ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
Pollution Environments
 Learning content

I. Ecological Concepts

II. Pollution Environments

III. Environmental Management

System
 Midterms

Unit II. Pollution Environments

2.1 Water Environment and Management
2.2 Air Environment and Management
2.3 Solid Waste and Management
2.4 Toxic and Hazardous Waste Treatment
Solid waste and
management
 Midterms
Unit II. Pollution Environments
2.3 Solid Waste and Management
2.3.1 Characteristics of Solid Waste
2.3.2 Solid Waste Management
2.3.3 Solid Waste Collection
2.3.4 Waste as Resources
A. Recycling
B. Composting
2.3.5 Solid Waste Reduction
A. Combustion Processes
B. Types of Incinerators
C. Public Health and Environmental Issues
D. Other Thermal Treatment Processes
2.3.6 Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
C. Solid Waste Byproduct: Leachate
D. Solid Waste Byproduct: Methane and Other Gases
Characteristics of Solid
Waste
 SOLID WASTE and management

❑ Solid waste is a generic term used to describe the things

we throw away. It includes objects the lay audience
commonly calls garbage, refuse, and trash.

❑ The US EPA defines solid waste

✔ as any discarded item that is destined for reuse,
recycle, or reclamation
✔ includes sludges and hazardous wastes
✔ specifically excludes radioactive wastes and in situ
mining wastes
 SOLID WASTE and management

❑ Social customs result in significant variations in the

mass of waste generated.
✔ more frequent collections tend to result in an increase in the
total amount of material collected
✔ increasing use of in-home garbage disposal units tends to
decrease the mass of food waste disposed as MSW
✔ as the extent of usage of packaged and prepared food
increases, so does the mass of packaging waste, whereas the
amount of raw food waste disposed decreases
❑ Studies show wide differences in amounts collected
by municipalities because of differences in climate,
living standards, time of year, education, location,
and collection and disposal practices.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Characteristics of Solid Waste
❑ Solid waste can be classified in several different ways.
The point of origin is important in some cases, so
classification as domestic, institutional, commercial,
industrial, street, demolition, or construction may be
useful.
❑ The nature of the material may be important, so
classification can be made based on organic,
inorganic, combustible, noncombustible, putrescible,
and nonputrescible fractions.
❑ The classification of solid waste is usually used for
choosing the treatment, collection, recycling, and disposal
options.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Characteristics of Solid Waste
Table 1. Sources of Solid Wastes Within a Community
Typical Facilities, Activities, or
Source Types of Solid Wastes
Locations where Wastes are Generated
Food wastes, paper, cardboard,
plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes,
wood, glass, tin cans, aluminum, other
Single family and multifamily detached
metals, ashes, street leaves, special
Residential dwellings, low-, medium-, and high-rise
wastes (including bulky items, consumer
apartments, etc.
electronics, white goods, yard wastes
collected separately, batteries, oil, and
tires), household hazardous wastes
Stores, restaurants, markets, office Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food
Commercial buildings, hotels, motels, print shops, waste, glass, metals, special wastes
service stations, auto repair shops, etc. (see above), hazardous wastes, etc.
Schools, hospitals, prisons,
Institutional As above commercial
governmental centers
New construction sites, road
Construction
repair/renovation sites, razing of Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.
and demolition
buildings, broken pavement
 SOLID WASTE and management
Characteristics of Solid Waste
Typical Facilities, Activities, or Locations
Source Types of Solid Wastes
where Wastes are Generated
Municipal Special wastes, rubbish, street
services Street cleaning, landscaping, catch sweepings, landscape and tree
(excluding basin cleaning, parks and beaches, trimmings, catch basin debris, general
treatment other recreational areas wastes from parks, beaches, and
facilities) recreational areas
Treatment
plant sites; Water, wastewater, and industrial Treatment plant wastes, principally
municipal treatment processes, etc. composed of residual sludges
incinerators
Municipal solid
All of the above All of the above
waste
Industrial process wastes, scrap
Construction, fabrication, light and materials, etc.
heavy manufacturing, refineries, Nonindustrial wastes including food
Industrial
chemical plants, power plants, wastes, rubbish, ashes, demolition and
demolition, etc. construction wastes, special wastes,
hazardous wastes
Field and row crops, orchards, vineyards, Spoiled food wastes, agricultural
Agricultural
dairies, feedlots, farms, etc. wastes, rubbish, hazardous wastes
 SOLID WASTE and management
The composition of MSW varies across the
globe. Composition of MSW depends on
numerous factors, including climate, frequency
of collection, usage patterns of in-home
garbage disposal units, social customs, per
capita income, use and density of food and
other material packaging, recycling patterns
(e.g., implementation of curbside recycling).

The density of solid waste is the mass of solid

waste per unit volume. The density of loose
combustible refuse is approximately 115 kg・
m−3, and the density of collected solid waste is
180 to 450 kg・m−3. In the landfill, compacted
solid waste can have a density ranging from 350
to 500 kg・m−3, and the density of well-
Typical composition of compacted solid waste can range from 600 to
MSW in the US in 2014 750 kg・ m−3. Within a landfill, the density will
(Davis & Masten, 2020) depend on compaction and depth of the waste,
the age of the waste, the composition of the
waste and its moisture content.
 Solid Waste
MANAGEMENT
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Management
The first step in solid waste management is the generation of the waste. Once a
material no longer has value to its owner, it is considered waste. As discussed
earlier, the generation of waste varies by country, socioeconomic status, and as a
result of many other practices.

Once the waste is generated on site, it must be processed in some way. This
processing may include washing, separation, and storage to recycle some portion
of the waste. Public law and education (awareness) significantly affect this step.
Educating the public as to the importance
of recycling will affect this step also.

Collection includes picking up solid wastes and emptying containers into

suitable vehicles for transport. This step also includes the collection of recyclable
material. Collection and transport of waste represents a significant fraction of the
total cost of waste management.

The collected waste can be transferred to a central storage facility or to a

processing facility. If processing occurs, it usually includes mass and volume
reduction, along with separation into the various components that can be reused.
The separated waste may at this point become a valuable commodity. In effect, it is
no longer a waste. The organic portion of the waste can be transformed into heat by
chemical means (usually incineration) or into fuel gas or compost (by biologically
mediated reactions).

The final steps include transport and disposal. The most common means of final
Elements of a solid waste management disposal is landfilling.
system (Davis & Masten, 2020)
Solid Waste
COLLECTION
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Collection
❑ The solid waste collection policies of a city begin with
decisions made by elected representatives about
whether collection is to be made by
1. city employees (municipal collection),
2. private firms that contract with city government
(contract collection), or
3. private firms that contract with private residents
(private collection).
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Collection
❑ Elected officials may also determine what type of solid
wastes are to be collected and from whom.
❑ In some municipalities, the following are not
accepted for general collection: broad classes of
solid wastes (e.g., yard waste); certain materials (e.g.,
tires, furniture, or dead animals); and hazardous
wastes.
❑ The nature of the service may be governed by
limitations of disposal facilities or by the opinion of the
legislative body as to what service should be
performed. Almost all municipal systems collect
residential waste, but only about one-third collect
industrial waste.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Collection
❑ The final decision concerning collection, which is
made by the elected officials, is the frequency of
collection. The proper frequency for the most
satisfactory and economical service is governed by
the amount of solid waste that must be collected and
by climate, cost, and public requests.
❑ For the collection of solid waste that contains
putrescible waste, the maximum period should not be
greater than the normal time for the accumulation of
the amount that can be placed in containers of
reasonable size.
✔ The time it takes for fresh putrescible waste to decay and emit
foul odors under average storage conditions
✔ The length of the fly-breeding cycle, which, during the hot
summer months, is less than 7 days
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Collection
❑ Once policy has been set, the actual method of
collection is determined by engineers or managers.
❑ Major considerations include
✔ how the solid waste will be collected,
✔ how the crews will be managed, and
✔ how the trucks will be routed.
Waste AS RESOURCE
 SOLID WASTE and management
Waste as Resource
A. Recycling
❑ Recycling can also be described as closed-loop or
open-loop.
❑ Closed-loop (or primary) recycling is the use of
recycled products to make the same or similar
products.
✔ glass bottles to make other types of glass bottles
✔ aluminum cans to make new aluminum cans
 SOLID WASTE and management
Waste as Resource
A. Recycling
❑ Secondary recycling is the use of recycled materials
to make new products with different characteristics
than the originals.
✔ milk jugs made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
can be recycled into toys or drainage pipes
❑ Tertiary recycling is the recovery of chemicals or
energy from postconsumer waste materials.
✔ Many electronic companies recover the solvents
used in their manufacturing processes and distill
them for reuse.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Waste as Resource
A. Recycling
❑ At the lowest and most appropriate technological
level, recycled materials are separated at the source by
the consumer (source separation). This is the most
appropriate level because it requires the minimum
expenditure of energy.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Waste as Resource
B. Composting
❑ Composting is the controlled decomposition of organic
materials, such as leaves, grass, and food scraps, by
microorganisms.
❑ The result of this decomposition process is compost, a
crumbly, earthy-smelling, soil-like material.
❑ The material to be composted contains both C and N
sources. A ratio of 30 parts C to 1 part N is necessary
to achieve optimal microorganism growth and energy
production. Odor and other problems can occur if the
carbon to nitrogen ratio is not 30:1.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Waste as Resource
B. Composting
❑ Microbes in the pile create considerable heat and
essentially “cook” the compost.
❑ Temperatures between 25 and 55°C are common in
properly maintained large-scale compost piles.
Backyard compost piles may not reach these levels.
These high temperatures are necessary for rapid
composting as well as for destroying weed seeds,
insect larvae, and potentially harmful bacteria.
Solid Waste
REDUCTION
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
A. Combustion Process
❑ Combustion is a chemical reaction in which the
elements in the fuel are oxidized in the presence of
excess oxygen. The major oxidizable elements in the
fuel, in this case, the solid waste, are carbon,
hydrogen. To a lesser extent sulfur and nitrogen are
also present.
❑ With complete oxidation, the following are oxidized
respectively
✔ C to CO2
✔ H to H2O
✔ S to SO2
✔ N to NOx
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
A. Combustion Process
❑ The combustion reactions are a function of oxygen,
time, temperature, and turbulence.
✔ Excess oxygen must be available to drive the
reaction to completion in a short time.
✔ Sufficient time must be provided for the combustion
reactions to proceed to completion.
✔ Some minimum temperature must be exceeded to
initiate the combustion reaction (i.e., to ignite the
waste).
✔ Mixing of the combustion air and the combustion
gases is essential for the completion of the reaction.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
A. Combustion Process
❑ As the solid waste enters the combustion chamber
and its temperature increases, volatile materials are
driven off as gases. Rising temperatures cause the
organic components to thermally “crack” and form
gases. When the volatile compounds are driven off,
fixed carbon remains. When the temperature reaches
700°C, the carbon is ignited. To achieve destruction of
all the combustible material (burn out), it is necessary
to achieve 700°C throughout the bed of waste and
ash.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.1 Convention (Mass-Fired) Incineration
❑ Mass-fired incinerators are the most common form of
MSW incineration.
❑ These systems can accept refuse that has received
little pretreatment other than the removal of oversized
items, such as kitchen stoves and mattresses.
❑ Local programs for the removal of potentially
hazardous chemicals such as pesticides and other
hazardous household chemicals are necessary to
prevent environmental damage.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.1 Convention (Mass-Fired) Incineration
❑ Because the refuse is generally not pretreated,
although it may have some heat value, it is normally
quite wet and is not autogenous (autogenous: self-
sustaining in combustion) until it is dried.
Conventionally, auxiliary fuel is provided for the initial
drying stages. Because of the large amount of
particulate matter generated in the combustion
process, some form of air pollution control device is
required (normally, electrostatic precipitators).
❑ Bulk volume reduction in incinerators is about 90%.
Thus, about 10% of the material still must be carried to
a landfill.
SOLID WASTE and management

Combustion chambers in a mass-fired incinerator.

(a) Martin grate and (b) Dusseldorf grate. (Davis & Masten, 2020)
SOLID WASTE and management

Cross-sectional drawing of a conventional mass-fired incinerator

(Davis & Masten, 2020)
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disadvantages:

• High Capital Investment

• Public perception and NIMBYism
• Potential air emission
• Ash disposal
• Lower energy conversion
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.2 Refuse-Derived Fuel Facilities
❑ Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) is the combustible portion of
solid waste that has been separated from the
noncombustible portion through processes such as
shredding, screening, and air classifying (Vence and
Powers, 1980). By processing municipal solid waste
(MSW), refuse-derived fuel containing 12–16 MJ· kg−1
can be produced from 55–85% of the refuse received.
This system is also called a supplemental fuel system
because the combustible fraction is typically
marketed as a fuel to outside users (utilities or
industries) as a supplement to coal or other solid fuels
in their existing boilers.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.3 Modular Incinerators
❑ Modular incinerators are usually prefabricated units with
capacities of 4.5 to 107 tons of solid waste per day.
Most of these use a system involving two combustion
chambers. The gases produced in the first chamber
flow to the second chamber where they are burned
more completely. The second chamber often serves
as the only air pollution control device. Other modular
units employ additional air pollution control
equipment and are, thus, able to control emissions as
effectively as mass-burn facilities.
Although many modular units plan to retrofit existing controls to meet more stringent
standards, others will close due to the expense associated with upgrading units to
meet these stringent air emission standards. As a result, interest in modular
incinerators is decreasing.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.4 Fluidized-Bed Incinerators
❑ Fluidized bed incinerators have been used extensively in
Japan and are becoming more common elsewhere
in the world. In a fluidized bed incinerator, sand is
heated to about 800°C by oil or gas. The sand is blown
around, or “fluidized,” in the incinerator by a blower
that sends air from the bottom upward. As the sludge
enters the bottom of the incinerator, the heated
fluidized sand hits the sludge, both breaking it apart
and burning it.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.4 Fluidized-Bed Incinerators
❑ This type of incinerator requires front-end
preprocessing of waste. Glass and metals must be
removed from the refuse to be incinerated. Fluidized
bed incinerators can, however, successfully burn
wastes of widely variable moisture and heat content,
such as paper and wood.
❑ Combustion and heat recovery in fluidized-bed
incinerators are very efficient, and the level of
pollutant emissions is low.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
B. Types of Incinerators
B.4 Fluidized-Bed Incinerators
❑ Fluidized bed systems appear to be more consistent in
their operation than mass-burn incinerators and may
be more effectively operated to control emissions,
reduce residual ash production, and achieve high
energy conversion efficiencies.
❑ Fluidized bed incinerators can co-combust fuels,
meaning that, for example, they can burn municipal
waste with coal or propane. This type of incinerators
appear to be more effective than small sized mass-
burn incinerators.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
C. Public Health and Environmental Issues
❑ The combustion of MSW can result in the emission of
particulate matter, acid gases (SOx, HCl, HF), NOx
(primarily NO and NO2), carbon monoxide, organics,
and heavy metals.

❑ The heavy metals are distributed in the bottom ash, in

fly ash, and in particulate matter released in gases.
Lead and cadmium will be distributed between the
bottom and fly ashes.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
C. Public Health and Environmental Issues
❑ MSW incinerators are the largest single source of
dioxins, furans, and dioxin-like PCBs. The dioxin and
dioxin-like compounds are persistent in the
environment.
❑ When these chemicals enter the aquatic environment,
they pass through the food web and accumulate in
fish, wildlife, and, ultimately, in people.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
C. Public Health and Environmental Issues
❑ Other organic chemicals emitted during the
incineration of plastics include the polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Polystyrenes appear
to yield the highest concentrations of PAHs.
❑ PAHs are of concern because many are known or
potential carcinogens. Because the PAHs are
hydrophobic, they are known to bioaccumulate and
move up the food web.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Solid Waste Reduction
D. Other Thermal Treatment Processes
❑ In addition to incineration, MSW can be processed by
✔ Pyrolysis - the thermal processing of a material in
the absence of oxygen.
✔ Gasification - the partial combustion in which a fuel
is burned with less than a stoichiometric amount of
oxygen.
❑ Both processes convert the solid waste into gaseous,
liquid, and solid fuels. The main difference in the two
systems is that pyrolysis uses an external heat source
to drive the endothermic reactions, whereby
gasification reactions are self-sustaining.
DISPOSAL BY
LANDFILLS
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
❑ Although source reduction, reuse, recycling, and
composting can divert large portions of MSW from
landfill disposal, some waste still must be placed on
land.
❑ As the garbage decomposed, it was unsightly and
foul-smelling and attracted animal vectors (insects,
gulls, rats, and other rodents) considered problematic
to human health because of the diseases they can
carry.
❑ Uncontrolled fires, either set or spontaneously
combusting, beleaguered open dumps.
❑ As rain seeped through the garbage, it carried with it
harmful bacteria and hazardous chemicals into the
groundwater and nearby lakes or streams.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.1 Open dumps
❑ Open Dumps
✔ have the lowest initial capital investment and
operating cost of the three basic types of landfills
✔ generally sited in vacant plots of land and are
typically developed in low-lying marshy lands
✔ may be located adjacent to existing residential
development because of constraints on availability
of suitable land
✔ are often of small size, of limited capacity and pose
high potential environmental risks
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.1 Open dumps
❑ The potential impacts of open dumps include:
✔ surface and groundwater contamination
✔ reduction in flood storage capacity
✔ loss of wetland habitats
✔ attraction of vermin, pests, and scavenging animals
to fresh and exposed waste
✔ risks from water-borne diseases and potential
communicable disease spread by pests
✔ high levels of odor and dust
✔ aesthetically unpleasant due to uncovered waste
✔ distress local resident due to stigma associated with
presence of dump site and loss in property values
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.2 Controlled dump
❑ A Controlled Dump
✔ is a non-engineered disposal site at which MSW is
deposited in accordance with minimum prescribed
standards of site operation
✔ typically have minimal site infrastructure
✔ the first stage in the progression from Open Dumps

In upgrading from Open Dump to Controlled Dump there are

generally no significant investments required in capital works or
equipment purchases; rather, upgrading is concentrated primarily
on improvements to operational and management issues.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.2 Controlled dump
❑ Basic operational controls include:
✔ control over size of waste emplacement (working)
area, with waste spread and compacted in thin
layers in a small working area;
✔ waste outside of the area being actively worked is
covered with soil/sand/inert material, working area
is covered at the end of each day;
✔ covering and seeding/planting of completed
areas;
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.2 Controlled dump
❑ Basic operational controls include:
✔ supervision of site operations by trained staff;
✔ no fires permitted on site; and
✔ organization of informal waste picking activities
with scavenging controlled by agreeing 'rules' with
the waste pickers (i.e., restrictions on location and
time allowed following waste deposition, no
disturbance of waste after it has been covered).
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.2 Controlled dump
❑ The site of a Controlled Dump is generally identified
on the basis of land availability and convenience and
is already being used as an open dump; typically, a
site is not selected on the basis of technical,
environmental or financial criteria. Accordingly, there
is typically little provision for the management of pollutants
released during decomposition of municipal solid
waste. Simple and rudimentary control of pollutants
may be achieved through good site operational
practices and, where feasible, peripheral drainage
works.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
A. Classification of Landfills
A.3 Sanitary Landfill
❑ A sanitary landfill
✔ is an engineered method of disposing of solid
wastes on land in a manner that minimizes
environmental hazards by spreading the solid
wastes to the smallest practical volume and
applying and compacting cover material at the
end of each day
✔ are well-engineered facilities that are located,
designed, constructed, operated, monitored,
closed, cared for after closure, cleaned up when
necessary, and financed to ensure compliance with
federal regulations
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
❑ The degree of site-specific engineering undertaken is
dependent upon several factors, including the
following:
1. waste composition, particularly the presence of
polluting or toxic substances
2. affordability
3. available expertise
4. environmental sensitivity of the site (prevailing
conditions)
5. potential impacts and consequences of landfilling
6. prevailing legislation
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
❑ One of the major sociological issues associated with
landfills is that of environmental justice.
A growing number of persons believe that landfill and other solid
waste-processing operations, such as recycling plants, are
disproportionately located in lower socioeconomic areas and
predominately in communities populated by people of color.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
B.1 Operations
❑ The most used method of operation at sanitary
landfills is called the area method. The area method uses
a three-step process: spreading the waste,
compacting it, and covering it with soil.
❑ In the area method, the solid waste is deposited on
the surface, compacted, then covered with a layer of
compacted soil, called the daily cover, at the end of
the working day. Use of the area method is seldom
restricted by topography; flat or rolling terrain,
canyons, and other types of depressions are all
acceptable.
SOLID WASTE and management

Area method (Davis & Masten, 2020)

 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
B.2 Environmental Considerations
❑ Disease vectors (carriers of disease) should not be a
problem in a properly operated and maintained
landfill. Good compaction of the waste, daily
covering with good compaction of the cover, and
good housekeeping are musts to control flies and
rodents.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
B. Planning and Engineering of Landfills
B.2 Environmental Considerations
❑ Burning, which may cause air pollution, is never
permitted at a sanitary landfill. If accidental fires
should occur, they must be extinguished immediately
using soil, water, or chemicals.
❑ Odors, dust, and wind-blown litter can be controlled
by covering the wastes quickly and carefully, and by
sealing any cracks that may develop in the cover.
❑ Dust can also be controlled by using typical dust
mitigation techniques such as the application of water
or biodegradable oils to the soils being excavated.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
❑ Leachate, liquid that passes through the landfill,
extracts dissolved, and suspended matter from the
waste material.
❑ The liquid enters the landfill from external sources
such as rainfall, surface drainage, groundwater, and
the liquid in and produced from the decomposition of
the waste.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
❑ Solid wastes placed in a sanitary landfill may undergo
several biological, chemical, and physical changes.
✔ Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of the
organic matter results in both gaseous and liquid
end products.
✔ Some materials are chemically oxidized.
✔ Some solids are dissolved in water percolating
through the fill.
✔ The volatile organic chemicals produced by this
decomposition in the landfill gas often contribute to
contamination of groundwater because they
dissolve in the leachate as it passes through the
landfill.
SOLID WASTE and management
Typical Data of the Composition of Leachate from New and
Mature Landfills
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.1 Control of Leachate
❑ To prevent the seepage of leachate from the landfill
and thus, to avoid groundwater contamination, strict
leachate control measures are required.
❑ New landfills must be lined in a specific manner or
meet maximum contaminant levels for the
groundwater at the landfill boundary. The specified
liner system includes a synthetic membrane
(geomembrane).
 SOLID WASTE and management

A composite liner and leachate collection system (Davis & Masten, 2020)
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.1 Control of Leachate
❑ Several geomembrane materials are available,
examples of which include PVC, HDPE, chlorinated
polyethylene (CPE), and ethylene propylene diene
monomer (EPDM). Designers show a strong preference
for PVC and especially for HDPE.
❑ Recently, geosynthetic clay liners have been used as
bottom liners and final covers. These are not as thick
as liners that use compacted clay yet are fast and
easily installed and have low hydraulic conductivities.
The use of bentonite clays allows the liner to be self-
sealing in the event of damage.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.1 Control of Leachate
❑ The soil layer under the geomembrane acts as a
foundation for the geomembrane and as a backup
for control of leachate flow to the groundwater.
❑ Compacted clay generally meets these requirements
✔ hydraulic conductivity of less than 1×10−7 cm· s−1
(low permeability)
✔ free of sharp objects greater than 1 cm in diameter
✔ graded evenly without pockets or hillocks
✔ compacted to prevent differential settlement
✔ free of cracks
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.3 Leachate Treatment
❑ The composition of landfill leachate varies greatly but
is generally highly contaminated with
✔ ammonia
✔ organic contaminants measured as chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and biological oxygen
demand (BOD)
✔ halogenated hydrocarbons
✔ heavy metals
✔ inorganic salts (mainly sodium chloride, carbonate,
and sulfate)
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.3 Leachate Treatment
❑ Leachate must be collected and treated before
discharge.
✔ Leachate from young landfills with large deposits of municipal
waste, for example, will often contain very high
concentrations of ammonia and organic chemicals.
✔ Leachate from old landfills will have high salt concentrations
with distinctly lower ammonia, heavy metals, and organic
chemical concentrations.
❑ Therefore, state-of-the-art leachate treatment plants
should be designed as multistage units that can cope
with the changing leachate characteristics over time.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
C. Solid waste byproduct: Leachate
C.3 Leachate Treatment
❑ In some cases, the collected leachate is sent without
any pretreatment to municipal wastewater treatment
plants, where it is treated along with municipal
wastewater.
❑ In other cases, the collected leachate is pretreated
by chemical flocculation followed by sedimentation
and filtration before it is sent to the municipal
wastewater system.
❑ In other cases, it is necessary to treat the leachate
separately on site before discharge. One such
possibility of a treatment system is to use a two-stage
activated sludge process: nitrification–denitrification
(for ammonia), COD, and BOD removal.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
❑ The principal gaseous products emitted from a landfill
(methane and carbon dioxide) are the result of
microbial decomposition.
❑ During the early life of the landfill, the predominant
gas is carbon dioxide, which is produced from
aerobic decomposition of the waste. During this time
the nitrogen gas concentration is also high.
❑ As the landfill matures, the gas is composed almost
equally of carbon dioxide and methane. In the
methanogenic phase, the concentration of nitrogen
will decrease. Once methanogenesis is complete,
methane generation will cease.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
❑ Methane is explosive in the presence of oxygen when
it is present at concentrations greater than 40%.
❑ Methane release is also a concern because it is a
greenhouse gas and can damage crops planted in
the vicinity of the landfill. As such, its movement must
be controlled.
❑ Landfill gas has sufficient economic value that many
landfills have been tapped with wells to collect and
use methane for energy production.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
❑ More than 150 compounds have been measured at
various landfills. Many of these nonmethane organic
chemicals (NMOC) may be classified as hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs) or volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs). The occurrence of significant VOC
concentrations is often associated with older landfills
that previously accepted industrial and commercial
wastes containing these compounds.
❑ Other emissions may include nitrogen oxides (NOx),
sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride (HCl), and
particulate matter.
SOLID WASTE and management
Typical Constituents Found in MSW Landfill Gas
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.1 Landfill gas Collection
❑ Landfill gas (LFG) collection systems can be active or
passive.
❑ Active systems provide a pressure gradient to force
the gas from the cells. Mechanical blowers or
compressors are used.
❑ Passive systems allow a natural pressure gradient to
build up, which causes the gas to move from the cells
into the collection devices.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.1 Landfill gas Collection
❑ LFG can be purified to produce a gas that can be
recovered for energy generation. Alternatively, open
combustion using flares can be employed to burn off
LFG. Thermal incinerators operate at a sufficiently high
temperature to oxidize the VOCs in the LFG to carbon
dioxide and water. Purification techniques can use
adsorption, absorption, or membranes.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.2 Landfill Closure
❑ The major function of the final cover is to prevent
moisture from entering the finished landfill. If no
moisture enters, then at some time the leachate
production will reach minimal proportions and the
chance of groundwater contamination will be
minimized.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.2 Landfill Closure
❑ Modern final cover design consists of a surface layer,
biotic barrier, drainage layer, hydraulic barrier,
foundation layer, and gas control.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.2 Landfill Closure
❑ Completed landfills generally require maintenance
because of uneven settling.
❑ Maintenance consists primarily of regrading the
surface to maintain good drainage and filling in small
depressions to prevent ponding and possible
subsequent groundwater pollution.
❑ The final soil cover should be about 0.6 m deep.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.2 Landfill Closure
❑ Completed landfills have been used for recreational
purposes, such as parks, playgrounds, or golf courses.
❑ Parking lots and storage areas are other final uses.
❑ Because of the characteristic uneven settling and gas
evolution from landfills, construction of buildings on
completed landfills should be avoided.
 SOLID WASTE and management
Disposal by Landfills
D. Solid waste byproduct: Methane and other gases
D.2 Landfill Closure
❑ On occasion, one-story buildings and runways for
light aircraft might be constructed.
❑ In such cases, it is important to avoid concentrated
foundation loading, which can result in uneven
settling and cracking of the structure.
❑ The designer must provide the means for the gas to
dissipate into the atmosphere and not into the
structure.
 references
Part 3. Solid Waste and Management
[1] RA 9003. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000.
[2] DENR Administrative Order 1998-49. Technical Guidelines for Municipal Solid Waste
Disposal.
[3] DENR Administrative Order 2001-34. Implementing Rules and Regulations of
Republic Act 9003 (Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000)
Thank you!