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Edexcel IGCSE Physics Your notes

7.1 Properties of Radiation

Contents
7.1.1 Atomic Structure
7.1.2 Isotopes
7.1.3 Types of Radiation
7.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Radiation
7.1.5 Decay Equations
7.1.6 Detecting Radiation

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7.1.1 Atomic Structure

Your notes
Atomic Structure
Atoms are the building blocks of all matter
They are incredibly small, with a radius of only 1 × 10-10 m
This means that about one hundred million atoms could fit side by side across your thumbnail
Atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus at their centre, with electrons orbiting around the nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is over 10,000 times smaller than the whole atom, but it contains almost
all of the mass of the atom

Diagram showing the structure of a Lithium atom. If drawn to scale then the electrons would be around
100 metres away from the nucleus!
Parts of the Atom
The nucleus contains:
Protons - positively charged particles with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Neutrons – no charge, and also with a relative atomic mass of one unit
Almost all of the atom is empty space, but moving around the nucleus there are:
Electrons – negative charge with almost no mass (1/2000 the mass of a proton or neutron)
The properties of each of the particles are shown in the table below:

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Your notes

Charge in the Atom

Although atoms contain particles of different charge, the total charge within an atom is zero
This is because the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
The following table sets out the calculation of the total charge in the Lithium atom in the diagram
above:
Total Charge Calculation Table

If an atom loses electrons, then it is said to be ionised

Symbols are used to describe particular nuclear by their element symbol, atomic number and
mass number
This notation is called nuclear notation

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Your notes

Carbon 12 in nuclear notation

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Worked example
Your notes
A nucleus of carbon-12 is shown below.

How many electrons are there in an atom of carbon-12?

Step 1: Count the number of protons in the carbon nucleus

There are 6 protons in the carbon atom
Step 2: Determine the number of electrons
Remember, the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons
Therefore there must be 6 electrons in the carbon atom

Exam Tip
You may have noticed that the number of electrons is not part of the mass number. This is
because electrons have a tiny mass compared to neutrons and protons. We say their mass is
negligible when compared to the particles in the nucleus.

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Atomic & Mass Number

Atomic Number Your notes
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number (it can also be called the proton
number)
Elements in the periodic table are ordered by their atomic number
Therefore, the number of protons determines which element an atom is
The atomic number of a particular element is always the same
For example:
Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. It always has just one proton
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. It has 11 protons
Uranium has an atomic number of 92. It has 92 protons
The atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons in an atom
This is because atoms have the same number of electrons and protons in order to have no
overall charge
Mass Number
The total number of particles in the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number (it can also be
called the nucleon number)
The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the atom
The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number
Number of Neutron = Mass Number – Atomic Number
For example, if a sodium atom has a mass number of 23 and an atomic number of 11, then the
number of neutrons would be 23 – 11 = 12
Nuclear Notation
The mass number and atomic number of an atom are shown by writing them with the atomic
symbol
This is called nuclear notation
Here are three examples:

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Your notes

Examples of nuclear notation for atoms of Hydrogen, Sodium and Uranium

The top number is the mass number
This is equal to the total number of particles (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus
The lower number is the atomic number
This is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus
The atomic and mass number of each type of atom in the examples above is shown in this table:
Number of Protons, Neutrons & Electrons Table

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Worked example
Your notes
The element symbol for gold is Au. How many protons, neutrons and electrons are in the gold
atom?

ANSWER: D
Step 1: Determine the atomic and mass number
The gold atom has an atomic number of 79 (lower number) and a mass number of 197 (top
number)
Step 2: Determine the number of protons
The atomic number is equal to the number of protons
The atom has 79 protons
Step 3: Calculate the number of neutrons
The mass number is equal to the number of protons and neutrons
The number of neutrons is equal to the mass number minus the atomic number
197 - 79 = 118

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The atom has 118 neutrons

Step 4: Determine the number of electrons Your notes
An atom has the same number of protons and electrons
The atom has 79 electrons

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7.1.2 Isotopes
Your notes
Isotopes
Although the number of protons in a particular element is always the same, the number of
neutrons can be different
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have an equal number of protons but a different
number of neutrons
In the diagram below are three isotopes of Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has three isotopes, each with a different number of neutrons

Isotopes occur naturally, but some are more rare than others
For example, about 2 in every 10,000 Hydrogen atoms is Deuterium
Tritium is even more rare (about 1 in every billion billion hydrogen atoms)
Differences Between Isotopes

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The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, such as
its charge, but only its mass
This is because neutrons have no charge but do have mass Your notes
The charge of the nucleus of a particular element is always the same
In the periodic table, the mass number of Chlorine is often given as 35.5

This section of a periodic table shows Chlorine as having a mass number of 35.5, but other elements have
an integer mass number
The mass number of Chlorine is given as 35.5 because it has roughly equal numbers of isotopes
with a mass number of 35, and of 36
The number of electrons and protons in different isotopes remains the same
Isotopes tend to be more unstable due to the imbalance of protons and neutrons

Worked example
State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 atoms.

Step 1: Determine the number of protons

The atomic number is the number of protons
Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 protons
Step 2: Determine the number of neutrons

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The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons

Chlorine-35 neutrons: 35 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Chlorine-36 neutrons: 36 - 17 = 19 neutrons Your notes
Step 3: Determine the number of electrons
The number of electrons is equal to the number of protons
Both Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-36 have 17 electrons

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7.1.3 Types of Radiation

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Types of Radiation
Unstable Nuclei and Radiation
Some atomic nuclei are unstable
This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14 has two extra neutrons

Some isotopes are unstable because of their large siz e or because they have too many or too
few neutrons
Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable
Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave

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Your notes

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves

As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
This makes the nucleus more stable
The process of emitting radiation is called radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a random process
This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will decay
When an unstable nucleus decays it emits radiation, called nuclear radiation
There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:
Alpha (α)
Beta (β- )
Gamma (γ)

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Worked example
Your notes
Which of the following statements is not true?
A Isotopes can be unstable because they have too many or too few neutrons
B The process of emitting particles or waves of energy from an unstable nucleus is called
radioactive decay
C Scientists can predict when a nucleus will decay
D Radiation refers to the particles or waves emitted from a decaying nucleus

ANSWER: C
Answer A is true. The number of neutrons in a nucleus determines the stability
Answer B is true. This is a suitable description of radioactive decay
Answer D is true. Radiation is about emissions. It is different to radioactive particles
Answer C is not true
Radioactive decay is a random process
It is not possible to predict precisely when a particular nucleus will decay

Exam Tip
The terms unstable, random and decay have very particular meanings in this topic. Remember to
use them correctly when answering questions!

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Properties of Radiation
The three different forms of nuclear radiation have different properties: Your notes
Alpha Particles
The symbol for alpha is α
An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
Alpha particles have a charge of +2
This means they can be affected by an electric field
Beta Particles
The symbol for beta is β-
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons
They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
Beta particles have a charge of -1
This means they can be affected by an electric field
Gamma Rays
The symbol for gamma is γ
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
Gamma rays have no charge

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Your notes

Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves can be emitted from unstable nuclei
The properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma are given in this table, and then described in more detail
below
Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

The trend down the table shows:

The range increases
Penetrating power increases
Ionisation decreases

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Penetrating Power
Alpha, beta and gamma have different properties Your notes
They penetrate materials in different ways
This means they are stopped by different materials

Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the least penetrating, and
gamma is the most penetrating
Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it
Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
Gamma can pass through aluminium
Gamma rays are only partially stopped by thick lead
Ionising Power
All nuclear radiation is capable of ionising atoms that it hits
When an atom is ionised, the number of electrons it has changes
This gives it a non-zero charge

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Your notes

When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
Alpha radiation is the most ionising form of nuclear radiation
This is because alpha particles have a charge of +2
Gamma radiation is the least ionising form of nuclear radiation

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Worked example
Your notes
A student has an unknown radioactive source. They are trying to work which type of radiation is
being given off:
A Alpha particles
B Beta particles
C Gamma rays
D Neutrons
They measure the count-rate, using a Geiger-Muller tube, when the source is placed behind
different material. Their results are shown in the table below:

Which type of radiation is being given off by the source?

ANSWER: B
The answer is not A because the radiation passed through the paper almost unchanged
This means it is not alpha
The answer is not C or D because the aluminium decreased the count-rate significantly
This means it is not gamma (gamma penetrates aluminium)
This also means it is not neutrons (neutrons penetrate aluminium, however you do not
need to know this for your GCSE)
Therefore, the source must be Beta particles

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7.1.4 Core Practical: Investigating Radiation

Your notes
Core Practical 13: Investigating Radiation
Aim of the Experiment
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the penetration powers of different types of
radiation using either radioactive sources or simulations
Variables:
Independent variable = Absorber material
Dependent variable = Count rate
Control variables:
Radioactive source
Distance of GM tube to source
Location / background radiation
Equipment List

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Your notes

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ruler = 1 mm
Geiger-Müller tube = 0.01 μS/hr
Method

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Your notes

Investigating radiation apparatus

1. Connect the Geiger-Müller tube to the counter and, without any sources present, measure
background radiation over a one minute period
2. Repeat this three times, and take an average
3. Now place a radioactive source a fixed distance of 3 cm away from the tube and take another
reading over a one minute interval
4. Now take a set of absorbers: some paper, several different thicknesses of aluminium (increasing
in 0.5mm intervals) and different thickness of lead
5. One at a time, place these absorbers between the source and the tube and take another reading
over a one minute interval
6. Repeat the above experiment for other radioactive sources
Analysis of Results
If the count over that interval falls to background levels (allow for a little random variation), then
the radiation has all been absorbed
Note that some sources will emit more than one type of radiation
If the radiation is stopped by paper, the source will be emitting alpha

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If the radiation is stopped by a few mm of aluminium (about 5 or 6) then the source is

emitting beta
If some radiation is still able to penetrate a few mm of lead (5 or 6) then the source is Your notes
emitting gamma

Penetrating power of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Make sure that the sources are stored well away from the counter during the experiment
Conduct all runs of the experiment in the same location to avoid changes in background
radiation levels
Random Errors:
The accuracy of such an experiment is improved with using reliable sources with a long half-life
and an activity well above the natural background level
Safety Considerations

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When not using a source, keep it in a lead lined container

When in use, try and keep a good distance (a metre or so) between yourself and the source
When handling the source, do so using tweez ers (or tongs) and point the source away from you Your notes

Exam Tip
When answering questions about the core practicals you could try to remember the acronym
SCREAMS:
S: Which variable will you keep the same
C: which variable should you change
R: what will you do to make your experiment reliable
E: what special equipment and equations are required
A: how will you analyse your results
M: which variable will you measure
S: what safety precautions will you take?

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7.1.5 Decay Equations

Your notes
Alpha, Beta, Gamma & Neutron Emission
Alpha Decay
During alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted from an unstable nucleus
A completely new element is formed in the process

Alpha decay usually happens in large unstable nuclei, causing the overall mass and charge of the nucleus
to decrease
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus
It is made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
When the alpha particle is emitted from the unstable nucleus, the mass number and atomic
number of the nucleus changes
The mass number decreases by 4
The atomic number decreases by 2
The charge on the nucleus also decreases by 2
This is because protons have a charge of +1 each

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Your notes

Alpha decay equation

Beta Decay
During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nuclei
A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes

Beta decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons. The mass number stays the
same, but the atomic number increases by one
A beta particle is a high-speed electron
It has a mass number of 0
This is because the electron has a negligible mass, compared to neutrons and protons
Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nuclei remains the same

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Electrons have an atomic number of -1

This means that the new nuclei will increase its atomic number by 1 in order to maintain the
overall atomic number before and after the decay Your notes
The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta decay
It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta particle
Beta particles are written as an electron in this equation

Beta decay equation

Gamma Decay
During gamma decay, a gamma ray is emitted from an unstable nucleus
The process that makes the nucleus less energetic but does not change its structure

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Your notes

Gamma decay does not affect the mass number or the atomic number of the radioactive nucleus, but it
does reduce the energy of the nucleus
The gamma ray that is emitted has a lot of energy, but no mass or charge
Here is an example of Uranium-238 undergoing gamma decay
Notice that the mass number and atomic number of the unstable nuclei remains the same
during the decay

Gamma decay equation

Neutron Emission

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A small number of isotopes can decay by emitting neutrons.

When a nucleus emits a neutron:
The number of protons does not change: Your notes
The atomic (proton) number does not change
The total number of particles (nucleons) in the nucleus decreases by 1:
The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 1

Exam Tip
It is easy to forget that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus. The two are interchangeable, so don’t
be surprised to see either used in the exam. You are not expected to know the names of the
elements produced during radioactive decays, but you do need to be able to calculate the mass
and atomic numbers by making sure they are balanced on either side of the reaction.

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Decay Equations
Radioactive decay events can be shown using a decay equation Your notes
A decay equation is similar to a chemical reaction equation
The particles present before the decay are shown before the arrow
The particles produced in the decay are shown after the arrow
During decay equations the sum of the mass and atomic numbers before the reaction must be
the same as the sum of the mass and atomic numbers after the reaction for the reaction to exist
The following decay equation shows Polonium-212 undergoing alpha decay
It forms Lead-208 and an alpha particle
An alpha particle can also be written as a helium nucleus (Symbol He)

The polonium nucleus emits an alpha particle, causing its mass and charge to decrease. This means it
changes into a new element

Worked example
A nucleus with 84 protons and 126 neutrons undergoes alpha decay. It forms lead, which has the
element symbol Pb.

Which of the isotopes of lead pictured is the correct one formed during the decay?

ANSWER: A
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
The original nucleus has 84 protons and 126 neutrons

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84 + 126 = 210
The mass number of the original nucleus is 210 Your notes
Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number
The alpha particle emitted is made of two protons and two neutrons
Protons have an atomic number of 1, and neutrons have an atomic number of 0
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the atomic number by 2
84 – 2 = 82
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 82
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
Removing two protons and two neutrons will reduce the mass number by 4
210 – 4 = 206
The new nucleus has a mass number of 206

Worked example
A nucleus with 11 protons and 13 neutrons undergoes beta decay. It forms magnesium, which has
the element symbol Mg.

Which is the correct isotope of magnesium formed during the decay?

ANSWER: D
Step 1: Calculate the mass number of the original nucleus
The mass number is equal to the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
The original nucleus has 11 protons and 13 neutrons
11 + 13 = 24
The mass number of the original nucleus is 24

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Step 2: Calculate the new atomic number

During beta decay a neutron changes into a proton and an electron Your notes
The electron is emitted as a beta particle
The neutron has an atomic number of 0 and the proton has an atomic number of 1
So the atomic number increases by 1
11 + 1 = 12
The new nucleus has an atomic number of 12
Step 3: Calculate the new mass number
Protons and neutrons both have a mass number of 1
Changing a neutron to a proton will not affect the mass number
The new nucleus has a mass number of 24 (the same as before)

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7.1.6 Detecting Radiation

Your notes
Detecting Radiation
It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation
The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured in sieverts (Sv)
One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
It would cause acute radiation poisoning
People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is measured
Radiation can be measured and detected using a photographic film or a Geiger–Müller tube
Photographic Film
Photographic films detect radiation by becoming darker when it absorbs radiation, just like it
does when it absorbs visible light
The more radiation the film absorbs, the darker it is when it is developed
People who work with radiation, such as radiographers, wear film badges which are checked
regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed
To get an accurate measure of the dose received, the badge contains different materials that the
radiation must penetrate to reach the film
These materials may include aluminium, copper, paper, lead and plastic
The diagram shows what a typical radiation badge looks like:

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Your notes

A badge containing photographic film can be used to monitor a person’s exposure to radiation
The badge shows the amount of different types of radiation that the radiographer has been
exposed to
Different areas of the film are exposed to different types of radiation
Alpha radiation is unlikely to be detected at all as it will be absorbed / stopped by the paper
Beta radiation is absorbed by the aluminium
Gamma (or X-rays) affect all areas of the film but the lead will reduce some of the gamma
radiation
Geiger-Müller tube
The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect radiation
Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting machine
This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more radiation the Geiger-
Müller tube is absorbing
Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected

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Your notes

A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

Worked example
A Geiger-Müller tube is used to detect radiation in a particular location. If it counts 16,000
decays in 1 hour, what is the count rate?

Step 1: Identify the different variables

The number of decays is 16 000
The time is 1 hour
Step 2: Determine the time period in seconds
1 hour is equal to 60 minutes, and 1 minute is equal to 60 seconds
Time period = 1 × 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds
Step 3: Divide the total counts by the time period in seconds
Counts ÷ Time period = 16 000 ÷ 3600 = 4.5
Therefore, there are 4.5 decays per second

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Exam Tip
Your notes
If asked to name a device for detecting radiation, the Geiger-Müller tube is a good example to
give. You can also refer to it as a GM tube, a GM detector, GM counter, Geiger counter etc. (The
examiners will allow some level of misspelling, providing it is readable). Don’t, however, refer to it
as a ‘radiation detector’ as this is too vague and may simply restate what was asked for in the
question.

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Background Radiation
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon Your notes
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that humans are exposed to on
Earth
Background radiation is defined as:
The radiation that exists around us all the time
There are two types of background radiation:
Natural sources
Man-made sources

Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment. Radon gas is given off
from some types of rock
Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural sources such as:

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Rocks
Cosmic rays from space
Foods Your notes
Man-made sources of radiation increase the background radiation levels, examples include:
Fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents
Exposure from medical testing
Natural Sources
Radon gas from rocks and soil
Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally in rocks in the
ground
Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
Cosmic rays from space
The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of gamma radiation
Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy cosmic events
Carbon-14 in biological material
All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their systems hence the
amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost constant
Radioactive material in food and drink
Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since they are in
contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a cause for concern
Man-Made Sources
Medical sources
In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
Nuclear waste
While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background radiation, it can be
dangerous for the people handling it
Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons

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Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a nuclear explosion,
such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it would increase Your notes
significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
Nuclear accidents
Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation into the
environment
While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic and render areas
devastated for centuries
Corrected Count Rate
Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory
This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then subtracting this
from readings with the source present
This is known as the corrected count rate

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Worked example
Your notes
A student is using a Geiger-counter to measure the counts per minute at different distances
from a source of radiation. Their results and a graph of the results are shown here.

Determine the background radiation count.

Step 1: Determine the point at which the source radiation stops being detected
The background radiation is the amount of radiation received all the time
When the source is moved back far enough it is all absorbed by the air before reaching the
Geiger-counter
Results after 1 metre do not change
Therefore, the amount after 1 metre is only due to background radiation
Step 2: State the background radiation count
The background radiation count is 15 counts per minute

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