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ECE

MODULE-4 CORE COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Building blocks of a Digital system: Combinational circuits (Half Adder, Full

Adder), Sequential circuits (SR Latch using NAND gates, Flip-Flops [SR, JK, D, T]).

Embedded Systems: Definition of an Embedded System, Embedded systems vs

General Purpose Systems, Application of Embedded Systems, Purpose of Embedded
systems, Characteristics of Embedded systems.

4.1 Combinational Circuits

Logic circuits for digital systems may be combinational or sequential. A combinational

circuit consists of input variables, logic gates, and output variables. Combinational
Logic Circuits are memoryless digital logic circuits whose output at any instant in time
depends only on the combination of its inputs.

Figure 1 – Combinational Circuits

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4.1 Types of Combinational Circuits

In digital electronics, the combinational circuits are important components of digital

systems. Depending on the functions performed, there are various types of
combinational circuits.

Figure 2 – Types of Combinational Circuits

4.1.1 Binary Adders

A binary adder is a combinational circuit that performs the addition of binary digits
or bits. Depending on the design and configuration, there are two types of binary
adders namely, Half Adder and Full Adder.

4.1.2 Half Adder

The half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The
half adder circuit is designed to add two single-bit binary numbers A and B. It is the
basic building block for the addition of two single-bit numbers. This circuit has two
outputs namely, sum and carry.

Figure 3 – Half Adder Block & Circuit Diagram

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Truth Table of Half Adder

Truth table is one that gives the relationship between inputs and outputs of a logic
circuit and explains the operation of the circuit.

Application of Half Adder in Digital Logic

• Half adder is used in ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) of computer processors to

add binary bits.

• Half adder is used to realize full adder circuit.

• Half adder is used in calculators.

• Half adder is used to calculate addresses and tables.

The major drawback of a half adder is that it cannot add the carry obtained from the
addition of the previous stage. To overcome this drawback, full adders are used in
electronic systems.

4.1.2 Full Adder

The main difference between the Full Adder and the previous Half Adder is that a
full adder has three inputs. The same two single bit data inputs A and B as before plus
an additional Carry-in (C-in) input to receive the carry from a previous stage as shown
below.

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Figure 4 – Full Adder Block & Circuit Diagram

In many ways, the full adder can be thought of as two half adders connected together,
with the first half adder passing its carry to the second half adder as shown.

Figure 5 – Full Adder using 2 half adders

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Applications of Full Adder

• Full adders are used in ALUs (arithmetic logic units) of CPUs of computers.

• Full adders are used in calculators.

• Full adders also help in carrying out multiplication of binary numbers.

• Full adders are also used to realize critic digital circuits like multiplexers.

• Full adders are used to generate memory addresses.

• Full adders are also used in generation of program counterpoints.

• Full adders are also used in GPU (Graphical Processing Unit).

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4.2 Sequential Circuit:

A sequential circuit is a logic circuit that consists of a memory element to store history
of past operation of the circuit. Therefore, the output of a sequential circuit depends
on present inputs as well as past outputs of the circuit.

The block diagram of a typical sequential circuit is shown in the following figure

Figure 6 – Block Diagram of Sequential Circuit

A sequential circuit is basically a combination of a combinational circuit and a memory

element. The combinational circuit performs the logical operations specified, while the
memory element records the history of operation of the circuit. This history is then
used to perform various logical operations in future.

The sequential circuits are named so because they use a series of latest and previous
inputs to determine the new output.

4.2.1 Latch

In digital electronics, a latch is an asynchronous sequential circuit that can store 1-bit
information. It is used as the fundamental memory element in digital circuits.

A latch can have two stable states namely, set and reset. The set state is denoted by
the logic 1 and the reset state is represented by the logic 0. Due to these two stable
states, a latch is also known as a bistable-multivibrator. The state of a latch toggles
according to the applied input.

The most important thing to be noted about latches is that they do not have a clock
signal for synchronization. That is why they are called asynchronous sequential
circuits.

Some key characteristics of latches are explained below −

• Latches can store 1-bit of digital information that can be represented using
either logic 0 or logic 1. Thus, the latches are mainly used as memory elements
in digital circuits.

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• Latches have a feedback mechanism that allows them to maintain their current
state as it is until the next input is applied.

• The operation of latches is completely controlled by applied inputs that means

the output of the latch’s updates based on the change in the input signals.

4.2.2 Types of Latches

1. SR Latch – Set Rest

2. JK Latch – Jack Kilby
3. D Latch – Data or Delay
4. T Latch – Toggle

4.2.3 SR Latch

The SR latch is a type of latch which has two input lines designated as S and R. Where,
S represents the Set input and R represents the Reset input. Thus, it is also known as
Set-Reset Latch.

The SR latch has two stable states namely Set state (S) and Reset state (R). The block
diagram of the SR latch is shown in the following figure.

Figure 7 – SR Latch Block Diagram

In the case of SR latch, the S input sets the output Q to 1 and Q' to 0. On the other hand,
the R input sets the output Q to 0 and Q' to 1. In case, when both S and R inputs are
high, the latch is said to be in forbidden state.

The complete operation of the SR latch for different input combinations is described
in the following truth table

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SR latch using NAND gate

Figure 8: SR Latch using NAND gate

Case 1: S’ = R’ = 1 (S = R = 0)

If Q = 1, Q and R’ inputs for 2nd NAND gate are both 1.

If Q = 0, Q and R’ inputs for 2nd NAND gate are 0 and 1 respectively.

Case 2: S’ = 0, R’ = 1 (S = 1, R = 0)

• As S’ = 0, the output of 1st NAND gate, Q = 1 (SET state).

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• In second NAND gate, as Q and R’ inputs are 1, Q’=0.

Case 3: S’ = 1, R’ = 0 (S = 0, R = 1)

• As R’=0, the output of 2nd NAND gate, Q’ = 1.

• In first NAND gate, as Q and S’ inputs are 1, Q = 0 (RESET state).

Case 4: S’ = R’ = 0 (S = R = 1)

When S = R = 1, both Q and Q’ becomes 1 which is not allowed. So, the input condition
is prohibited.

4.3 Flip Flops

A flip-flop is a sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable states that can be
used to store one bit of binary data. Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of
all memory devices.

Types of Flip-Flops

• S-R Flip-Flop

• J-K Flip-Flop

• D Flip-Flop

• T Flip-Flop

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4.3.1 S-R Flip Flop

In the flip flop, with the help of preset and clear when the power is switched ON, the
states of the circuit keep on changing, that is it is uncertain. It may come to set(Q=1)
or reset(Q’=0) state. In many applications, it is desired to initially set or reset the flip
flop that is the initial state of the flip flop that needs to be assigned. This thing is
accomplished by the preset (PR) and the clear (CLR).

Figure 9: Block Diagram of S-R Flip Flop

Given Below is the Operations of S-R Flip Flop

Figure 10 Circuit Diagram of S-R Flip Flop

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• Case 1: Let’s say, S=0 and R=0, then output of both AND gates will be 0 and
the value of Q and Q’ will be same as their previous value, i.e, Hold state.

• Case 2: Let’s say, S=0 and R=1, then output of both AND gates will be 1 and 0,
correspondingly the value of Q will be 0 as one of input is 1 and it is a NOR
gate so it will ultimately give 0, hence Q gets 0 value, similarly Q’ will be 1.

• Case 3: Let’s say, S=1 and R=0, then output of both AND gates will be 0 and 1,
correspondingly the value of Q’ will be 0 as one of input to NOR gate is 1, so
output will be 0 ultimately and these 0 values will go as input to upper NOR
gate, and hence Q will become 1.

• Case 4: Let’s say, S=1 and R=1, then output of both AND gates will be 1 and 1
which is invalid, as the outputs should be complement of each other.

There are several advantages to using an SR flip-flop. Some of them are listed below:

• Simplicity, Speed, Low power consumption, Bi-stable operation

Apart from several advantages, there are some limitations associated with SR flip-
flops. Some of them are listed below:

• Race condition: The SR flip-flop is susceptible to race conditions, which occur

when the output state changes unpredictably due to variations in the timing of
input signals.

• Invalid states: If both the set and reset inputs are activated at the same time,
the SR flip-flop can enter an invalid state where both outputs are high, or both
are low. This can lead to unpredictable behaviour in digital systems.

Applications of SR Flipflop:

• Register: SR Flip Flop used to create register. Designer can create any size of
register by combining SR Flip Flops.

• Counters: SR Flip Flops used in counters . Counters counts the number of

events that occurs in a digital system.

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• Memory : SR Flip Flops used to create memory which are used to store data,
when the power is turned off.

• Synchronous System: SR Flip Flop are used in synchronous system which are
used to synchronize the operation of different component.

4.3.2 D Flip Flop – Data or Delay FF

The D flip flop has two inputs, data and clock input which controls the flip flop. when
clock input is high, the data is transferred to the output of the flip flop and when the
clock input is low, the output of the flip flop is held in its previous state.

Figure 11: Block Diagram of D Flip flop

Figure 12: Circuit Diagram of D FF

Working of D Flip Flop

D flip flop consists of a single input D and two outputs (Q and Q’). The basic working
of D Flip Flop is as follows:

• When the clock signal is low, the flip flop holds its current state and ignores the
D input.

• When the clock signal is high, the flip flop samples and stores D input.

• The value that was previously fed into the D input is reflected at the flip flop’s
Q output.

o If D = 0 then Q will be 0.

o If D = 1 then Q will be 1.
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INPUT OUTPUT STATE

Clock
D Q Q’

LOW x 0 1 No Change

HIGH 0 0 1 Reset

HIGH 1 1 0 Set

• The Q’ output of the flip flop is complemented by the Q output.

o If Q = 0 then Q’ will be 1.

o If Q = 1 then Q’ will be 0.

Advantages of D Flip Flop

• D flip flop is very simple to design.

• The computation speed of D flip flop is very fast compared to other flip flops.

• D flip flop requires very few components to design which makes it simple to
understand.

Disadvantages of D Flip Flop

• D flip flops are glitch prone. When input varies fast, flip flop output may glitch.
Digital circuit glitches are hard to identify and fix.

Application of D Flip Flop

D flip flop is having numerous numbers of application in digital system is described

as follows:

• Memory

• Registers

• Counters

• Synchronous System

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4.3.3 JK Flip-Flop

The JK flip-flop is the form of sequential circuits which are applied as the basic
elements of the digital memory. It is known to be flexible and is applied in different
systems in the digital platform. This JK flip-flop has two input lines J and K, clock line
CLK, clear line CLR as well as preset line PR. Q and Q’ are its two output which are
usually in the opposite state while operating. The JK flip-flop can also be called a
bistable multivibrator since it has two stable steady states.

The JK flip flop diagram below represents the basic structure which consists of Clock
(CLK), Clear (CLR), and Preset (PR).

Figure 13: Block Diagram of JK Flip Flop

Figure 14: Block and Truth Table of JK Flip flop

The working of a JK Flip Flop can be understood by analysing how the inputs J and
K affect the output states:
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o J = 1, K = 0: This condition sets the flip-flop, making Q = 1 and Q' = 0.

o J = 0, K = 1: This condition resets the flip-flop, making Q = 0 and Q' = 1.

o J = 0, K = 0: When both inputs are 0, the flip-flop retains its previous state,
whether it's set or reset.

o J = 1, K = 1: In this case, the flip-flop toggles, meaning if Q = 1, it changes to Q

= 0, and vice versa.

This toggling behaviour is what makes the JK Flip Flop superior to the SR flip-flop,
especially in clocked circuits.

Race Around Condition in JK Flip Flop

The race around condition in a JK Flip Flop occurs when the clock pulse duration is
longer than the propagation delay of the flip-flop, causing the output to toggle
multiple times within the same clock cycle. This can lead to unstable outputs,
especially in high-speed circuits.

The master-slave JK Flip Flop configuration helps eliminate this issue by ensuring that
the inputs are latched and only toggled once per clock cycle. Another way to resolve
this condition is by shortening the clock pulse duration or using edge-triggered flip-
flops.

Advantages of JK Flip Flop

The JK Flip Flop offers several advantages that make it a preferred choice in sequential
logic circuits:

o Elimination of Invalid States

o Toggling Functionality

o Versatility

o Edge-Triggered Configuration

Applications of JK Flip Flop

The JK Flip Flop finds widespread application in various digital electronics systems:

o Counters: Its toggling capability makes it the perfect candidate for use in
binary and decade counters.

o Shift Registers: It is used in sequential circuits where data needs to be shifted

between flip-flops, as in shift registers.

o Memory Devices: It serves as a basic memory element in registers and other

storage devices.

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o State Machines: JK Flip Flops are used in finite state machines, where the
system needs to toggle between states based on inputs.

o Clock Dividers: They can be used to divide the frequency of clock pulses in
clocked circuits.

4.3.4 Toggle Flip Flop

The T flip-flop is also called toggle flip-flop. The T flip-flop is achieved by connecting
the inputs ‘J’ and ‘K’. When T = 0, both AND gates are disabled. Therefore, there is no
change in the output. When T= 1, the output toggles.

The diagram demonstrates the circuit diagram of a T flip-flop.

Figure 15 Circuit Diagram of T flip flop

Figure 16 Truth Table of Edge Triggered T Flip-Flop a) Positive Edge b) Negative

Edge

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The T Flip-Flop has one input. When the input is 1 then its output toggles. The present
state of the flip-flop is Qn then with T = 1, if Qn = 0 then in the next state, the output
of the flip-flop Qn+1 will become 0. And similarly, currently if Qn is 1 then in the next
state, the output will become 0.

With T = 1 input, since the output of the flip-flop toggles at every clock pulse, so it is
known as T flip-flop. When T = 0, then the flip-flop will remain in the same state.

There are numerous applications of T Flip Flop in Digital System, which are listed
below:

• Counters
• Data Storage
• Frequency division
• Shift registers
4.5 Embedded Systems

An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform

a specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software
embedded in hardware devices that helps them function).

Figure 17. Embedded System Block Diagram

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4.5.1 Embedded systems vs General computing systems

A computer is a general-purpose electronic device that is used to perform a wide

range of computing tasks, whereas an embedded system is a specialized computer
that is used to perform one or more specific functions.

General Computing System - A computer is programmed in a way to have ability to

perform the different types of tasks using application software. For computers, several
types of software applications are developed to meet the requirements of different
users and industries.

Some common examples of computers are desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones,

etc. We can use these computing devices for creating documents, web browsing, photo
and video editing, playing games, and many other.

Embedded Systems - An embedded system typically has a limited processing power,

storage capacity, etc. as compared to a normal computer. However, embedded
systems are designed work in real time so that they can respond quickly to the events.

Embedded systems are used in variety of applications, such as consumer electronics,

medical equipment, industrial control systems, automotive systems, etc.

Comparison Between Embedded systems & General computing system

Parameter Computer Embedded System

An embedded system is a
A computer is a general-purpose
specialized computer system
Basic electronic device used to perform
that used to perform one or a
different types of tasks.
few specific tasks.

Computers are used for Embedded systems are used for

Purpose accomplishing general purpose accomplishing specific tasks in
computing tasks. a larger system.

Embedded system is designed

with a microcontroller which
System A computer typically consists of a
consists of a CPU, memory unit,
hardware CPU, storage unit, and I/O units.
and I/O interface on a single IC
chip.

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Embedded systems have

Processing Computers have very high
relatively low processing
power processing power.
power.

Computers have high storage Embedded systems have less

Storage capacity capacity or memory to store data memory capacity as compared
and information on the system. to computers.

Computers are highly versatile Embedded systems are

Versatility computing device that can designed to perform a limited
perform a wide range of functions. number of functions.

Computers are generally larger in Embedded systems are smaller

Size
size. in size than computers.

Computers are more expensive Embedded systems are less

Cost
than embedded systems. expensive.

Embedded systems use a

Operating Computers use a full-featured
specialized operating system to
system operating system to run.
run.

Computers have a human-

Human- Embedded systems generally
machine interface that allows end-
machine have a limited or no human-
users to interact with the
interface (HMI) machine interface.
computer.

For computers, the general-

Software The development of software
purpose development tools can be
development for embedded systems requires
used to develop computer
tools specialized and expert tools.
software.

Embedded systems require

Computers are easily upgradable
Upgradability significant hardware
with new hardware and software.
modification for upgradation.

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Computers are less reliable as Embedded systems are more

Reliability
compared to embedded systems. reliable than computers.

Embedded systems do not

Maintenance & Computers need regular
require much maintenance and
updates maintenance and updates.
updates.

System Computers involve more complex Embedded systems are

complexity system design. comparatively less complex.

Embedded systems are

Real time Computers do not have real-time
purposely designed to operate
constraints constraints.
in real time.

Computers are used for a variety

Embedded systems are used in
of applications, such as word
consumer electronic devices,
Applications processing, web browsing, data
medical devices, industrial
analysis, scientific simulation,
control systems, etc.
communication, etc.

4.5.2 Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few
of the important domains and products are listed below:

(1) Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.

(2) Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge,

microwave oven, etc.

(3) Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder
detection alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fi re alarms, etc.

(4) Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition
systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.

(5) Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia

applications, etc.

(6) Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.

(7) Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.

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(8) Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.

(9) Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital CROs, logic

analysers PLC systems, etc.

(10) Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point
of sales (POS)

(11) Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

(12) Wearable Devices: Health and Fitness Trackers, Smartphone Screen extension for
notifications, etc.

(13) Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IOT)

4.5.4 Purpose of Embedded systems

Embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks:

(1) Data collection/Storage/Representation

(2) Data communication

(3) Data (signal) processing

(4) Monitoring

(5) Control

(6) Application specific user interface

Data Collection/Storage/Representation

✓ Performs acquisition of data from the external world.

✓ The collected data can be either analog or digital
✓ Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and
transmission
✓ The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted
to some other systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted
instantly after giving a meaningful representation.

Data Communication

✓ Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging

from complex satellite communication systems to simple home networking
systems.
✓ Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data
communication.

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✓ Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are typical examples for
dedicated data transmission embedded systems.

Data (Signal) Processing

✓ Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in

applications demanding signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio
video codec, transmission applications etc.

Monitoring

✓ Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer
etc used in Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of
embedded systems for monitoring purpose.

Control

✓ Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control
over some variables according to the changes in input variables
✓ Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and
actuators
✓ Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in
environmental variable or measuring variable
✓ The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the
changes in input variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring
the controlled variable to the specified range

Application Specific User Interface

✓ Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application

✓ Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than general standard UI)
like key board, Display units etc.

4.5.4 Characteristics of Embedded systems.

Following is some of the characteristics of an embedded system that make it different

from a general-purpose computer:

1. Application and Domain specific

2. Reactive and Real time

3. Operation in harsh environment

4. Distributed

5. Small size and weight

6. Power concerns

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1. Application and Domain specific

✓ An embedded system is designed for a specific purpose only.

✓ It will not do any other task. Example: A washing machine can only wash, it
cannot cook
✓ Certain embedded systems are specific to a domain Example: A hearing aid is
an application that belongs to the domain of signal processing.

2. Reactive and Real time

✓ Certain Embedded systems are designed to react to the events that occur in the
nearby environment.
✓ These events also occur real-time. Example: An air conditioner adjusts its
mechanical parts as soon as it gets a signal from its Sensors to increase or
decrease the temperature when the user operates it using a remote Control.
✓ An embedded system uses Sensors to take inputs and has actuators to bring
out the required functionality.

3. Operation in harsh environment

✓ Certain embedded systems are designed to operate in harsh environments like

very high temperature of the deserts or very low temperature of the mountains
or extreme rains.
✓ These embedded systems have to be capable of sustaining the environmental
conditions it is designed to operate in.

4. Distributed

✓ Certain embedded systems are part of a larger system and thus form
components of a distributed system.
✓ These components are independent of each other but have to work together for
the larger system to function properly.
✓ Example. A car has many embedded systems controlled to its dash board. Each
one is an independent embedded system yet the entire car can be said to
function properly only if all the systems work together

5. Small size and weight

✓ An embedded system that is compact in size and has light weight will be
desirable or more popular than one that is bulky and heavy.
✓ Example. Currently available cell phones. The cell phones that have the
maximum features are popular but also their size and weight is an important
characteristic.
✓ For convenience users prefer mobile phones than phablets. (phone + tablet pc)

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6. Power concerns

✓ It is desirable that the power utilization and heat dissipation of any embedded
system be low. If more heat is dissipated then additional units like heat sinks
or cooling fans need to be added to the circuit.
✓ If more power is required then a battery of higher power or more batteries need
to be accommodated in the embedded system.

Questions:

1. Design & implement Full Adder with truth table.

2. Design the full adder using half adders.
3. Write the differences between combinational and sequential circuits.
4. Draw the logic symbol, logic diagram of SR flip flop and explain its operation
using Truth Table.
5. Draw the logic symbol, logic diagram of D flip flop and explain its operation
using Truth Table.
6. Draw the logic symbol, logic diagram of JK flip flop and explain its operation
using Truth Table.
7. Draw logic diagram and truth table of T Flip – Flop
8. Describe Race Around condition and how can it be eliminated.
9. What is an embedded system? Explain the different applications of embedded
systems.
10. Explain the different classifications of embedded systems. Give an example for
each.
11. Explain the various purposes of embedded systems in detail with illustrative
examples.

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