Unit 1: DC Generators

SYLLABUS:
Principle and construction of DC generators, armature winding, EMF equation, armature
reaction, commutation, inter poles and compensating windings, performance characteristics of
D.C. generators.
*****

DC GENERATOR:

An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a
DC generator. An electrical machine consists of an armature (conductor or winding) and field (a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet).

Principle of DC generator:

The principle of DC generator is electro-magnetic induction. Dynamically EMF induced in

the DC generator (Conductor in motion and magnet stationary).Fleming’s right hand rule is
used to determine the direction of induced EMF in the conductor. EMF induced in the armature
conductors is alternating in nature. AC type of EMF is fed to split rings (also called as
Commutator segments) and converted into DC type of voltage across the brushes. Load
receives DC type of EMF. DC generator loads are resistive loads (Rheostat, Incandescent lamp
load, boiler, electric stove, iron box etc.)

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SIMPLE LOOP DC GENERATOR:

Fig. 1. Simple loop DC generator

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 Fig. 2. Split rings

In Fig. 1, coil ABCD is rotating in magnetic field. End AB of the coil is connected to
segment ‘a’ of the split ring and CD is connected to segment ‘b’ of the split ring. These two
segments are separated by an insulated material (Mica). Two carbon brushes are pressing
segments of spilt ring. Resistive load ML is connected across the brushes. The detailed
construction of split ring is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig 3a. Position of the coil in first half rotation (0 to 1800)

Fig 3b. Position of the coil in next half rotation (1800 to 3600)

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 Fig.4. DC Output EMF (0 to 3600)

In Fig. 3a, the direction of current in the coil is from A to B and in Fig. 3b the direction of
current is from B to A. Similar changes will happen in coil side CD. Hence EMF in coil ABCD is
alternating in nature. But split ring segments ‘a ‘and ‘b’ will change their positions as coil
position changes. Position of brushes and load remains constant. Hence AC EMF is converted
into DC EMF after split ring as shown in Fig. 4. Load always receives DC EMF.

CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR:

Fig. Cut-section of DC Generator

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 Pole

Magnetic frame or Armature Conductor

Yoke

Brush

Commutator

Teeth Slot

Fig. 5. Cross sectional view of Practical DC Generator

1. Magnetic frame or yoke:

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 Fig. 6. Magnetic frame or yoke

Magnetic frame or yoke is shown in Fig. 6. The outer cylindrical frame to which main
poles and inter poles are fixed is called yoke. It also helps to fix the machine on the foundation.
It serves two purposes:
(i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of cast
steel or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties as
compared to cast iron.
2. Pole core and pole shoes:

Fig. 7. Pole core and pole shoes

Pole core and pole shoe is shown in Fig. 7. The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the
magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the following purposes:
(i) They support the field or exciting coils.
(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger cross-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.

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Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations
which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure.
3. Field or exciting coils:

Fig. 8. Field or exciting coil

Field or exciting coil is shown in Fig. 8. Enameled copper wire is used for the
construction of field or exciting coils. The coils are wound on the former and then placed
around the pole core. When direct current is passed through the field winding, it magnetizes
the poles which produce the required flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected in series
in such a way that when current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite
polarity.
4. Armature core:

Fig. 9. Armature core

Armature core is shown in Fig. 9. It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft.
At the outer periphery slots are cut, which accommodate the armature winding. The armature
core, serves the following purposes:
(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.

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(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core,
hence hysteresis losses are produced. To minimize these losses silicon steel material is used for
its construction. When it rotates, it cuts the magnetic field and an EMF is induced in it. This EMF
circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current loss in it. To reduce these losses,
armature core is laminated, in other words we can say that about 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm thick
stampings is used for its construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the other
by varnish layer. Axial air gaps are provided to cool the inner parts of machine.
5. Armature winding:
The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is
known as armature winding. The armature winding acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a
place where one form of power is converted to the other form i.e., in case of generator,
mechanical power is converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical power is
converted into mechanical power. On the basis of connections, there are two types of armature
windings named (i) Lap winding and (ii) Wave winding.
(i) Lap winding:
In this winding, the connections are such that the number of parallel paths is equal to
number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P
parallel, paths; each path will have Z/P conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes
is equal to the number parallel paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and the
remaining (half) are negative.
(ii) Wave winding:
In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are only
two irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if machine has Z armature conductors, there will
be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number of
brushes is equal to two i.e., number of parallel paths.
6. Commutator:

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 Fig. 10. Commutator

Commutator is shown in Fig. 10. It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the
following purposes:
(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through
brushes.
(ii) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional
current in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it converts the alternating
torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action. The
Commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped or dove-tailed shaped hard
drawn copper segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of mica.
The segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut
into the segments. Each armature coil is connected to the Commutator segment through riser.
The sectional view of the Commutator assembly is shown in Fig. 4.7.
7. Brushes:

Fig. 11. Brushes

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 Brushes are shown in Fig. 11. The brushes are pressed upon the Commutator and form
the connecting link between the armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually
made of high grade carbon because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in
powdered form provides lubricating effect on the Commutator surface. The brushes are held in
particular position around the Commutator by brush holders and rocker.
8. Brush rocker:
It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary frame of the
machine with nut and bolts. By adjusting its position, the position of the brushes over the
Commutator can be adjusted to minimize the sparking at the brushes.
9. End housings:
End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings. The
front housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing usually
supports the bearing only.
10. Bearings:

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 Fig. 12. Bearing

Bearing is shown in Fig. 12. The bearings may be ball bearing for small size of machine
or roller bearings for larger size of the machine and these are fitted in the end housings. Their
function is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly
high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.
11. Shaft:
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to
transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core,
Commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.
Armature winding:

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 Fig. 13. Armature winding

Armature winding is shown in Fig. 13. At the outer periphery of an armature core, slots
are cut. In these slots number of conductors are placed which are connected with each other in
proper arrangement forming series–parallel paths depending upon the requirement. This
arrangement of connections is known as armature winding.
TYPES OF ARMATURE WINDING:
(i) Lap winding:
Lap winding connections are shown in the Fig.14. In lap winding, the consecutive coils
overlap each other. The first end of the winding is connected to the one segment of the
commutator, and the starting end of the other coil is placed under the same magnet (different
pole) and joins with the same segment of the commutator.

Fig.14. Lap winding connections

The conductors are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths equals to
the number of poles. Consider the machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there
will be P parallel paths, and each path will have Z/P conductors in series. The number of

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brushes is equivalent to the number of parallel paths. The half of the brush is positive, and the
remaining is negative [Fig. 14 (a)]. The lap winding is mainly used in low voltage, high current
machine applications.

Fig. 14 (a): Diagram showing connection of positive brushes to positive terminal and negative brushes to
negative terminal in lap winding.

The lap winding is mainly classified into two types. They are the Simplex lap winding and
the Duplex Lap winding.
1. Simplex Lap Winding – In this winding, the number of parallel paths ‘A’ is equal to the
number of poles ‘P’ (i.e. A=P).
2. Duplex Lap Winding – In duplex lap winding the number of parallel paths is twice to the
number of poles (A=2P).
(ii)Wave winding:
Wave winding connections are shown in the Fig.15. The one end of the coil is connected
to the starting end of the other coil which has the same polarity as that of the first coil. The
coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is called the wave winding. The conductors
of the wave winding are split into two parallel paths, and each path had Z/2 conductors in
series. The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e., the number of parallel paths. The wave
winding is mainly used in high voltage, low current machines. There are two types of wave
winding. (a) Progressive and (b) Retrogressive wave winding

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 Fig.15. Wave winding

Dummy coils:
While designing wave winding, a particular number of coil-sides are required. To
accommodate these coil-sides, the stemming with particular number of slots are needed which
may not be available with standard armature punching. In such cases, some coil-sides (or
conductors) are placed in the vacant slots. These coil sides are not connected to other coil-sides
of the winding and do not participate in the conversion of power. Such coil-sides or coils are
called dummy coil. These are employed only to make the mechanical balancing of the
armature.
Thus, the coils placed on the armature which do not participate in the conversion of
power but are employed only to make mechanical balancing of the armature are known as
dummy coils.
EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR:
Let,
P = Number of poles of the machine.
Ø= Flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors.
N = Speed of armature in rpm
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature; Flux cut by one conductor= PΦ Wb
Time taken to complete one revolution, t = 60/N second
Therefore average induced EMF in one conductor,

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 P PN
e= =
60 60
N
The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.
Therefore average induced EMF across each parallel path or across the armature terminals,
PN Z
E= *
60 A
or
ZN P
E= * (1)
60 A
For a lap winding A=P and for a wave winding A=2
Equation (1) is called EMF equation of a DC generator in terms of Z,N,Ø,P and A
PROBLEMS ON EMF EQUATION:
1) Calculate the flux in a 4-pole dynamo with 722 armature conductors generating 500 V
when running at 1000 r.p.m. when the armature is (a) lap connected and (b) wave connected
[(a) 41.56 mWb (b) 20.78 mWb]
Solution:
Given: Ø=?, P=4, Z=722, E=500 V, N=1000 r.p.m, A=P (Lap), A=2 (Wave)
ZN P
E= *
60 A
Lap connected:
60 EA 60 * 500 * 4
= = = 0.041..Wb
ZNP 722 * 1000 * 4
Wave connected:
60 EA 60 * 500 * 2
= = = 0.02..Wb
ZNP 722 * 1000 * 4
2) A 4-pole machine running at 1500 r.p.m. has an armature with 90 slots and 6 conductors
per slot. The flux per pole is 10 mWb. Determine the terminal E.M.F. of d.c. generator if the
coils are lap-connected. If the current per conductor is 100 A, determine electrical power.
[135 V, 54 kW]
Solution:

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Given: P=4, N=1500 r.p.m., Slots=90, cond/slot=6, Ø=10mWb, E=?, A=P (lap), A/Z=100 A/cond,
P=?
Cond
Z = Slots * = 90 * 6 = 540
slot
ZN P 540 * 1500 * 0.01 4
E= * = * = 135..V
60 A 60 4
I a = A *100 = 4 *100 = 400 A

P = EI a = 135 * 400 = 54000..W

3) An 8-pole lap-wound d.c.generator has 120 slots having 4 conductors per slot. If each
conductor can carry 250 A and if flux per pole is 0.05 Wb, calculate the speed of the generator
for giving 240 V on open circuit. If the voltage drops to 220 V on full load, find the rated
output of the machine. [600 RPM, 440 kW]
Solution:
Given: P=8, A=P (lap), slots=120, Cond/slot=4, I/Z=250A, Ø=0.05 Wb, N=?, E=240V, V=220 V, P=?
60 EA 60 * 240 * 8
N= = = 600V
ZP (120 * 4) * 0.05 * 8

P = V * I a = 220 * (250 * 8) = 440000..W

4) A wave connected armature of a 2-pole, 200 V generator has 400 conductors and runs at
300 r.p.m. Calculate the useful flux per pole. If the number of turns in each field coil is 1200,
what is the average value of E.M.F. induced in each coil on breaking the field if the flux dies
away completely in 0.1 sec ? [0.1 Wb, 1200 V]
Solution:
Given: P=2, E=200 V, Z=400, N=300 r.p.m., Ø=?, No. of turns in each field coil=Nf=1200, Ef=?,
dt=0.1 sec
60 EA 60 * 200 * 2
= = = 0.1..Wb
ZNP 400 * 300 * 2
Change in flux dΦ=0.1-0=0.1 Wb
d 0.1
Ef = N = 1200 * = 1200..V
dt 0.1

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5) When driven at 1000 r.p.m. with a flux per pole of 0.02 Wb, a d.c. generator has an E.M.F.
of 200V. If the speed is increased to 1100 R.P.M. and at the same time the flux per pole is
reduced to 0.019 Wb perpole, what is then the induced E.M.F. ? [209 V]
Solution:
Given: N1=1000 r.p.m., Ø1=0.02 Wb, E1=200 V, N2=1100 r.p.m., Ø2=0.019 Wb, E2=?
For case-1
ZN11 P
E1 = * (1)
60 A
For case-2
ZN 2 2 P
E2 = * (2)
60 A
Divide (1) by (2)
E1 N
= 1 1
E 2 N 2 2

E1 N 22 200 *1100 * 0.019

E2 = = = 209..V
N11 1000 * 0.02
Armature reaction:
When a DC generator is loaded, a current flows through the armature conductor in the
same direction as that of the induced (or generated) EMF. The armature conductors carrying
current produce their own magnetic field called armature field.
The effect of armature field produced by the armature conductors carrying current on
the main magnetic field is known as armature reaction.
Let us see the effect of armature field on the main magnetic field when the generator is
loaded.

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 Fig.16. Main field produced by main poles

Consider a bipolar generator. At no-load, no current flows through the armature

conductors and the flux distribution in the armature is shown in Fig. 16. The vector OFm
represents the MMF produced by the main field. It is observed that the magnetic neutral axis
(MNA), which is perpendicular to the main field passing through the armature, and the
geometrical neutral axis (GNA) coincide with each other. The brushes (B1 and B2) are always
placed along MNA. Here, brushes are shown as touching the armature conductors directly, but
in reality they touch the commutator segments connected to these conductors.
Geometrical Neutral Axis:
The line passing through the geometrically central point between the two adjacent
opposite magnetic poles is called geometrical neutral axis (GNA).
Magnetic Neutral Axis:
The line passing through the magnetically neutral position between the two adjacent
opposite magnetic poles is called magnetic neutral axis (MNA).

Fig. 17. Field produced by armature conductors

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 When a conductor (or coil) passes through MNA axis, no EMF is induced in the
conductor (or coil). When load is applied to the generator, current (The direction of flow of
current in armature conductors is determined by Fleming’s right hand rule. The direction of
induced EMF and direction of flow of current is the same.)flows through the armature
conductors which sets up armature field as shown in Fig. 17. The vector OFA represents the
MMF produced by the armature field.

Fig.18. Resultant field

This armature flux interacts with the main flux and a resultant flux (OF) is set up in the
armature as shown in Fig. 18. It can be observed that the resultant flux is no longer uniform. It
is rare (becomes weaker) at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first meet during
rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip) and is concentrated
(becomes stronger) at the trailing pole tips. The resultant MMF is shown by the vector OF
which is the vector sum of OFm and OFA. Thus, the MNA is shifted to new position displaced
from its original position by an angle θ. The new position of magnetic neutral axis i.e., the
shifting of axis by an angle θ depends upon the magnitude of load applied on the generator.
Larger the load, larger will be the shift or larger will be the value of angle θ. It means the
shifting of MNA is not constant; it varies and depends upon the magnitude of load applied on
the machine. Moreover, the shift is in the direction of rotation. (In generating action).
As per the new position of MNA, the distribution of armature flux is shown in Fig. 19.
The vector OFAR represents the new position of MMF producing resultant armature field. This
armature field has two component (i) OFC which is perpendicular to the main MMF OFm and

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produces the cross magnetizing effect. (ii) OFD which opposes the main MMF ‘OFm’ and
produces the demagnetizing effect.

Fig. 19. New position of MNA

Thus the armature magnetic field produces following effects:

(i) Demagnetizing effect: which weaken the main magnetic field and changes the flux
distribution such that at trailing pole tips the flux is strengthened and at leading pole tips the
flux is weakened. Using few extra field Ampere-turns demagnetizing effect can be reduced.
(ii) Cross magnetizing effect: which creates a magnetic field in between the two adjacent
opposite poles where brushes are placed for commutation. Using compensating winding cross
magnetizing effect can be reduced.
The above two effects caused by the armature reaction lead to poor commutation
(increases sparking at the brushes or at the commutator surface) and increases iron losses.
COMMUTATION:
In a DC machine, one of the major functions is the delivery of current from the armature
(rotating part) to the external circuit (stationary part) or vice-versa. This operation is conducted
with the help of brushes and commutator. During this operation one of the armature coil
moves from the influence of one pole to the other and consequently the current in this coil is
reversed. While moving from one pole to the other, the coil is short circuited by the brushes
through commutator segments for fraction of a second (say about 1/500 second). This
operation is called commutation.

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 Thus, the process in which a coil is short circuited by the brushes through commutator
segments while it passes from the influence of one pole to the other is called commutation.
In this process the current in the coil is reversed.
The duration for which a coil remains short circuited is called commutation period.
Explanation:
For better understanding, consider a machine having ring winding, a part of which is
shown in Fig. 21(a) to Fig. 21(e). Assume that the width of brush is equal to the width of
commutator segment and the insulation between the segments is very thin (negligibly small).
The current per conductor is Ic and the armature is rotating in such a direction, that coils are
moving from left to right. Let the coil ‘B’ undergoes commutation. Step-wise explanation is
given below:
1. As shown in Fig. 21(a), the brush is in contact with commutator segment ‘a’ and collects
current 2Ic coming equally from both the sides.

Fig.21(a). Commutation process- brush is in contact with commutator segment ‘a’ and collects current 2Ic

2. As the armature is moving, in the first step as shown in Fig. 21(b), the brush contact with
segment ‘b’ starts increasing and contact with segment ‘a’ starts decreasing. Consequently, the
current flowing towards the brush via segment ‘b’ starts increasing and through segment ‘a’
starts decreasing. It may be noted that current in coil ‘B’ decreases from Ic to x.

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Fig. 21(b). Commutation process- the brush contact with segment ‘b’ starts increasing and contact with segment ‘a’
starts decreasing

3. At the next instant, as shown in Fig. 21(c), the brush is at the center of both the segments ‘b’
and ‘a’ and covers half of the area of both the segments. At this instant brush is drawing equal
current (Ic) from both the segments ‘b’ and ‘a’ and its total value is 2Ic. It may be noted that
current in the coil ‘B’ at this instant reduces to zero.

Fig. 21(c). Commutation process- the brush is at the center of both the segments ‘b’ and ‘a’ and covers half of the
area of both the segments. Coil-B is short circuited

4. Further at the next instant, as shown in Fig. 21(d), larger area of segment ‘b’ has come in
contact with the brush than segment ‘a’. Accordingly, brush draws more current (Ic + y) from
segment ‘b’ and draws smaller current (Ic– y) from segment ‘a’. It may be noted that current in
the coil ‘B’ has reversed and starts increasing.

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 Fig. 21(d). Commutation process- larger area of segment ‘b’ has come in contact with the brush than segment ‘a’

5. At the next (final) instant, as shown in Fig. 21(e), the brush completely comes in contact with
segment ‘b’ and draws equal current Ic from both the sides. It may be noted that current in the
coil ‘B’ has totally reversed and obtains its rated value Ic. Thus, the commutation process is
completed for coil ‘B’. The same process continues for the next coils to come (i.e., coil C, D and
so on………..).

Fig. 21(e). Commutation process-the brush completely comes in contact with segment ‘b’

Sinusoidal commutation (Fig. 22(3)results in satisfactory commutation.

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 Fig. 22. Curves for reversal of current

METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION:

Commutation may be improved by employing following methods:
1. Use of high resistance brushes:
High resistance carbon brushes will help the current to be reversed in the coil
undergoing commutation and reduces sparking at the brushes.
2. Shifting position of brushes.
In this method, brushes are shifted to the new position of MNA so that no EMF is
induced in the coil undergoing commutation. Thus, the sparking at the brushes is eliminated.
But in this case, the position of MNA changes with the change in load on the machine and
simultaneously the position of brushes cannot be changed. Hence, this method is employed in
the machine which we do not have interpoles and the load on the machine remain almost
constant.
3. Use of interpoles or commutating poles:
In this method, narrow poles are placed in between the main poles of a DC machine
which re-energized to such an extent that they neutralize the field produced by the armature
under load. Hence, no EMF is induced in the coil which undergoes commutation.
4. Use of compensating winding:

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 In this method, a number of conductors or coils are embedded in the slots provided at
the pole shoe faces and carry current of such a magnitude and direction that field produced by
them neutralizes the armature field and improve commutation.
INTERPOLES AND THEIR NECESSITY:

Fig.22(a). Position of interpoles

Position of interpoles is shown in Fig. 22(a). The narrow poles placed in between the
main poles of a DC machine are called interpoles or commutating poles.
Necessity:

Fig.22(b). Connections of inter pole winding

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 Interpoles are provided in between the main poles of DC machine and are energized to
such an extent that they must neutralize the armature field produced by the armature winding
when machine is loaded. At the same time they must neutralize the EMF induced due to
inductance in the coil undergoing commutation. The windings of these interpoles are
connected in series with the armature but current flowing in them is opposite to the armature
current as shown in Fig. 12(b).
Compensating winding and its necessity:

Fig. 22(c). Compensating winding

An armature reaction produces a demagnetizing and cross-magnetizing effect. The

demagnetizing effect is compensated by incorporating a few extra turns to the main-field
winding, whereas, to neutralize the cross-magnetizing effect, a compensating winding is used.
In this case, a number of compensating conductors or coils are embedded in the slots
of the pole shoes and are connected in series with the armature winding in such a way that
current flowing through these conductors or coils sets up a magnetic field which neutralizes the
cross-magnetizing effect of armature field. This winding is known as compensating winding, as
shown in Fig. 22(c).
TYPES OF DC GENERATORS:
D.C. generators are generally classified according to the methods of their field
excitation. On the basis of these criteria, they can be classified as:
1. Separately excited DC generators
2. Self excited DC generators – these are further classified as:
(i) Shunt wound DC generators

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(ii) Series wound DC generators
(iii) Compound wound DC generators.
(a) Long shunt compound wound generators
(b) Short shunt compound wound generators.
Except the above, there are also permanent magnet type DC generators. In these
generators, no field winding is placed around the poles. These machines have fairly constant
magnetic field. Although these machines are very compact but are used only in small sizes like
dynamos in automobiles etc. The main disadvantages of this machine are that the flux
produced by the magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the
characteristics of the machine.
1. Separately-excited DC generators:

Fig.23. Circuit diagram for separately excited D.C. generator

A DC generator in which current is supplied to the field winding from an external DC

source is called a separately excited DC generator. The flux produced by the poles depends
upon the field current within the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles (i.e., Φ α
If), but in the saturated region, the flux remains constant. Its conventional diagram is shown in
Fig. 23.
Important relations:
Here,
Ia = IL (1)

Where
Ia is armature current and IL is the line current.
Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra Volts

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If contact brush drop per brush (Vb) is known,
V = E g − I a Ra − 2Vb (2)

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
Power developed = Pd = E g I a

Power output = Pout = VI L = VI a

Self-excited DC generators:
A DC generator whose field winding is excited by the current supplied by the generator
itself is called a self-excited DC generator. In a self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be
connected in parallel with the armature, in series with the armature or partly in series and
partly in parallel with the armature winding.
Accordingly, the self-excited generators may be classified as
(i) Shunt wound generators
(ii) Series wound generators
(iii) Compound wound generators.
(i) Shunt wound generators:

Fig.24. Circuit diagram for shunt D.C. generator

In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding
forming a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across the field
winding. A very small current Ish flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine
wire having very high resistance Rsh (of the order of 100 ohm). Its conventional diagram is
shown in Fig. 24.
Important relations:

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 V
Shunt field current, I sh = (1)
Rsh

Where,
Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.
The field current Ish is practically constant at all loads, therefore, the DC shunt machine is
considered to be constant flux machine.
Armature current, I a = I L + I sh (3)

Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra

Including brush contact drop, V = E g − I a Ra − 2Vb (4)

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
Power developed = Pd = E g I a

Power output = Pout = VI L

(ii) Series wound generators:

In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature
winding forming a series circuit. Therefore, full line current IL or armature current Ia flows
through it. Since the series field winding carries full load current, it has a few turns of thick wire
having low resistance (usually of the order of less than one ohm). Its conventional diagram is
shown in Fig. 25.

Fig.25. Circuit diagram for shunt D.C. generator

Important relations:
Series field current, I se = I L = I a (1)

Series field winding resistance = Rse

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Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra − I se Rse = E g − I a ( Ra + Rse )

Including brush contact drop, V = E g − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − 2Vb

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
Power developed = Pd = E g I a

Power output = Pout = VI L = VI a

Note: The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current
flowing through it (i.e., I se ). But it is only true before magnetic saturation, after saturation

flux becomes constant even if the current flowing through it is increased

(iii) Compound wound generators:
In a compound wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole. One
of them is connected in series (having few turns of thick wire) and the other is connected in
parallel (having many turns of fine wire) with armature. A compound wound generator may be;
(a)Long shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the combination of
both armature and series field winding. The conventional diagram of lone shunt compound
generator is shown in Fig. 26.

Fig.26. Circuit diagram for long shunt D.C. generator

Important relations
V
Shunt field current, I sh =
Rsh

Series field current, I se = I a = I L + I sh (1)

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Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra − I se Rse = E g − I a ( Ra + Rse )

Including brush contact drop, V = E g − I a ( Ra + Rse ) − 2Vb (2)

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
Power developed = Pd = E g I a

Power output = Pout = VI L

(b) Short shunt in which the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with only armature
winding. The conventional diagram of short shunt compound generator is shown in Fig. 27.

Fig.27. Circuit diagram for short shunt D.C. generator

Important relations
Series field current, I se = I L

V + I se Rse
Shunt field current, I sh =
Rsh

I a = I L + I sh

Terminal voltage, V = E g − I a Ra − I L Rse

Including brush contact drop, V = E g − I a Ra − I L Rse − 2Vb (2)

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
Power developed = Pd = E g I a

Power output = Pout = VI L

Cumulatively and differentially compound-wound generators:

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 Fig.28. Winding position and direction of flow of current in shunt and series winding

In compound wound DC generators, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series
winding. Generally the shunt field is stronger than the series field. When the series field assists
the shunt field, the generator is called as cumulatively compound wound generator [see Fig.
28(a)]. However, when the series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is known as
differentially compound wound generator [see Fig. 28(b)].
PROBLEMS ON TYPES OF DC GENERATORS:
1) Calculate the flux per pole required on full-load for a 50 kW, 400 V, 8-pole, 600 r.p.m. DC
shunt generator with 256 conductors arranged in a lap-connected winding. The armature
winding resistance is 0.1 Ω, the shunt field resistance is 200 Ω and there is a brush contact drop
of 1 V at each brush on full load. [0.162Wb]
Solution:

Given: Ø=?, Pout=50 kW, V=400 V, P=8, N=600 r.p.m., Z=256, A=P=8 (lap), Ra=0.1 Ω, Rsh=200 Ω,
Vb=1 V

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 V 400
I sh = = = 2.. A
Rsh 200

Pout 50,000
IL = = = 125.. A
V 400
I a = I L + I sh = 125 + 2 = 127.. A

E = V + I a Ra + AVb = 400 + 127 * 0.1 + 8 *1 = 420.7..V

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
60 EA 60 * 420.7 * 8
= = = 0.164..Wb
ZNP 256 * 600 * 8
2) The field and armature resistance of a 4-pole shunt generator with lap connected armature
is 50 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. It is supplying a 2400 W load at a terminal voltage of 100 V.
Calculate the total armature current, the current per armature path and the generated EMF.
[26 A, 6.5 A, 102.6 V]
Solution:
Given: Rsh=50 Ω, Ra=0.1 Ω, P=4, A=P=4 (lap), Pout=2400 W, V=100V, Ia=?,Ia/A=?, E=?
V 100
I sh = = = 2.. A
Rsh 50

Pout 2,400
IL = = = 24.. A
V 100
I a = I L + I sh = 24 + 2 = 26.. A

I a 26
Corrent / Armature.. path = = = 6.5 A
A 4
E = V + I a Ra = 100 + 26 * 0.1 = 102.6..V

3)A short-shunt compound DC generator supplies a current of 100 A at a voltage of 220 V. If

the resistance of the shunt field is 50 Ω, of the series field 0.025 Ω, of the armature 0.05 Ω, the
total brush drop is 2 V, find the generated EMF. [229.72 V]
Solution:
Given: IL=100 A, V=220 V, Rsh=50 Ω, Rse=0.025 Ω, Ra=0.05 Ω, 2Vb=2 V, E=?

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I se = I L

V + I se Rse 220 + 100 * 0.025

I sh = = = 4.45.. A
Rsh 50

I a = I L + I sh = 100 + 4.45 = 104.45.. A

E g = V + I a Ra + I L Rse + 2Vb = 220 + 104.45 * 0.05 + 100 * 0.025 + 2 = 229.72..V

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
4) In a 110-V compound generator, the resistances of the armature, shunt and the series
windings are 0.06 Ω, 25 Ω and 0.04 Ω respectively. The load consists of 200 lamps each rated at
55 W, 110 V. Find the total electromotive force and armature current when the machine is
connected short shunt. Ignore armature reaction and brush drop. [120.3 V, 104.6 A]
Solution:
Given: V=110 V, Ra=0.06 Ω, Rsh=25 Ω, Rse=0.04 Ω, Pout=200*55=11,000 W, E=?,Ia=?, Vb=0
I se = I L

Pout 11000
IL = = = 100 A
V 110

V + I se Rse 110 + 100 * 0.04

I sh = = = 4.56.. A
Rsh 25

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I a = I L + I sh = 100 + 4.56 = 104.56.. A

E g = V + I a Ra + I L Rse = 110 + 104.56 * 0.06 + 100 * 0.04 = 120.27..V

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)
5) A long-shunt, compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500 V and the
resistances of armature, series field and shunt field are 0.05 Ω, 0.025 Ω, and 250 Ω respectively.
Calculate the generated electromotive force and the armature current. Allow 1 V per brush for
contact drop. [505.9 V, 52 A]
Solution:
Given: IL=50 A, V=500 V, Ra=0.05 Ω, Rse=0.025 Ω, Rsh=250 Ω, E=?, Ia=?, Vb=1 V
V 500
Shunt field current, I sh = = = 2.. A
Rsh 250

Series field current, I se = I a = I L + I sh = 50 + 2 = 52.. A

E g = V + I a ( Ra + Rse ) + 2Vb = 500 + 52(0.05 + 0.025) + 2 *1 = 505.9..V

(Note: Number of brushes is equal to number of parallel paths and if the type of winding is not
given then assume number of brushes is equal to two)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATORS:
To determine the relation between different quantities of a DC generator, the following
are the important characteristics of DC generators:
1. No-load characteristics:
It is also known as magnetic characteristics or open-circuit characteristics (O.C.C.). It
shows the relationship between the no-load generated EMF in the armature(E0) and the field
current (i.e., exciting current) (If), at a specified speed.
2.Load characteristics:
Internal and external characteristics are called load characteristics. Both the
characteristics are depending on the load current. Hence these characteristics are called load
characteristics.
2.1. Internal characteristics:
It is also known as total characteristics. It gives the relationship betweenthe EMF
actually induced in the armature (Eg) and the armature current (Ia)
2.2.External characteristics:
It is also called the performance characteristics. It shows the relationship between the
terminal voltage (V) and the load current (IL)
1.No-load characteristics of DC generator or magnetization curve of DC generator:

Fig. 29. Circuit diagram for OCC

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 Fig. 30. No-load characteristic

It shows the relation between the no-load generated EMF in the armature (E0) and the
field current If, at a specified speed. To obtain this characteristic, proceed as follows:
Open the field winding of the generator and connect it to a separate DC source through
a rheostat as shown in Fig. 29. Connect an ammeter in the field circuit and a voltmeter across
the armature. Reduce the field current to zero and run the armature at a specified speed. Get
the reading of voltmeter and mark the point ‘a’ on the graph. To plot the characteristics take
field current If along X-axis and no-load generated EMF (E0) along Y-axis. Increase the field
current in steps and get the corresponding voltmeter readings. Plot these values on the graph.
The curve thus obtained (shown in Fig. 30) shows the no-load characteristics or open circuit
characteristics (O.C.C.) of the generator. Fig. 29Circuit diagram Fig. 30No-load characteristics
Analysis of the curve:
While analyzing the curve, the following points are worth noting:
1. The curve starts from point ‘a’ instead of ‘O’ when the field current is zero. It is because of
the residual magnetism of the poles.
2. The initial part of the curve (ab) is almost a straight line because at this stage the magnetic
material is unsaturated and it has high permeability.
3. After point ‘b’ the curve bends and the generated EMF (E0) becomes almost constant. It is
because after point ‘b’, the poles (magnetic material) start getting saturated.
Critical field resistance of a DC shunt generator:

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 Fig. 31. Critical field resistance

The open circuit characteristics of a DC shunt generator are shown in Fig. 31. The line OX
is drawn in such a way that its slope gives the field winding resistance, i.e.,
OB (in..Volt )
Rsh =
OC (in.. Ampere)
In this case, the generator can build up a maximum voltage OB with a shunt field
resistance Rsh. Line OY represents a smaller resistance. With this resistance, the generator can
build up a maximum voltage OF which is slightly more than OB. If the field resistance is
increased, the slope of the resistance line increases. Consequently, the maximum voltage the
generator can build up at a specified speed, decreases. If the value of Rsh is increased to such an
extent that the resistance line does not cut the no-load characteristics at all (OZ), then itis
apparent that the voltage will not be built-up (i.e., the generator fails to excite).If the resistance
line (OP) just coincides with the slope of the curve, at this value of field resistance, the
generator will just excite. This resistance, given by the tangent to the O.C.C. is called the critical
resistance at a specified speed. Thus, the slope of the tangent drawn on the O.C.C. is called
critical resistance.
Critical resistance of a field winding:
It is that maximum value resistance of a field winding which is required to build-up
voltage in a generator. If the value of field resistance is more than this value, the generator
would not build-up the voltage.
Critical load resistance:

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 The minimum value of load resistance on a DC shunt generator with which it can be in
position to build-up is called its critical load resistance.
Critical speed of a DC shunt generator:
It is the speed of a DC shunt generator at which shunt field resistance will represent the
critical field resistance.
2.Load characteristics of shunt generator:

Fig. 32: Circuit diagram for load characteristic

Fig. 32. External characteristic of shunt DC generator

It is also called external or performance characteristics of shunt generator. It shows
relation between the terminal voltage V on load and the load current IL. To obtain this
characteristic, proceed as follows:
Connect an ammeter A1 and rheostat in the field circuit and an ammeter A2 and
voltmeter V on the load side as shown in Fig. 31. Apply a variable load across the terminals. At
start switch off the load and run the generator at rated speed. No-load EMF (generated voltage
Eg) would appear across the voltmeter. Then switch on the load through switch S and increase
the load gradually keeping field current (ammeter reading A1) constant with the help of

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rheostat Rh. Take the readings of voltmeter V and ammeter A2 at various instants and plot the
curve. The curve so obtained is shown in Fig. 32.
Analysis of the curve:
While analysis the curve, the following points are highlighted:
1. At no-load, the voltage across the terminals isthe maximum and is considered to be equal to
generated EMF Eg.
2. As the load is increased gradually, the load current ILincreases but the terminal voltage
decreases.
The decrease in voltage is because of the following reasons:
(i) Due to increase in voltage drop in the armature resistance (IaRa)
(ii) Due to armature reaction, when load current or armature current Ia increases, the
demagnetizing effect of the armature field increases on the main field which reduced
theinduced EMF, consequently the terminal voltage decreases.
(iii) The drop in terminal voltage further causes decreases in field current. This will, in
turn,causes the decrease in induced EMF which reflects the drop in terminal voltage. However,
the field current can be kept constant by adjusting the rheostat connected in the field circuit.
3. During initial portion of the curve AB, the tendency of the voltage drop due to armature
resistance is more than armature reaction.
4. At point B these two effects neutralize each other.
5. After point B, armature reaction dominates and the curve turns back (BC portion of the
curve), as shown in Fig. 32.
6. The point C at which the external characteristic cuts the current axis corresponds to a gradual
short circuit.
2.Load characteristics of series generators:

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 Fig. 33. Series DC generator-Circuit diagram

Fig. 34. Series DC generator-External characteristic

In this generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature and load
(see Fig. 33).Therefore, full armature current Ia flows through it. When load increases, Ia
increases which increases flux and consequently generated EMF is also increased. This
correspondingly increases the terminal voltage V. Thus, a series generator has a rising
characteristic (curve OA) as shown in Fig. 34. The Fig. 34is the curve between V and IL However,
at higher loads, the terminal voltage begins to reduce because of the excessive demagnetizing
effects of armature reaction. Ultimately, the terminal voltage reduces to zero at load current
OB as shown in Fig. 34.
2.Load characteristics of compound generator:

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 Fig. 35. Compound DC generator: Circuit diagram

There are some applications where constant terminal voltage is essential. At such
places, shunt generator is not suitable, because its terminal voltage decreases with the increase
in load on it. However it can be made suitable for such applications by connecting a few turns in
series with the armature as shown in Fig. 35. The field produced by these series turns will assist
the field produced by the shunt winding. Such generators are known as compound generators.
In such generators when load current increases, the flux increases which increases the induced
EMF This extra induced EMF compensates the voltage drop in the armature resistance and the
demagnetizing effect due to armature reaction. Hence, the terminal voltage V remains
substantially constant.
Degree of compounding:

Fig. 36. Load characteristics of DC compound generator

A cumulatively–compound wound generator is shown in Fig. 35. Its level of

compounding can be changed by varying the amount of current passing through the series field

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winding by connecting a by-pass rheostat Rh. When the field current is adjusted such that the
terminal voltage V on full load remains the same as that on no-load, the generator is called to
be level or flat compounded generator(see Fig. 36).
When the terminal voltage on full-load is more than its terminal voltage at no-load,
the generator is called to be an over compounded generator.
On the other hand, when the terminal voltage on full-load is less than no-load voltage,
the generator is called to be as under compounded generator.
Causes of failure to build-up voltage in a generator:
There may be one or more of the following reasons due to which a generator fails to
build-up voltage:
1. When the residual magnetism in the field system is destroyed.
2. When the connections of the field winding are reversed. This, in fact, destroys the residual
magnetism due to which generator fails to build up voltage.
3. In case of shunt-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the resistance of shunt field circuit may be more than the critical resistance
(ii) the resistance of load circuit may be less than critical resistance.
(iii) the speed of rotation may be below the rated speed.
4. In case of series-wound generators, the other causes may be
(i) the load circuit may be open: it may be due to faulty contact between brushes and
commutator or commutator surface may be greasy or dirty and making no contact with the
brushes.
(ii) the load circuit may have high resistance.
Rectification:
If the generator is not building up because of absence of residual magnetism due to any
reason, the field coils should be connected to a DC source for a small period in order to
magnetize the poles.
APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS:
Depending upon the characteristics of various types of DC generators, their important
applications are given below:

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1. Separately excited DC generators:
Although, these generators are more costly than self-excited generators as they require
a separate source for their field excitation. But their response to the change in field resistance
is more quick and precise. Therefore, these are employed where quick and definite response to
control is important such as in Ward–Leonard system of speed control.
2. Shunt-wound DC generators:
As they provide constant terminal voltage, they are best suited for battery charging.
Along with field regulators, they are also used for light and power supply purposes.
3. Series-wound DC generators:
These generators have very few applications. Their best application is in the DC
locomotives, where they supply field current for regenerative braking. They are also employed
in series arc lighting. Another application of these generators is as series boosters for
increasing DC voltage across the feeders.
4. Compound-wound DC generators
(i) Over-compounded type:
These are more suited for lighting and power services, as they compensate for the
voltage drop in the lines and voltage at the terminals of the load remains constant.
(ii) Differential-compounded type.
They are usefully employed as are welding sets. In such cases, generator is practically
short-circuited every time the electrode touches the metal plates to be welded.
*****

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