1.1: t   M and  r   M  S Ht
SVy
MF-Tyre 5.2, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2: t   M  S Ht and  r   F  S Hy 
K y
SHt  qHz1  qHz 2df z  qHz 3  qHz 4df z   

combined slip:
2
K  2
 t , eq  arctan tan 2 ( t )   x   sgn( t )
K 
 y 
2
K  2
 r , eq  arctan tan ( r )   x
2   sgn( r )
K 
 y 
 F  
s   ssz1  ssz 2  y   ssz3  ssz 4 df z   R0s
  Fz 0  
pure slip:
 t , eq   t
 r ,eq   r
s0

pneumatic trail t:

 
t  Dt cos Ct arctanBtt ,eq  Et Btt ,eq  arctanBtt ,eq   cos M 

Ky
 
Bt  qBz1  qBz 2 df z  qBz 3df z2  1  qBz 4  qBz 5   
y
Ct  qCz1
MF-Tyre 5.2, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2:


Dt  Fz  qDz1  qDz 2 df z   1  p pz1dpi  1  qDz 3  qDz 4 2   R0
Fz 0
 t   5

MF-MCTyre 1.1: 
Dt  Fz  qDz1  qDz 2 df z   1  qDz 3   qDz 4 2  R0
Fz 0
 t   5

 
  2
Et  qEz1  qEz 2 df z  qEz 3df z2  1  qEz 4  qEz 5      arctan Bt Ct t 
   

Copyright © 2013 TNO 18/41

residual moment Mzr:


M zr  Dr cos  7 arctan Br r ,eq  
qDz 6  qDz 7 df z   r   2  qDz 8  qDz 9 df z     Kz  1  p pz2 dpi    0 
Dr  Fz R0 y cos M   8 1
 qDz10  qDz11df z      Kz   0 
  
Br   qBz 9  Ky  qBz10  By  C y  6
 y 
 

Turn slip:
 5  cosarctan qDt1 R0 M 

 6  cosarctan qBr1R0M 

 M z 90 
 7  Cr  2 arccos  
 Dr 
 
M z 90  M z 2 arctan qCr 2 R0 t  Gy
Fz
M z  qCr1  y R0 Fz M
Fz'0

 8  1  Dr
Dr  DDr sin CDr arctanBDr R0M 
K zr 0
BDr 
CDr DDr 1    
CDr  qDr1
DDr  M z sin 0.5CDr 
K zr 0  Fz R0 qDz 8  qDz 9df z  qDz10  qDz11df    Kz

when turn slip is not used:  5 , 6 , 7 , 8  1

Copyright © 2013 TNO 19/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
t LTR Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail x x x x x x x x x
r LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque x x x x x x x x x
s LS Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx x x x x x x x x x
 M LMP Scale factor of parking moment x x x x x x

[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
qBz1 QBZ1 Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
qBz2 QBZ2 Variation of slope Bpt with load x x x x x x x x x
qBz3 QBZ3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared x x x x x x x x x
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with camber x x x x x x x x x
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber x x x x x x x x x
qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr x x x x x x x x x
qBz10 QBZ10 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr x x x x x x x x x
qCz1 QCZ1 Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail x x x x x x x x x
qDz1 QDZ1 Peak trail Dpt" = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0) x x x x x x x x x
qDz 2 QDZ2 Variation of peak Dpt with load x x x x x x x x x
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with camber x x x x x x x x x
qDz 4 QDZ4 Variation of peak Dpt with camber squared x x x x x x x x x
qDz6 QDZ6 Peak residual torque Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0) x x x x x x x x x
qDz7 QDZ7 Variation of peak factor Dmr with load x x x x x x x x x
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber x x x x x x x x x
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and load x x x x x x x x x
qDz10 QDZ10 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber squared x x x x x x x
qDz11 QDZ11 Variation of Dmr with camber squared and load x x x x x x x
qEz1 QEZ1 Trail curvature Ept at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
qEz2 QEZ2 Variation of curvature Ept with load x x x x x x x x x
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared x x x x x x x x x
qEz4 QEZ4 Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t x x x x x x x x x
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t x x x x x x x x x
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom x x x x x x x x x
qHz 2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load x x x x x x x x x
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with camber x x x x x x x x x
q Hz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with camber and load x x x x x x x x x
ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on Mz x x x x x x x x x
ssz 2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom x x x x x x x x x
ssz3 SSZ3 Variation of distance s/R0 with camber x x x x x x x x x
ssz 4 SSZ4 Variation of distance s/R0 with load and camber x x x x x x x x x
p pz
pz11 PPZ1 Linear pressure effect on pneumatic trail x x x x
p pz2 PPZ2 Influence of inflation pressure on residual aligning torque x x x x

[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
qDt 1 QDTP1 Pneumatic trail reduction factor due to turn slip parameter x x x x x x
qCr 1 QCRP1 Turning moment at constant turning and zero forward speed parameter x x x x x x
qCr 2 QCRP2 Turn slip moment (at alpha=90deg) parameter for increase with spin x x x x x x
qBr 1 QBRP1 Residual (spin) torque reduction factor parameter due to side slip x x x x x x
q Dr 1 QDRP1 Turn slip moment peak magnitude parameter x x x x x x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 20/41

2 Basic Tyre Properties

2.1 Loaded radius

Traditionally the tyre force and moment characteristics are defined in the tyre road contact point. The
location of this point is defined by considering the tyre/wheel combination as an infinitely thin disk
through the plane of symmetry of the tyre, as is shown in Figure 2.

normal to the road

RΩ
Ω γ

Vx Fz Re Rl
Mz
ρ
C
Fx Mx S Fy M lane
Vsx Vsy y g ro u
nd p

Figure 2: Forces, moments and kinematics of the tyre road contact (ISO sign convention) [7]

It is important to note that in practice the forces and moments are not measured at the tyre road
contact point C, but at the wheel centre. In order to process the measurements and to calculate the
forces and moments at the ground contact point, both the height of the wheel centre and inclination
angle γ are required. Consequently, the distance from wheel centre to ground contact point, i.e. the
loaded radius Rl, should be represented accurately in the tyre simulation model.
First centrifugal growth of the free tyre radius R is calculated using the following formula:

  R0  
2

R  R0  qre0  qv1  
  V0  
 
Where R0 equals the non-rolling free tyre radius, V0 is the reference velocity, Ω the wheel rotational
velocity and qre0 and qv1 are model parameters. The tyre deflection zfr for a free rolling tyre is the
difference between the free tyre radius R and the loaded radius Rl:

 zfr  max R  Rl ,0

Further, various effects are included in the calculation of the vertical force. First, an additional
deflection caused by camber (qcam1, qcam2, qcam3) is considered and combined into one tyre deflection
z as is shown in the following equations, where γ equals the camber angle and rtw the reference
tread width.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 21/41

 q   2  rtw
 Rl  qcam2  Rl2   

tan( ) 
  q 
cam1
 z   8
cam3   zfr  
  
qcam1  R  qcam2  R  
2 2

 z  max  zfr   z ,0

Secondly, all effects are combined in one correction term, containing a stiffness increase with velocity
(qv2), vertical sinking due to longitudinal forces (qFcx), vertical sinking due to lateral forces (qFcy, qFcy2)
and the influence of the tyre inflation pressure (pFz1). Further, Fz0 is the nominal load and dpi the non-
dimensional inflation pressure increment

qFcy Fy  S Fy   

 2

 qFcx Fx     z 
2 qFcy 2

  1  pFz1  dpi 
R0
f corr  1  qv 2 
  
  r 
 
 z0    0   
V0 F F

z0

The shift SFyγ describes the asymmetric effect for combinations of camber and lateral force (qFys1, qFys2,
qFys3) that is defined as:

  Rl  
2

S Fy 
 qFys1  qFys 2
Rl
 qFys 3   
 R  R  
 
Finally, all effects are considered when the vertical tyre force Fz is calculated using a quadratic force
deflection characteristic (qFz1, qFz2) as is shown by the following formula:

 z   z  
2

Fz  f corr  qFz1  qFz 2    Fz 0
 R0  R0  

For large camber angles (e.g. motorcycle tyres) an extended approach for calculating the vertical
force can be used taking into account the contour of the tyre, see section 4.1.
When the tyre deflection becomes very large, the tyre belt and sidewalls may contact the rim. If this
happens the vertical force will become suddenly very large due to the high (rim) stiffness felt at that
moment. In MF-Swift a simple bottoming model is used that is shown in Figure 3 and explained below.

Fz
Rrim

δbtm
Cz,btm Rl

Figure 3: Bottoming model

Bottoming force Fz,btm with bottoming offset btm and large (rim) stiffness Cz,btm (see Figure 3):

Fz ,btm  Cz ,btm Rrim   btm  Rl 

Bottoming model:

Copyright © 2013 TNO 22/41

Fz  max Fz , Fzbtm 

In the tyre property file the vertical stiffness Cz0 at the nominal vertical load, nominal inflation pressure,
no tangential forces and zero forward velocity is specified instead of qFz1. Cz0 can be calculated as:
Fz 0
Cz0  q Fz1  4q Fz 2 .
2

R0

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[DIMENSION]
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tyre radius x x x x x x x x x
Rrim RIM_RADIUS Nominal rim radius x x x x x x x x x

[VERTICAL]
Fz 0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load x x x x x x x x x
Cz 0 VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tyre vertical stiffness x x x x x x x x x
qre0 Q_RE0 Ratio of free tyre radius with nominal tyre radius x x x x x x x
qv1 Q_V1 Tyre radius increase with speed x x x x x x x
qv 2 Q_V2 Vertical stiffness increase with speed x x x x x x x
qFz 2 Q_FZ2 Quadratic term in load vs. deflection x x x x x x x
qFcx Q_FCX Longitudinal force influence on vertical stiffness x x x x x x x
qFcy Q_FCY Lateral force influence on vertical stiffness x x x x x x x
Explicit load dependency for including the lateral force influence on vertical
q Fcy2 Q_FCY2 stiffness x x
qcam1 Q_CAM1 Linear load dependent camber angle influence on vertical stiffness x x
qcam2 Q_CAM2 Quadratic load dependent camber angle influence on vertical stiffness x x
qcam3 Q_CAM3 Linear load and camber angle dependent reduction on vertical stiffness x x
Combined camber angle and side slip angle effect on vertical stiffness
qFys1 Q_FYS1 (constant) x x
Combined camber angle and side slip angle linear effect on vertical
q Fys2 Q_FYS2 stiffness x x
Combined camber angle and side slip angle quadratic effect on vertical
q Fys3 Q_FYS3 stiffness x x
pFz1 PFZ1 Pressure effect on vertical stiffness x x x x
 btm BOTTOM_OFFST Distance to rim when bottoming starts to occur x x x x x x x
Cz ,btm BOTTOM_STIFF Vertical stiffness of bottomed tyre x x x x x x x

2.2 Effective rolling radius

In the expressions for the effective rolling radius and contact patch dimensions the vertical stiffness
adapted for tyre inflation pressure is used:

Cz  Cz 0 1 pFz1dpi 
The ratio of the forward velocity of the wheel centre Vx to the angular velocity of the free rolling tyre Ωfr
equals the effective rolling radius Re. The following empirical formula is used:

Fz 0   F  F 
Re  R   Dreff arctan Breff z   Freff z 
Cz   Fz 0  Fz 0 

where Dreff, Breff and Freff are model parameters. The effective rolling radius defines the slip point S.
Note that the location of S is different from the contact point C as is shown in Figure 2. Point S is used
to calculate the sideslip angle αF using the lateral slip velocity Vsy, see also section 1.1.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 23/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[DIMENSION]
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tyre radius x x x x x x x x x

[VERTICAL]
Fz 0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load x x x x x x x x x
Cz 0 VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tyre vertical stiffness x x x x x x x x x
Breff BREFF Low load stiffness e.r.r. x x x x x x x x x
Dreff DREFF Peak value of e.r.r. x x x x x x x x x
Freff FREFF High load stiffness e.r.r. x x x x x x x x x
pFz1 PFZ1 Pressure effect on vertical stiffness x x x x

2.3 Contact patch dimensions

When modelling the tyre-road enveloping and relaxation behaviour the dimensions of the tyre contact
patch are needed. The empirical expressions for half of the contact length a and half of the width b
read:

   
F
a  R0  qra 2 z  qra1
Fz   R0  qra 2   qra1  
Cz R0 Cz R0   R0 R0 
  
 1
  1

 Fz  Fz  3      3

b  w qrb2  qrb1     w qrb2  qrb1   
 C R
z 0  z 0 
C R  R0  R0  
   
where w is the nominal section width of the tyre. Since these expressions are functions of the tyre
deflection ρ, the effect of changing the tyre inflation pressure is taken into account. Lowering the
inflation pressure results in an increase in tyre deflection and thus an increase in contact length.
In older tyre models (6.0 & before) no influence of the tyre inflation pressure on the contact length is
considered. The empirical expressions for half of the contact length a and half of the width b then
read:

 F Fz 
a  R0  qa 2 z  qa1 

 Fz0 Fz0 

w
b
2

Copyright © 2013 TNO 24/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[DIMENSION]
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tyre radius x x x x x x x x x
w WIDTH Nominal section width of the tyre x x x x x x x x x

[CONTACT_PATCH]
qra1 Q_RA1 Square root term in contact length equation x x
qra2 Q_RA2 Linear term in contact length equation x x
qrb1 Q_RB1 Root term in contact width equation x x
qrb2 Q_RB2 Linear term in contact width equation x x
q a1 Q_A1 Square root load term in contact length x x
qa 2 Q_A2 Linear load term in contact length x x

2.4 Relaxation behaviour

2.4.1 Empirical relaxation length

A tyre does not respond instantaneously to a change in sideslip angle, but a certain distance needs to
be travelled before the steady-state levels of side force and moment are reached (similar for Fx). In
the MF-Tyre model this phenomenon is typically modelled using a first-order differential equation with
the relaxation length as ‘distance’ constant. In the MF-Swift model the dynamics are modelled using a
rigid ring approach, residual stiffness and contact patch relaxation model. Ultimately these two
different approaches could potentially result in simulating a different relaxation length for the same
tyre, which obviously is not acceptable. Depending on the application there will be a need to be able
to switch the model from a simple representation of the dynamics to a more elaborate but more time
consuming variant. Besides the vertical force and the side slip angle, the inflation pressure is also
considered in the model, because of its impact on the relaxation behaviour.
The solution for this combined set of requirements is to model the overall longitudinal and lateral tyre
stiffness and calculate the required parameters from these expressions. The following expressions
are used to describe the overall longitudinal Cx and lateral stiffness Cy of the tyre at ground contact:

 
Cx  Cx 0 1  pcfx1df z  pcfx 2 df z2 1  pcfx 3dpi 

Cy  Cy0 1  p cfy1 
df z  pcfy 2 df z2 1  pcfy 3dpi 
where Cx0 and Cy0 are the longitudinal and lateral stiffness of the tyre at the nominal vertical force and
inflation pressure. Using these stiffness and the longitudinal slip stiffness Kxκ and cornering stiffness
Kyα the relaxation lengths for longitudinal and sideslip are respectively:
K x
x 
Cx
K y
y 
Cy

In principle the stiffness Cx and Cy could be measured on a non-rolling tyre, but the preferred
approach is to measure the cornering stiffness and lateral relaxation length in a transient test for a
number of different inflation pressures and vertical loads. Subsequently the lateral stiffness equation

Copyright © 2013 TNO 25/41

can be fitted to these measurement points accordingly. Figure 4 gives an impression of the
dependency of the lateral relaxation length on the vertical force and tyre inflation pressure for a
standard passenger car tyre.

Figure 4: Lateral relaxation length as a function of vertical force and inflation pressure [7].

Next to the steady-state representation, three approaches with increasing complexity can be used to
model the tyre transient behaviour and dynamics. The first two are explained in section 2.4.2 and
2.4.3, and the third in chapter 3 (MF-Swift).

2.4.2 Linear transients

The relaxation lengths determined in the previous paragraph are used in the next two differential
equations to calculate the (transient) slip quantities.

 x  Vx  Vsx

 y F  Vx F  Vsy
MF-Tyre/MF-SWIFT 6.0, 6.1, 6.2:
K x 0
x 
Cx
K y 0
y 
Cy
Note: Kxκ0 and Kyα0 are slip and cornering stiffness at κ = 0 and α = 0.

MF-Tyre 5.2, SWIFT 1.2, MF-MCTyre 1.1:

 x   pTx1  pTx 2 df z e  p
Fz
Tx 3dfz
x R0
Fz 0

Copyright © 2013 TNO 26/41

MF-MCTyre 1.1:

 y  1  pky 5 2

pTyFzn  pTy 3  pKy4 2 Fz'0

  Fz  
 y  pTy1 sin pTy 2 arctan   y R0 Fz 0 y


  pTyFzn  
MF-Tyre 5.2, SWIFT 1.2:

 y  1  pky 3 

pTyFzn  pTy 2 Fz'0

  Fz  
 y  pTy1 sin 2 arctan   y R0 Fz 0 y

 p
  TyFzn  

2.4.3 Nonlinear transients

In this approach the tyre-road contact is separated into two parts and can be considered as a series
connection of a spring-damper with a relaxation system for the contact patch, see Figure 5.

kcy  y  Ccy  y  Fy

 c F  Vx F  Vsy  y

where σc is the contact patch relaxation length and εy is the lateral carcass deflection. The carcass
stiffness Ccy is calculated as:

K y
Ccy  Cy
K y  C y a
A similar method is used in the longitudinal direction. The benefit of this approach is the resulting
decreasing relaxation behaviour with increasing sideslip angle. Also the relaxation behaviour of the
tyre on changes in vertical force is more accurately captured in this approach.

steady-state linear transients nonlinear transients rigid ring dynamics

γ
tyre
cbγ
rim

cby

ccy cry

direct calculation of slip using velocity

first order relaxation behaviour

Figure 5: Schematic overview of different ways to model the contact transients/dynamics [7].

Copyright © 2013 TNO 27/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[STRUCTURAL]
Cx0 LONGITUDINAL_STIFFNESS Tyre overall longitudinal stiffness x x x x x x
Cy0 LATERAL_STIFFNESS Tyre overall lateral stiffness x x x x x x
pcfx1 PCFX1 Tyre overall longitudinal stiffness vertical deflection dependency linear term x x x x
Tyre overall longitudinal stiffness vertical deflection dependency quadratic
pcfx2 PCFX2 term x x x x
pcfx3 PCFX3 Tyre overall longitudinal stiffness pressure dependency x x x x
pcfy1 PCFY1 Tyre overall lateral stiffness vertical deflection dependency linear term x x x x
pcfy 2 PCFY2 Tyre overall lateral stiffness vertical deflection dependency quadratic term x x x x
pcfy3 PCFY3 Tyre overall lateral stiffness pressure dependency x x x x

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
x LSGKP Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx x x x
y LSGAL Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy x x x

[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
pTx1 PTX1 Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom x x x
pTx 2 PTX2 Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load x x x
pTx 3 PTX3 Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load x x x

[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0 x x x
pTy 2 PTY2 Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme x x x
pTy 3 PTY3 Value of Fz/Fznom where Sig_alpha is maximum x

Copyright © 2013 TNO 28/41

3 MF-Swift

In this section the structure of the MF-Swift model is discussed. The important elements of the MF-
Swift tyre model are:
 Magic Formula
 Contact patch slip model
 Rigid ring
 Obstacle enveloping model
The Magic Formula describes the steady-state tyre slip forces and moments with high accuracy, see
Chapter 1. The other elements are discussed in the following sections.

3.1 Contact patch slip model

An elegant method to implement the load and slip dependent transient behaviour in the tyre model is
including the carcass compliance, see section 2.4.3. This flexibility already accounts for a major part
of the overall relaxation effect. This approach of elastically suspending the contact patch with respect
to the wheel rim integrates very well with the introduction of the tyre dynamics by using the rigid ring
approach. As can be seen in Figure 6, MF-Swift features a series connection of various springs: the
belt is elastically suspended with respect to the rim and residual springs connect the contact patch
with the belt. The forces generated by the Magic Formula are applied to the small contact patch mass
and are transferred to the wheel axle through a series of springs, dampers and the belt mass.
In addition to the overall longitudinal and lateral stiffness, Cx and Cy respectively (see section 2.4), the
overall yaw stiffness Cψ is considered in MF-Swift and reads:

 1 pcmz1dpi 
Fz
C  C 0 
Fz 0
where Cψ0 is the overall yaw stiffness at the nominal vertical force and inflation pressure.

As indicated in Figure 6 (right) the self aligning moment Mz in combination with yaw carcass stiffness
cψ will result in a yaw deflection of both the tyre belt and the contact patch. Due to this deflection, the
sideslip angle seen by the contact patch αc is smaller than the sideslip angle of the wheel plane α.

 
.
- wheel plane
wheel rim wheel plane V
 Vx -Vsy
belt contact patch
c cy
c -Vsyc
_ Mz
Vc _*
 V
* Fy
C F
*
residual springs Mz

Figure 6: Schematic layout of the MF-Swift tyre model (left) and contact patch deflection detail (right).

Copyright © 2013 TNO 29/41

The transient contact slip model used in MF-Swift accounts for the relaxation behaviour of the contact
patch and enables starting from zero speed:

 Mz 
 c F'  Vx F'  Vsyc  Vx  

 C 
with σc denoting the contact patch relaxation length, typically equal to half the contact length, and Vsyc
the lateral slip speed of the contact patch. To obtain the correct steady-state forces, the ‘static’ yaw
deflection angle of the contact patch with respect to the wheel plane is used to compensate for the
difference between the contact patch sideslip angle αFc and the wheel plane sideslip angle α that is
used in the Magic Formula. The ‘static’ yaw deflection angle is calculated from the self aligning
moment Mz and the yaw carcass stiffness cψ.

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[STRUCTURAL]
C 0 YAW_STIFFNESS Tyre overall yaw stiffness x x x x x x
pcmz1 PCMZ1 Tyre overall yaw stiffness pressure dependency x x x x

3.2 Rigid ring

The aim of the MF-Swift tyre model is to cover a higher frequency range that suits application for
uneven roads and control systems. For these frequencies it is no longer allowed to consider the wheel
and tyre as a single rigid body.
Scientific research [3] [4] [5] shows that if we restrict ourselves to a frequency range of approximately
60-100 Hz, the deformations of the tyre belt can be neglected. Consequently, the tyre belt is modelled
as a rigid body, which is elastically suspended with respect to the rim for all six degrees of freedom.
Residual springs are introduced between the tyre belt and the contact patch to ensure that the overall
static stiffnesses are correct. Figure 7 shows the calculated primary tyre modes and the associated
eigenfrequencies for a car tyre with the rigid ring model.

loaded

in-phase 33Hz vertical 80Hz anti-phase 76Hz camber 44Hz yaw 46Hz lateral 103Hz

Figure 7: Calculated eigenfrequencies of a car tyre [6].

Copyright © 2013 TNO 30/41

 side view rear view

rim fixed belt deflected belt deflected

(rigid ring) (rigid ring)

rim fixed
cbx cby

cb cb
contact patch contact patch
crx cry
deflected deflected
Fx Fy
a b c a b c

total circumferential total lateral

carcass deflection carcass deflection

Figure 8: Rigid ring dynamics [6]

When including rigid ring dynamics, the spring-damper system is now subdivided into various
components as shown in Figure 8. In this case the eigenfrequencies of the tyre belt determine the
stiffness between rim and belt; still the overall stiffness is as specified in paragraph 2.4.1. This implies
for example that the residual stiffnesses Crx,.Cry & CrΨ are calculated from respectively:

1 1 Rl2 1 a
   
Cx Cbx Cb Crx C f
 
carcass contact patch

1 1 Rl2 1 a
   
C y Cby Cb Cry C f
 
carcass contact patch

1 1 1 a/3
  
C Cb Cr Cm
 
carcass contact patch

in which for instance Cbx and Cbθ are the longitudinal and rotational stiffness about the lateral axis
between belt and rim, etc. The sidewall stiffnesses are calculated from the belt mass properties and
the primary eigenfrequencies for the unloaded non-rolling tyre (subscript 0):

Cbx0  Cbz0  4 2 mbelt flong

2

Cby0  4 2mbelt flat2

Cb 0  4 2 I yy belt f windup

2

Cb 0  Cb 0  4 2 I xx belt f yaw

2

The sidewall damping coefficients read as:

kbx  kbz  4 long f longmbelt

kby  4 lat  f lat mbelt

kb  4 windup f windupI yy belt

Copyright © 2013 TNO 31/41

kb  4 yaw f yaw I xx belt
where the symbol ζ is used for the dimensionless damping factors.
For the rolling tyre the sidewall stiffnesses may appear to increase with velocity. Further, the sidewall
stiffnesses will be higher when the tyre inflation pressure is increased. Empirical relations have been
developed to account for this effect:


Cbx  Cbx0 1  0.65dpi  1  qbvx QV 
Cbz  Cbz0 1  0.65dp 1  q
i bvz QV , with qbvz  qbvx

Cby  Cby0 1  0.74dpi 


Cb  Cb 0 1  0.49dpi  1  qbv QV 
Cb  Cb 0 1  0.69dpi 

Cb  Cb 0 1  0.69dpi 

The variable QV is introduced here, which is a measure of the time rate of change of the loaded tyre
deformation due to rolling:


QV  xrb2  zrb2
V0
Note: The eigenfrequencies of the loaded and rolling tyre are different from the frequencies f defined
in the tyre property file.

To calculate the residual stiffness CrΨ the moment stiffness against spin in the contact patch Cmφ has
to be known. Cmφ is calculated using the following formulae:

K zr 0  Fz R0 qdz8  qdz9 df z kz

   pecp1 1 pecp 2 df z 

R0 K zr 0
C m 
1  

Copyright © 2013 TNO 32/41

 MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[DIMENSION]
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tyre radius x x x x x x x x x

[INERTIA]
mtyre MASS Tyre mass x x x x x x x
I XXtyre IXX Tyre diametral moment of inertia x x x x x x
IYYtyre IYY Tyre polar moment of inertia x x x x x x
mbelt BELT_MASS Belt mass x x x
I XXbelt BELT_IXX Belt diametral moment of inertia x x x
IYYbelt BELT_IYY Belt polar moment of inertia x x x
g
GRAVITY Gravity acting on belt in Z direction x x x

[STRUCTURAL]
flong FREQ_LONG Undamped frequency fore/aft and vertical mode x x x
flat FREQ_LAT Undamped frequency lateral mode x x x
f yaw FREQ_YAW Undamped frequency yaw and camber mode x x x
f windup FREQ_WINDUP Undamped frequency wind-up mode x x x
 long DAMP_LONG Dimensionless damping fore/aft and vertical mode x x x
 lat DAMP_LAT Dimensionless damping lateral mode x x x
 yaw DAMP_YAW Dimensionless damping yaw and camber mode x x x
 windup DAMP_WINDUP Dimensionless damping wind-up mode x x x
 res DAMP_RESIDUAL Residual damping (proportional to stiffness) x x x x x x
q bvx Q_BVX Load and speed influence on in-plane translation stiffness x x x x
q bv Q_BVT Load and speed influence on in-plane rotation stiffness x x x x

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
Kz
Fz0 LKZC Scale factor of camber moment stiffness x x x x x x

[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber x x x x x x x x x
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber and load x x x x x x x x x

[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
p 1 PECP1 Camber w.r.t. spin reduction factor parameter in camber stiffness x x x x x x
Camber w.r.t. spin reduction factor varying with load parameter in camber
p 2 PECP2 stiffness x x x x x x

3.3 Obstacle enveloping model

The MF-Swift model should be able to meet the simulation targets for (short wavelength) road
obstacles. An important restriction of the rigid ring model is that the contact between tyre and road is
formed by a single point. In this point the tyre slip is calculated and the Magic Formula forces and
moment are applied. Short wavelength obstacles give rise to nonlinear behaviour of the horizontal FH
and vertical FV tyre forces and to changes of the effective rolling radius re, as illustrated in Figure 9.

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 10000

8000

FV 6000

[N] 4000

2000

0
800

400

FH
0

[N]
!400

!800

320

re
300

[mm]
280

260
-100 0 100 -100 0 100 -100 0 100
s [mm]

Figure 9: Measured forces and change of the effective rolling radius while driving over various
obstacles with fixed axle height at low speed. Results are shown for three different initial
vertical loads [6].

To incorporate these effects in the MF-Swift model the concept of the effective road surface is used.
The idea behind this effective input is that it is assumed that the quasi-static response of a tyre model
with a single-point tyre-road interface on the effective road surface is similar to the quasi-static
response of the real tyre on the actual road surface. Furthermore, the assumption is made that the
tyre contact zone dynamically deforms in the same way as it does quasi-statically and that,
consequently, local dynamic effects in the contact area can be neglected; the rigid ring takes care of
the dynamics.

Figure 10: The tandem cam configuration, generating the effective road height and slope [5].

A technique using non-deformable elliptical cams which touch the actual road surface has been
introduced to generate the effective road surface for arbitrary 3D road unevenness, see Figure 10,
Figure 11 and Figure 12. Basically in the contact area a grid of elliptical cams is used to sense the
road undulations. Then we can calculate:

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  The vertical position of the effective road plane by taking the average of the z-coordinates
across the width for both the front and rear row of cams.
 The slope of the effective road in the driving direction by calculating the average angle across
the width of the tyre contact patch for the front and rear row of cams.
 The slope transverse to the driving direction (road camber/banking) by calculating the
average angle across the length of the tyre contact patch for the left and right row of cams.

Motorcycle
For motorcycles two additional parameters are introduced describing an empirical relation. Parameter
C1 realizes attenuation of the vertical position (effective plane height) proportional to the difference
in height of leading and trailing cams. The slope (effective plane angle) is adjusted with the same
quantity, and parameter C2 allows further attenuation of the effective plane angle to match the
longitudinal force with more accuracy. The calculation then is:
 The effective plane height is calculated as described above, but additionally the factor
C1|Z1-Z2| is subtracted, where Z1 and Z2 are the average heights of the trailing and leading
cams respectively.
 The average slope of the effective road in the driving direction is calculated as described
above, but is multiplied additionally with the reduction factor (1-C1)(1-C2).
Further, note that the motorcycle contour contact is used on the effective road surface determined by
the enveloping model. More details on the motorcycle contour can be found in paragraph 4.1.

The dimensions of the cams are defined by the ellipse parameters, see Figure 10. In terms of the
coordinates xe and ze the ellipse equation reads:
ce ce
 xe   ye 
      1 ,
 ae   be 
with

ae  le R0
be  he R0
The effective road height and slope is accessed by using tandem cams at distance ls, with

ls  2 pls a
It can be noted that the elliptical cams are only required on the outside contour of the contact patch.
Furthermore, the contact patch dimensions (especially the contact length) change as a function of
vertical load. This interaction is schematically shown in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11: Schematic view of the MF-Swift model using the enveloping
model with elliptical cams [5].

The shape of the elliptical cam is assessed by fitting model responses to measurements of the tyre
rolling at very low velocity over obstacles.
In order to achieve higher accuracy at short wave length obstacles more parallel tandems (multi-track)
and intermediate cams at the side edges can be used. In Figure 12 an example of 6 parallel cams
(Ne,w) in the front & rear row and 5 successive cams at both sides (Ne,l) can be seen.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 36/41

Figure 12: Multiple cams to obtain higher accuracy. Example of ‘6x5’ cams [5].

Research has shown that the shape of the elliptical cams does not change with tyre vertical load and
inflation pressure, and that the tyre stiffness and contact length change cause the main effect.

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[CONTACT_PATCH]
pls ELLIPS_SHIFT Scaling of distance between front and rear ellipsoid x x x x
le ELLIPS_LENGTH Semimajor axis of ellipsoid x x x x
he ELLIPS_HEIGHT Semiminor axis of ellipsoid x x x x
ce ELLIPS_ORDER Order of ellipsoid x x x x
N e ,w ELLIPS_NWIDTH Number of parallel ellipsoids x x x x
N e,l ELLIPS_NLENGTH Number of ellipsoids at sides of contact patch x x x x
C1 ENV_C1 Effective height attenuation x
C2 ENV_C2 Effective plane angle attenuation x

Note: The parameters ELLIPS_NWIDTH and ELLIPS_NLENGTH are simulation settings that can be
set by the simulation engineer, see also section 4.4.

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4 Miscellaneous

4.1 Motorcycle Contour Ellipse (MF-Tyre/MF-Swift 6.1 and 6.2)

The motorcycle contour ellipse is the contact ellipse of a motorcycle tyre. It is the ellipse over which
the motorcycle tyre rolls, as explained in the figure below.

Figure 13: Motorcycle contour ellipse

The dimension of the ellipse can be set using the dimensionless parameters MCEa and MCEb
according to the following formulas, where a and b here indicate the ellipse dimensions as shown in
the figure above and w is the nominal section width of the tyre:
a
MCEa 
w
b
MCEb 
w

From release 6.2, the motorcycle contour contact is used when activating the Motorcycle Tyres
Contact method, or the Contact Method for 2D and 3D roads if the contour parameters are nonzero.
In the Contact Method for 2D and 3D roads cases, the motorcycle contour contacts the effective road
surface instead of the real road surface.
Note: In the MF-Tyre 6.1 tyre model, the motorcycle contour contact is only supported when
activating the smooth road contact, circular cross section (motorcycle tyres) contact method. Thus not
in combination with the Contact Method for 2D and 3D roads.

4.2 Gyroscopic moment

For linear transients only, the gyroscopic moment Mgyr is calculated as:

 
M gyr  qTz1gyr mbeltVr F cos  7 arctanBr r ,eq 
This moment is added to the aligning moment Mz.

4.3 Vertical stiffness and damping tyre

The vertical stiffness and damping of the tyre has been modelled as a one or two spring-damper
system, which is dependent on the used tyre model, see figure below.

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 MF-Tyre 6.1, 6.0 & 5.2 MF-Swift 6.1 & 6.0
MF-MCTYRE 1.1 SWIFT 1.2

rim

Cbz
kbz

C
k
belt mb

Crz

ground

Figure 14: Simplified representation of vertical dynamics in MF-Tyre (left) and MF-Swift (right).

with C = vertical stiffness tyre (parameter VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Cz0)

k = vertical damping tyre parameter VERTICAL_DAMPING kz0)
Cbz = vertical stiffness belt
kbz = vertical damping belt (parameter DAMP_LONG ζlong)
mb = mass belt (parameter BELT_MASS or MBELT mbelt)
Crz = residual vertical stiffness

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[DIMENSION]
w WIDTH Nominal section width of the tyre x x x x x x x x x

[INERTIA]
mbelt BELT_MASS Belt mass x x x

[VERTICAL]
Cz 0 VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tyre vertical stiffness x x x x x x x x x
kz 0 VERTICAL_DAMPING Tyre vertical damping x x x x x x x x x
MCEa MC_CONTOUR_A Motorcycle contour ellips A x x
MCEb MC_CONTOUR_B Motorcycle contour ellips B x x

[STRUCTURAL]
 long DAMP_LONG Dimensionless damping fore/aft and vertical mode x x x

[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
 gyr LGYR Scale factor gyroscopic moment x x x

[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic torque constant x x x
mbelt MBELT Belt mass of the wheel x x x

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4.4 Road surface simulation settings

Next to the tyre model parameters that describe the tyre characteristics, the tyre property file also
contains some parameters that are used to change the settings of the tyre model for a specific
simulation task. In general these parameters are to be set/modified by the engineer who performs the
simulations. In the table below an overview of these parameters is given. For a more detailed
description see the MF-Tyre and MF-Swift Help that is provided with the tyre model.

Parameter Description
ROAD_DIRECTION Direction of travelled distance to be used with road contact for 2D roads.
ROAD_INCREMENT Increment in road sampling, typically equal to sample interval of
measured road profile.
ELLIPS_MAX_STEP Maximum height of road step. Specifies up to which height on the ellipse
contour of the enveloping model contact points are considered. To be
used with road contact for 3D roads.

Note: The simulation engineer can further influence the number of contact points that are evaluated
by setting the parameters ELLIPS_NWIDTH and ELLIPS_NLENGTH, see section 3.3.

MF-MCTyre 1.1
MF-Swift 6.2

MF-Swift 6.1

MF-Swift 6.0
MF-Tyre 6.2

MF-Tyre 6.1

MF-Tyre 6.0

MF-Tyre 5.2
SWIFT 1.2
Tyre property file

[MODEL]
ROAD_INCREMENT Increment in road sampling x x x x
ROAD_DIRECTION Direction of travelled distance x x x x

[CONTACT_PATCH]
ELLIPS_MAX_STEP Maximum height of road step x x x x

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5 References

[1] Bakker, E., Nyborg, L., and Pacejka, H.B., Tyre modelling for use in vehicle dynamics studies,
SAE paper 870421, 1987.
[2] Pacejka, H.B. and Besselink, I.J.M., Magic formula tyre model with transient properties, 2nd
International Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamic Analysis, Berlin, Germany,
February 20-21, 1997, Vehicle System Dynamics, Vol. 27 (Suppl.), 1996, pp. 234-249.
[3] Zegelaar, P.W.A., The Dynamic Response of Tyres to Brake Torque Variations and Road
Unevennesses, Ph.D. diss., Delft University of Technology, 1998.
[4] Maurice, J.P., Short Wavelength and Dynamic Tyre Behaviour under Lateral and Combined
Slip Conditions, Ph.D. diss., Delft University of Technology, 2000.
[5] Schmeitz, A.J.C., A semi-empirical three-dimensional model of the pneumatic tyre rolling over
arbitrary uneven road surfaces, Ph.D. diss., Delft University of Technology, 2004.
[6] Pacejka, H.B., Tire and Vehicle Dynamics, Third Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
2012.
[7] Besselink, I.J.M., Schmeitz, A.J.C., Pacejka, H.B., An improved Magic Formula/SWIFT tyre
model that can handle inflation pressure changes, proceedings of IAVSD 09, Stockholm,
Sweden, 2009.

Copyright © 2013 TNO 41/41