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Chapter 18

D.C generators and motors

Introduction

D.C. motors are similar in construction to d.c. generators. They comprise, basically, of four main parts;

the armature, the field, the commutator, and the brush assembly. The basic construction of a d.c.

machine is shown in Fig.

When the parts are grouped, the d.c. machine can be visualized as consisting of a stator, a rotor, and a

brush assembly. The stator and the rotor are separated by a small air gap. End shields support the rotor

in its central position. Fig. illustrates a typical dismantled d.c. machine.

STATOR :- The stator consists of the yoke (or frame), the core of the main poles, and the field coils.

The main-pole cores are built up of insulated laminations, clamped together and bolted to the yoke. The

field windings, made up of many turns, are wound on the pole cores and are held in position by pole tips.

The pole tips also increase the cross-sectional area of the air gap and thus reduce its reluctance.
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Generally, the yoke supports the field poles and windings, and it forms part of the magnetic circuit. The

main purpose of the stator is to produce a strong magnetic field in which the rotor turns. The field poles

concentrate the magnetic flux lines created by the field windings. The number of field poles is always an

even number with each set consisting of a north and a south pole. The larger the number of field

windings, the smoother the machine runs.

In some small motors, the cores and windings are usually replaced by permanent magnets, but in most

cases, the stator is an electromagnet.

ROTOR :- The rotor (armature) comprises a shaft, the armature core, the amateur windings and the

commutator. The armature core is made of electrical steel laminations. It is cylindrical in shape, with slots

milled into its peripheral surface. The core is press-fitted onto the shaft and held together by end rings.

The armature windings are lodged into the slots, and the ends of the windings are connected to the

commutator segments.

The commutator is an assembly of copper segments press-fitted onto the shaft. The segments are

insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica spacers. The ends of the coils are brought out and

connections between the coils are made at the commutator. One pair of segments is used for each

armature coil. Each segment of the commutator forms the junction between two armature coils, the wires

being soldered into milled slots at the end of each segment. The purpose of the commutator is to provide

an electrical connection between the armature windings and the external circuit. It also facilitates reversal

of the armature current, thereby allowing the armature to produce torque in one direction.

End shields, fitted with ball or roller bearings, are attached to the ends of the frame. The shaft, on which

the armature is mounted, rotates in the bearings. The end shields support the rotor centrally in the stator

field, and allow it to spin freely without making contact with the stator.

The shaft supports the armature and commutator, and provides the means of mechanical power transfer

from the motor to load. It also turns the fan for cooling the machine.

Brushes:- Carbon brushes, held in brush holders, make contact with opposite segments of the

commutator. The brushes serve to provide sliding electrical contact between the external circuit and the

rotating armature. Current enters or leaves the armature by means of the brushes.
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The brush holders are so built (spring-loaded), that the brush pressure is automatically maintained at a

fairly constant value as the brushes wear

D.C. generators

A d.c. generator is also called a dynamo. As in the case of an a.c. generator, an alternating voltage is

induced in the coil. For a d.c. generator, however, the a.c. voltage must be converted so as to give a

voltage output that remains constant in direction. A commutator is used for this purpose. Instead of the

two slip rings, we have one ring split into two halves, called segments, which are insulated from each

other. The two ends of the coil are connected permanently to separate segments. Spring-loaded

brushes slide on the commutator as it spins. A simple d.c. generator is shown in Fig. , and its

direction of rotation is assumed to be anticlockwise.

At the instant shown, side X of the coil is connected by way of one of the commutator segments to brush

A. When the coil is turned through 90 degrees from this position, i.e., to a vertical position, the gaps

between the two sections of the commutator come into contact with the brushes and, momentarily, there

is no electrical contact between the coil and the output terminals. At this instant, also, no voltage is being

induced in the coil. That position is referred to as the “neutral plane” or “neutral position” of the generator.

As the coil is moved beyond this position, side Y is connected to brush A. As the vertical position is

passed, the current in side X reverses; hence the current continues to flow in the same direction in the

load. Brush A, and hence terminal Z, are therefore always connected to the side of the coil that is moving

down. As a result, the polarity of the e.m.f. at the output terminals never changes, and the voltage output

takes the form shown in Fig.

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The output can be considered as a varying direct voltage since it has an average value in one direction,

positive in this case. The process by which the current produced by a rotating coil is made unidirectional

(or by which the coil current is reversed in the case of a motor), is known as commutation. It is the most

important factor on which the success or failure of a d.c. machine depends. The commutator may be

considered as a mechanical rectifier (or an inverter in the case of a motor).

In practice, several equally spaced coils are wound on a soft iron laminated core and are connected to a

multi-segment commutator. Each coil is connected to a pair of commutator segments. The coils are

connected in such a way that the e.m.f.s of the individual coils add together, as in Fig. .

A single pair of brushes is used. In effect, the armature forms a series-parallel circuit. The resultant

voltage for the two positions of the rotor, as shown in Fig. , will be roughly equal, as shown in Fig. .

This arrangement gives a larger and steadier e.m.f. than that produced by a single coil.

Armature Reaction

In the discussions so far, the interaction between the magnetic fields produced by the field windings and

the current-carrying armature windings has been ignored. In fact, when the generator [or motor] is on

load, the two fields do interact. The effect that the magnetic field due to the armature current has on the
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main field is known as armature reaction. As a consequence of armature reaction, the air-gap flux is

distorted. The result is that the magnetic neutral plane is shifted from its central (no-load) position, as

shown in Fig. .

When measured in the direction of rotation, the plane is shifted ahead of the central position in the case of

a generator, and lags behind the central position in the case of a motor. The magnitude of the shift,

denoted by the angle “”, increases with increasing armature current. Further, for maximum voltage at

the terminals, the brushes must be located at the magnetic neutral axis, thus necessitating a constant

shifting of the brush position as the armature current changes.

However, the problem associated with armature reaction is usually overcome by the use of interpoles

(also called commutating poles or compoles). These are small poles fitted between the main poles and

are connected in series with the armature windings in such a way that they produce a changing magnetic

field equal to but opposite that of the armature, thereby cancelling the effect of the armature current. The

polarity of an interpole depends on the direction of rotation and whether the machine is a generator or a

motor. The interpoles are usually fitted with coarse wire and, in the case of a motor, are wound so that

they have the same polarity as the main pole behind them in the direction of rotation, as in Fig. . In

the case of a generator, the interpole must have the same polarity as that of the main pole immediately

ahead.
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The interpoles help reduce sparking at the brushes.

Windings

Electrical machines usually employ windings in which the conductors are laid in slots and distributed over

the circumference of the armature core, as in Fig. .

The winding usually comprise of coils of insulated wire. Each coil may consist of one turn or several

turns. In d.c. machines, the ends of the coils are brought out and connection between the coils is made at

the commutator. The various coils forming the armature winding are connected in such a manner as to

form a series-parallel system, with conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage

rating of the machine, and in parallel so as to share the current. According to the method of connection,

armature windings of commutator machines are classified as lap windings or wave windings, examples of

which are shown in Fig.

The names "lap" and "wave" are derived from the appearance of the end connections. Each coil of the

simple [simplex] lap winding has its ends connected to adjacent commutator segments, and the finish of

one coil is connected at the commutator segment to the start of another. On the other hand, the two ends
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of each coil of a wave winding are bent in opposite directions and taken to commutator segments some

distance away.

Generator types and methods of excitation

D.C. generators are classified according to the manner in which the field windings are connected to the

d.c. excitation source with respect to the armature. Two general possibilities exist: Firstly, the field

winding may be connected to a d.c. source which is electrically independent of the generator, resulting in

a separately-excited generator, as shown in Fig.

Secondly, when a generator supplies power not only to the load, but also to its own field windings, it is

called a self-excited generator. There are three types of self-excited generators, the field windings of

each being connected in a different way. They are the series generator, the shunt generator, and the

compound generator, as shown in Fig.

In the series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. The whole of

the current generated in the armature flows through the series field winding which, therefore, must have a

low resistance (usually a few turns of thick wire).

In the shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding. The shunt

winding is normally designed for a small current (about 2 - 3 percent of the total generated current), and

has a relatively high resistance (usually many turns of small wire). The current generated in the armature
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divides and flow partly through the field winding and partly through the external load circuit. The voltage

available for supplying the load circuit is also the voltage supplying current to the field circuit.

The compound generator has both a series and a shunt field winding, both of which are supplied or

"excited" simultaneously. There are two methods of connecting the field windings of a compound

generator, referred to as short shunt and long shunt respectively, as shown in Fig.

In a short shunt generator, the shunt winding is in parallel with the armature only. In a long shunt

generator, the shunt field is connected in parallel with both the armature and series field.

In order for voltage build up to take place in a self-excited generator, it must have some residual

magnetism. Because of the residual magnetism, the generator is able to generate a low voltage without

any exciting current. The field winding is so connected that the current produced in it will boost the

residual magnetic field, thus making it possible for the generator to become self-excited when started

from rest.

The no-load and load characteristics of generators and motors are usually of great interest in determining

potential applications of these machines. In the case of generators, the no-load characteristic curve (also

called the open-circuit or internal characteristic) is a curve showing the relationship between the field

current and the generated e.m.f. The load, or external, characteristic is the curve showing the

relationship between the terminal voltage and the load current of the generator when running at its rated

speed.

Characteristics of a series generator

Since the armature current flows through the field winding, then an increase in load means an equal

increase in the exciting current. The voltage of the generator will therefore be higher at full load, and

hence the characteristic is a rising curve, as shown in Fig.

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In Fig. , OB represents the open-circuit terminal voltage due to the residual magnetization of the poles.

In practice, the generator speed is kept constant and a rheostat is used to vary the current. However, in

starting, the generator would not excite if the external resistance is too large, and not until the resistance

of the external circuit has been reduced to a relatively low value. When the voltage and current begin to

rise, they do so rapidly.

Characteristics of shunt generators

The characteristics of a shunt generator may be investigated with the aid of Fig. .

Assume initially that switches S1 and S2 are both open, and that the generator is running at rated speed.

Then, due to residual magnetism, an e.m.f. represented by OB in Fig. , will be generated. Provided that

the shunt circuit resistance is low enough, when the switch S1 is closed, a field current will circulate

through the shunt winding and boost the residual magnetic field. The field current will therefore cause an

increase in the generated voltage which, in turn, further increases the field current. This process is

cumulative and the build up continues until a steady-state value is reached, i.e., when the current flowing

through the field circuit is exactly that required to induce the particular value of e.m.f. Further increase in

the field current, and hence the generated voltage, can be achieved by reducing the resistance of the field
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circuit [by reducing R]. Fig. shows the steady-state voltage generated for two values of field resistance,

represented by dashed slanting lines the slope of which is equal to the total field circuit resistance.

Steady state is reached when the lines intersect the curve. Therefore, by changing the rheostat setting,

the operating point at the intersection can be displaced, and the generator can be made to supply

different voltages. In general, a shunt generator will excite only if the poles have some residual

magnetism and the resistance of the shunt circuit is less than some critical value.

In order to investigate the variation of the terminal voltage, VT, with load current, a variable load

resistance is connected to the generator terminals by closing the switch S2. The load current is then

increased gradually by decreasing the load resistance. The result of increasing the load current is a

decrease in the terminal voltage as shown in Fig. , the co-ordinate values of which are given in table

IL 0 5 10 15 20 17.5 15 10 5 3

VT 112 108 100 92 80 48 40 20 8 0

The decrease in the terminal voltage is due mainly to the ohmic [IR] drop in the armature conductors, and

partly to armature reaction, which increases with load. This decreasing voltage means that less voltage

will be available for supplying the shunt field circuit, and the field current decreases. Consequently, the

flux and hence the generated e.m.f. are reduced, thereby causing a further drop in the terminal voltage.

The full-load value represents the maximum value of current that the generator is intended to give out.
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However, if the load resistance is further decreased, the curve slopes down steeper as the current

increases, until the current reaches its maximum value at P. Further reduction in the load resistance

results in a decrease in the load current [the curve bends backwards]. When the load resistance is finally

shot-circuited, the generator gives no output voltage and only a small current due to the e.m.f. generated

on account of the residual magnetism.

While the shunt generator is the type most frequently employed, it must be operated within the limits of its

rated current if excessive variation of the terminal voltage is to be avoided.

Characteristics of a compound generator

Fig. shows a compound generator and its load characteristic.

The terminal voltage of a shunt-wound generator falls as the load increases, whereas the voltage of a

series-wound generator rises with increasing load. By providing magnetic poles with composite windings,

consisting of partly shunt coils and partly series coils, an approximately uniform voltage at all loads may

be obtained. The winding of a compound generator is similar to that of a shunt generator, with the

addition of a comparatively few series turns. The shunt and series windings are usually connected so that

their ampere-turns either assist or oppose each other. Compounding is useful in cases where the

variation in voltage from no-load to full-load should be as small as possible, and the windings are

proportioned to fulfil this condition. With too few series turns, the terminal voltage will fall with increasing

load, and the generator is then said to be under-compounded. The addition of more series turns results

in a constant terminal voltage and the machine is said to be level-compounded. Further increase in the

series turns produces an increase in the terminal voltage at higher loads and the generator is then said to
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be over-compounded. General purpose d.c. generators are shunt-wound or compound-wound and have

a flat load characteristic.

E.M.F. and terminal voltage

Three factors determine the voltage generated by a generator. They are:

1. The number of conductors in the armature winding acting in series.

2. The speed of revolution of the armature.

3. The number of flux lines cut by the armature conductors during each revolution.

The e.m.f. generated by a d.c. generator is given by the equation

where k = a constant depending on the winding and other physical parameters of the generator.

 = flux per pole

N = generator speed

When a current flows through the armature of a d.c. generator, the terminal voltage, VT, is found to be

somewhat less than the generated e.m.f., Eg. The loss of voltage is due mainly to two sources:

1. The voltage drop due to the current throwing through the resistance of the armature conductors, i.e.,

the so-called IA RA drop, where IA is the armature current and RA is the resistance of the armature

windings.

2. The voltage drop due to the resistance between the brush and the commutator, which we may

designate as Vb.

The series field winding, if taken into consideration, will also result in a voltage drop.

The basic equivalent circuit of a generator may be represented as in Fig.

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The terminal voltage is found by subtracting the voltage drops from the generated voltage. Hence, in

general,

In most cases, however, the field drop is neglected. Also, since EG supplies all the voltage drops around

the circuit, we may also write an expression for EG as

It should also be noted that Vb is often neglected as well.

Fig. and Fig. show the circuit diagrams for a series and a shunt generator respectively, together with

some basic relationships associated with the circuits.

Example
A d.c. shunt generator delivers 15 A to a load. The resistance of the armature is 0.15  and the terminal
voltage is 240 V. if the shunt resistance is 150 , calculate the value of the generated e.m.f.

Solution
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Since the voltage across the shunt field is equal to VT, then,

Example
A d.c. shunt generator generates 245 V and supplies a current of 20 A to a load. The armature resistance
is 0.25 . Assuming an armature of 22.5 A, and a brush drop of 2 V, find
(a) the terminal voltage
(b) the shunt resistance

Solution

(a)

(b)

Example
A d.c. shunt generator supplies a 2.5 kW load at a terminal voltage of 240 V. If the armature resistance is
0.3 , and the shunt field resistance is 100 , calculate
(a) the armature current
(b) the generated e.m.f.

Solution
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(a)

(b)

DC motors

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.

The principle of operation of a d.c. motor may be explained with the aid of fig.

When a current is supplied to the coil, the magnetic field produced by the current interacts with the field of

the permanent magnet. The resulting forces cause a torque to develop and the coil begins to rotate. To

keep the coil rotating, a split-ring commutator is used. The direction of motion of the conductor depends

on the direction of the current and that of the magnetic field of the magnet, and can be found by Fleming’s

left-hand rule as follows. With the thumb, first finger, and second finger of the left-hand mutually
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perpendicular, point the first finger in the direction of the field, and the second finger in the direction of the

current in the conductor. Then, the thumb will be pointing the direction in which the conductor will tend to

move.

Applying Fleming’s rule for the instant shown in fig. , the force exerted on side X of the coil will be

directed downwards, while the force exerted on side Y will be directed upwards. The coil, therefore, will

turn in an anti-clockwise sense. The ends of the coil are connected to individual segments of the

commutator, and they all rotate together.

For the instant shown, side X is in contact with brush A, while side Y is in contact with brush B. However,

as the coil rotates the situation changes constantly as shown in Fig.

When the plane of the coil is vertical, the gaps in the commutator make contact with the brushes. Then,

there is no current in the coil and hence no force will be acting on it. However, the inertia of the coil takes

it past this position. When this happens, the two commutator segments switch brushes. Now side Y is in

contact with the brush A, and side X is in contact with brush B. At this point, the current in each coil-side

reverses, and so do their magnetic fields. Thus, as the coil rotates, an alternating current is set up in it,

and the conductor under any given pole carries current in the same direction at all times, thereby causing

the coil to keep rotating in the same direction.

PRACTICAL MOTORS

A single-coil motor is impractical because it has “dead centres”, and the torque developed is pulsating.

Under certain conditions, the simple motor may not start if unaided. This will happen if, by chance, the

motor stopped with the space between the commutator segments in contact with the brushes and the coil

in the neutral plane, where the coil and the magnet have no effect on each other. In such a case, the rotor

will have to be given an initial turn, by hand, to set it in motion.

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In practice, the armature consists of several equally spaced coils, in different planes, connected to a

commutator which has a corresponding number of segments. This arrangement produces a more

powerful, self-starting motor, with an almost constant torque.

In fact, the two fundamental operating characteristics of d.c. motors that make them the choice for some

applications are high torque outputs and good speed control. Examples of uses of d.c. motors include

automobile starters, radio cassette recorders, electric forklifts etc.

TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Like d.c. generators, d.c. motors are classified and named according to how their field windings are

connected with respect to the armature. The relationship can either be a series, a parallel, or a series-

parallel connection. The three basic types of motors are:

1. The series motor

2. The shunt motor

3. The compound motor

For their operation, they differ from the corresponding generator designs in that they have additional

rheostats for starting and speed control. Commutating windings (interpoles) are used to prevent sparking

at the brushes in some d.c. motors.

In the series motor, Fig. , the field is connected in series with the armature circuit. The armature current

passes through the series field winding. Consequently, the winding is wound with a few turns of heavy-

gauge wire.
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In the shunt motor, Fig. , the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. The field winding

is constructed of many turns of fine wire.

The compound motor, Fig. , has both the series and shunt windings.

Like d.c. generators, compound motors may be connected as “long shunt” or “short shunt”.

REVERSAL OF ROTATION

The standard direction of shaft rotation for d.c. motors is counter-clockwise when facing the commutator

end. To obtain the standard direction of shaft rotation, the motor must be connected to the line in such a

way that the current will flow as shown in Fig.

In order to reverse the direction of rotation of a d.c. motor, we must reverse the connections of either the

field windings or the armature winding, but not both. Reversal of both will result in the motor turning in the
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same direction as before. Reversal of the mains supply will also result in rotation in the same direction as

before. The methods of reversing d.c. motors are illustrated in Fig. to Fig. .

Note that for the compound motor, both of the field windings must be reversed. In general, however, the

standard practice is to reverse the current through the armature. If the motor has commutating pole

windings, considered as part of the armature circuit, then, the current through them must also be reversed

when the current through the armature is reversed.

A double pole-double throw (DPDT) switch may be used as a reversing switch, as shown in Fig.
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quivalent circuit and voltage equations

As the amateur rotates in the magnetic field of the stator, an e.m.f. is induced in its conductors.

According to Lenz’s law, the induced e.m.f. opposes the applied voltage. The induced e.m.f. is called the

back e.m.f., or counter e.m.f. The back e.m.f. increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the

armature increases.

The voltage available to produce the current in the circuit equals the difference between the supply

voltage and the back e.m.f., i.e. , where RA is the armature resistance.

However, since an armature current is necessary to produce the required torque, the back e.m.f. can

never be equal to the applied voltage. When the motor is switched on, with the armature at stand still, the

back e.m.f. is zero, initially, and the current is very large due to the low impedance of the coil. However,

as the rotor speeds up, the back e.m.f. increases proportionately, and the current in the armature is

reduced. At full speed, the back e.m.f. usually has a value that is relatively close to that of the supply

voltage.

If the mechanical load increases, the motor will slow down, and the back e.m.f. will decrease. The

reduction in back e.m.f. causes an increase in the current in the armature and, as a consequence, an

increase in power from the source. If the motor were allowed to run under no-load conditions, the back

e.m.f. will reduce the current to a value just enough to overcome energy losses due to heat and fiction.

A motor is usually supplied from an external source. The basic equivalent circuit for a motor may be

represented as in Fig.
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Since the sum of the voltage drops in the circuit is equal to the applied (or supply) voltage, VT, then.

where EB is the back e.m.f. As with the generator, the brush drop Vb is often neglected.

The back e.m.f. can be calculated by subtracting the various voltage drops from the supply voltage.

Therefore,

Fig. and Fig. show the circuit diagrams of the series and the shunt motor respectively, together with

some basic relationships associated with the circuits.

Example
A d.c. series motor takes a current of 10 A from a 120 V supply. If the armature resistance is 0.2 , and
the series field resistance is ignored, find the back emf generated by the motor.

Solution
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From Fig. ,

Example
A shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.025, and a shunt field resistance of 120 . The motor
takes a current of 15 A from a 235 V supply. Assuming a brush drop of 2.5 V, calculate:
(a) the armature current
(b) the back e.m.f. developed by the motor

Solution

(a) From Fig. ,

(b)

Example
Fig. shows the diagram of a d.c. shunt motor
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(a) calculate the supply current

(b) if the back e.m.f. is 145 V, and the brush drop is negligible, find the armature resistance.

Solution

(a)

(b) which gives

TORQUE

Torque is the term used to express the turning effort exerted on the shaft by the motor armature. This

effort is due to the action of the field due to the armature current upon the stator field. The factors that

affect the amount of torque a d.c. motor develops include.

1. The armature current

2. The strength of the magnetic field

3. The radius of the armature

4. The number of armature conductors and their active length

The torque developed by a motor is proportional to the armature current and the strength of the magnetic

field. Therefore,

Where k = a constant depending on the physical construction features of the motor

 = the flux per pole

IA = the armature current

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The torque, therefore, can be controlled by varying the armature current, or by changing the strength of

the magnetic field.

The torque developed by a motor at starting must be adequate to accelerate the motor and its load from

stand still to its rated speed.

SPEED OF A DC MOTOR

The back e.m.f., EB, generated by a motor is given by

Where N is the motor speed in r.p.m.

Also,

Where VT is the terminal voltage and IA RA is the voltage drop across the armature resistance.

Combining the two equations gives

Since IA RA is relatively small, we may write

which implies that a reduction of the field flux will cause the speed of the motor to increase. Conversely,

an increase in the flux will cause the speed to decrease.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

Series motors

The strength of the field flux is proportional to the field current. For a series motor, the entire armature

current flows through the field winding. Therefore, since

, then
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Torque,

Since the armature current at starting is high, the series motor develops a high starting torque. Since the

flux is proportional to the armature current, then the speed of the series motor is inversely proportional to

the armature current. The speed and torque characteristics of a series motor are shown in Fig.

Because the speed increases dramatically with reduction in current, the series motor should never be

operated unloaded. In fact, at no-load the speed may be high enough to destroy the motor. For this

reason, the motor should always be either directly coupled or geared to the load. A belt or chain drive

may fail and cause a potentially dangerous no-load condition.

When the load on a series motor increases the motor slows down. In fact, the speed decreases rapidly

with increase in load. This, however, results in an increase in the current, and hence an increase in

torque. The series motor speed changes rapidly with torque changes.

DC motors are used in industrial applications that require variable speed, high starting torque or both.

They are used in many acceleration and deceleration applications because the motor speed can be

smoothly controlled from zero to full speed. The series motor is suitable for starting heavy connected

loads, eg. cranes, winches, fans, blowers etc.

Shunt motors

The field current and hence the flux of a shunt motor remains relatively constant. The torque, therefore, is

proportional to the armature current and, as such, the characteristic is practically a straight line, as in Fig.

. The torque is weak at low loads but increases with increasing load.
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For D.C. motors, the shunt motor has the lowest starting torque. However, the starting torque is adequate

to start the motor while under full-load. In the shunt motor, the field flux is practically independent of the

amateur current. In addition, the value of IA RA at full-load is negligible. Hence, the speed of a shunt

motor is practically constant, varying very little from no-load to full- load. The drooping effect observed on

the speed curve is due to the IA RA drop, which increases with armature current.

Unlike the series motor, the shunt motor will not exceed a definite speed even when unloaded. However,

the field winding of a shunt motor that is running unloaded should never be opened, because the motor

speed will then increase until the motor destroys itself.

The shunt motor is a constant speed motor, and it is suitable for use where the speed has to remain

relatively constant over a wide range of loads, eg. pumps, lathes, drills etc.

Compound motors

The compound motor combines the operating characteristics of both the shunt and series motors into a

single machine. That is, the high starting torque of the series motor, and good speed control of the shunt

motor. The effect of the series field is weak compared with that of the shunt winding. The series winding

may be connected either to aid the shunt field, resulting in a so-called cumulative compound motor, or to

oppose the shunt field, resulting in a differential compound motor.

The compound motor has a greater starting torque than a shunt motor due to the series winding. Also,

the compound motor does not have the disadvantage of a runaway speed as the series motor. As such,
 27

the compound motor may be operated safely at no-load. As the load is increased, the speed decreases,

and the resulting increase in armature current produces a greater torque.

The characteristics of a compound motor, Fig. , are intermediate between those of the shunt and series

motors.

The exact shapes of the curves would depend on the relative strengths of the series and shunt fields.

Compound motors are used where the load varies and speed control is not required. Applications include

conveyors, elevators, printing presses, crushers, compressors, punch presses, and for other operations

where the load fluctuates, and a constant speed is not essential. They are often used in conjunction with

flywheels.

Fig. shows a comparison of the characteristics of the three types of D.C. motors.

SPEED CONTROL

In practice, it may be necessary to vary the speed of a motor to suit the requirements of the load, and a

suitable speed control method must be adopted. Formula suggests that the speed of a d.c.

motor may be controlled by either of the following ways;

1. By varying the resistance of the armature circuit (resistance control method)

2. By varying the flux (field control method)

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Usually, the speed is altered by using rheostats to vary either the flux or armature current or both.

Resistance control method

A variable resistor, called a controller, is inserted in series with the armature circuit as shown in Fig.

This method affects the motor by varying the voltage at the armature terminals, since the resistance

absorbs a portion of the supply voltage, and thus reduces the armature voltage. This in turn, reduces the

motor speed. Speed control downwards from the rated value results as the armature voltage is reduced.

While this method may be used to vary the speed during short periods, or for special purposes, It has

several disadvantages. A large amount of power is wasted in the resistor, resulting in a decrease in the

efficiency of the motor. Further, the value of the resistance must be changed if the speed of a variable

load is to be kept constant. The main advantage is that speeds from zero upwards to the normal speeds

are easily obtainable.

Field control method

If the supply voltage and the load are kept constant, speed variations can be obtained by altering the

value of the current in the field winding, by using a variable resistor, called a field regulator, as shown in

Fig. .
 29

It is usual to put a regulating resistance in series with the shunt winding of either the shunt or compound

motor. Cutting out the resistance increases the field current, and the motor slows down.

In the series motor, a variable resistor (called a diverter) is placed across the field winding, shunting it.

The exciting current can be decreased by decreasing the diverter resistance, thereby increasing the

motor speed, or vice versa. By proper selection of the variable resistances, speeds up to several times

above the normal speed can be obtained, but speeds below the normal speed are not possible.

MOTOR STARTING

If a stationary motor is connected directly to the supply mains, an extremely high initial armature current

will flow. This is so because the back emf is zero at standstill, and the armature resistance is low. Then

Such a high current will cause severe sparking at the brushes, and may even harm the insulation. To

avoid this dangerous high current at starting, a device called a starter is used. The starter provides a

resistance in the armature circuit at starting, thereby reducing the current to a safe value. However, very

small motors, such as fans may not require a starter. This is so because small motors have a higher

armature resistance and hence a lower starting current. Further, their small moment of inertia allows for

rapid speed build up. Hence, they may be switched directly to the mains without harm.

DC motor starter [face-plate starter]

Fig. shows a basic starting arrangement for a shunt motor, while Fig. represents a regular DC starter.
 30

The basic starter, Fig. , has three terminals, L, F and A. The live wire from the supply is connected to

terminal L, while the shunt field is connected to terminal F, and the armature is connected to terminal A.

To start the motor, the starter handle is moved from the “OFF” position to stud 1. The starting current is

then given by

where VT is the supply voltage, and R is the external resistance.

Since the entire external resistance is in series with the armature, the motor, therefore, starts at low

speed. After a few seconds, the starter handle is moved to stud 2 thereby cutting out some of the

resistance in the armature circuit, and the speed of the motor increases, as does the back emf. After a

next few seconds the handle is moved to the next stud, and so on. By moving the handle through the

various positions, the external resistance is gradually diminished in steps until at the final, or running

position, the resistance is entirely cut out, and the motor runs at normal speed.

In the case of a shunt motor, the field winding should never be open-circuited while the armature receives

current. This is avoided by positioning sector B in such a way that it is the first to make contact with the
 31

handle when switching on, and it energizes the field circuit before the armature is connected through the

resistance. When the handle is in the ‘ON” position, both the armature and the field are connected

directly to the supply.

Generally, the starting process should be done slowly to allow the motor to built speed between each stud

position, while switching off should be done quickly so as to break the current while the motor speed is

still high, and the armature current low.

If the internal connections to the starter terminals A and L are interchanged, then both the armature and

field will be fed through the resistance. This will result in a weakened field at starting, and will cause the

motor to start at a high speed.

While the basic starter may be sufficient for starting purposes, it has some disadvantages which include:

1. It does not protect the motor from overloads.

2. In the case of a power failure while the motor is running, the starter stays in the “ON” position. When

power is restored, the motor will restart automatically, and without any resistance in series with the

armature circuit.

Starter with protective devices:- Regular starters, Fig. , are usually provided with overload and no-

volt release devices, and a spring. The no-volt coil is an electromagnet connected in series with the shunt

field. When energized, it holds the starting handle in “ON” position, but releases it when the current or

mains supply fails. The spring then returns the handle to the “OFF” position, thereby ensuring that the

motor does not restart automatically.

The overload coil is connected in series with the motor, and, therefore, carries the full load current. When

an overload occurs, the overload coil attracts the pivoted lever, P, which bridges the contacts X - X,

thereby short-circuiting the no-volt coil. As a result, the no-volt coil is de-energized and the handle is

released and returned to the “OFF” position

In practical starters, it is usual to vary the external resistance step-by-step. The amount of resistance in

each step is chosen so as to keep the armature current within certain limits ( I1 and I2 in this case). Fig.

shows the armature current and speed pattern for a starter having four resistance steps.
 32

When the handle is moved from the “OFF” position to stud 1, the armature current instantly grows to a

value I1. The handle is kept on stud 1 for a few seconds, to allow the motor to accelerate. A back e.m.f. is

generated, and as it grows, the armature current decreases as indicated by the curve X - Y. When the

current has fallen to some predetermined value, I2, the handle is quickly moved over to stud 2. As the

handle is moved to stud 2, enough resistance is cut out, allowing the motor current to rise once again to

the upper limit I1.

Similarly, as the handle is kept on stud 2 for a few seconds, the speed and the back e.m.f. will increase,

and the armature current again decreases. The operation is repeated until the handle is on stud 5, at

which point, the entire starting resistance is cut out. The motor then continues to accelerate and the

current decreases until a particular speed and current, I, is reached at which the torque developed by the

motor just matches the load, and the motor settles down.

Differences between DC generators and motors

Although the mechanical construction of d.c. generators and motors is very similar, their functions are

different. The function of the generator is to generate a voltage when its conductors are moved through a

magnetic field, while that of a motor is to develop a turning effort, or torque, to produce mechanical

rotation when a voltage is applied to it. A motor rotates as a result of the mutual attraction of the poles of

the armature and that of the field, and consequently in the direction in which the poles attract each other.

The generator armature (or field coils), on the other hand, is driven against the direction in which the field
 33

poles attract it, i.e., in the opposite direction to that in which the current in the armature would make it

rotate as a motor.

The mechanical energy applied to the shaft of a generator is converted into electrical energy which is

delivered to the external load circuit. The generated e.m.f. exceeds the terminal [or line] voltage and the

armature current is in the same direction as the generated emf, as shown in Fig.

For a motor, the electric energy taken from the external source is converted into mechanical energy which

is transferred by the shaft to the driven load. The back e.m.f. is smaller than the line voltage and the

armature current and the back e.m.f. are in opposite direction

DC motors are used mainly in industrial applications that require variable speed control, high torque, or

both. Because their speeds can be closely controlled, they are well suited for applications that involve

smooth acceleration and deceleration.

TROUBLESHOOTING DC MOTORS
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TROUBLE POSSIBLE CAUSE

--- Motor fails to start (a) fuse blown or circuit breaker tripped
(b) starter resistance open circuited.
(c) field winding open circuited.
(d) bad connection on control gear
(e) brushes not making contact with
commutator

--- Fuse blows or CB trips on starting (a) motor overloaded or seized

(b) earth fault or short-circuit in field or
armature circuit.

--- Motor overheats (a) mechanical overload

(b) dust impairing ventilation
(c) worn bearings or insufficient lubrication
(d) defect in armature or field winding.

--- Sparking at brushes (a) brushes worn or stuck in holder

(this can result in burning and pitting of the (b) irregularities or dirt on commutator surface.
commutator surface) --e.g., mica insulation projecting from
commutator., or, high or low commutator
segments.
(c) incorrect brush position.
(d) improper seating of brushes
(e) insufficient brush pressure
(f) mechanical overload
(g) armature or field winding open or shorted.