Computer Networks Lab Assignment

Transmission Media
Objective:
To identify and differentiate between various types of transmission media used in
networking.

Definition: Transmission media is the physical medium through which data is transmitted
from one device to another within a network. These media can be wired or wireless. The
choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article,
we will discuss the transmission media. In this article we will see types of transmission
media in detail.
A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is
the path along which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:
Guided Media
Guided media, also known as wired or bounded media, refers to physical transmission paths
in which the data signals are transmitted along a specific pathway, typically through a
physical medium like a cable.
The signals are directed and confined within these physical boundaries, making guided
media suitable for communication in limited geographical areas where speed, reliability,
and security are essential.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cables are the most commonly used type of guided media for voice and data
communication.
Twisted Pair Cables consist of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other to
minimize interference from external sources and crosstalk between adjacent pairs of
cables.
There are two main types of twisted pair cables:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): This type of cable does not have a shielding layer,
making it more vulnerable to external interference. UTP is commonly used in telephone and
Ethernet networks.

Advantages of UTP:
● Low cost and widely available.
● Simple and quick to install.
● Suitable for short-distance communication.

Disadvantages of UTP:
● Susceptible to external interference, especially in noisy environments.
● Limited to shorter distances compared to other types of cables.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP cables have a shielding layer (usually foil or braided
copper) that helps protect the cables from external interference. These are used in
environments where higher data rates and more secure transmission are needed.

Advantages of STP:
● Provides better protection against interference and crosstalk.
● Can handle higher data transmission rates.

Disadvantages of STP:
● More expensive than UTP.
● More dif icult to install due to its rigidity and complexity.

2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are another type of guided media used primarily in television networks and
broadband internet connections.
The structure of coaxial cables includes a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer plastic covering.
This layered design provides excellent protection against external noise and interference,
making coaxial cables suitable for high-frequency applications.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables:

● High bandwidth and low signal loss.
● Provides good protection against noise and interference.
● Easy to expand the network by adding additional cables.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables:

● Expensive for long-distance communication.
● Bulky and harder to install in con ined spaces.
● A single point of failure can affect the entire network.

3. Optical Fiber Cable

Optical fibre cables are the most advanced type of guided media, using light pulses to
transmit data at incredibly high speeds.
These cables are made of thin strands of glass or plastic that carry light signals, making
them ideal for long-distance communication and high-bandwidth applications.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Extremely high bandwidth, capable of transmitting massive amounts of data.
● Immune to electromagnetic interference, making them suitable for environments with
high levels of electrical noise.
● Lightweight and capable of long-distance communication without significant signal loss.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

● Expensive to install and maintain.
● Fragile and prone to damage if not handled carefully.
● Dif icult to splice and repair if damaged.

Unguided Media
Unguided media, also known as wireless or unbounded media, refers to transmission paths
where electromagnetic signals are transmitted through the air without the need for physical
cables.
This type of media is used for wireless communication over long distances and in areas
where installing cables is impractical or impossible.
There are three types of Unguided Transmission Media:

1. Radio Waves
Radio waves are the most widely used form of unguided media, primarily because they can
travel long distances and pass through solid objects like buildings.
Radio waves are commonly used in broadcasting, such as AM/FM radio, television, and
mobile communications.
Advantages of Radio Waves:
● Can be generated easily and travel long distances.
● Ideal for broadcasting over wide areas.
● Can penetrate buildings and other obstacles.

Disadvantages of Radio Waves:

● Prone to interference from other signals and environmental factors.
● Less secure because the signals can be intercepted by unauthorized users.

2. Microwaves
Microwave communication uses high-frequency radio waves for point-to-point
communication.
Microwaves are widely used in mobile communication systems, satellite networks, and data
transmission between buildings or long distances.
Microwave communication systems require a clear line of sight between the transmitting
and receiving antennas, making them vulnerable to interference from physical objects like
mountains or buildings.
They offer high-speed data transmission and are widely used for long-distance telephone
communication and internet backhaul.

Advantages of Microwave Communication:

● Supports high-speed data transmission.
● Suitable for long-distance communication.
● Can handle large volumes of data traf ic.

Disadvantages of Microwave Communication:

● Requires precise alignment of antennas for clear line-of-sight transmission.
● Affected by weather conditions like rain and snow, which can degrade signal quality.

3. Infrared Communication
Infrared (IR) communication is a short-range wireless technology commonly used in
remote controls, wireless keyboards, and other small personal devices.
Infrared signals travel in straight lines and cannot penetrate walls or other solid objects,
which limits their range but also makes them more secure from external interference.

Advantages of Infrared Communication:

● Immune to interference from other radio signals.
● Provides a secure connection for short-range communication.
● Commonly used in personal electronic devices and home automation systems.

Disadvantages of Infrared Communication:

● Limited range and cannot pass through walls or obstacles.
● Requires line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver.
 Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is a form of wireless communication that uses satellites to transmit
signals between two or more Earth stations.

This type of communication is used for global telecommunications, television broadcasting,

internet access in remote areas, and GPS navigation systems.

Transmission Media Application

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Local Area Networks (LAN), telephones
(UTP)

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Industrial networks, environments with high interference

Optical Fiber Cable Long-distance communication, internet backbones

Coaxial Cable Cable TV, broadband internet, CCTV

Strapline Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), microwave circuits

Microstrip line Antennas, satellite communication, RF circuits

Radio Wireless communication, AM/FM radio, mobile phones

Infrared Remote controls, short-range communication

Transmission Media Application

Microwave Satellite communication, radar, long-distance links

Satellite communication offers the advantage of providing coverage over large areas,
including remote or rural regions where traditional communication infrastructure is
unavailable.
However, it is expensive to deploy and maintain and can suffer from long latency due to the
distance that the signals must travel between the Earth and the satellite.

Advantages of Satellite Communication:

● Provides global coverage, making it ideal for long-distance communication.
● Can be used in remote or inaccessible areas where traditional communication
infrastructure is not available.

Disadvantages of Satellite Communication:

● High cost of deployment and maintenance.
● Signal latency due to the long distances between the Earth and satellites.
● Weather conditions such as heavy rain can degrade signal quality.

Applications of Transmission Media in Computer Networks

Transmission media in computer networks are used to connect devices and transfer data.
Here are some common applications:
Switching Techniques
Objective:
To understand the operation of different switching techniques: circuit switching,
packet switching, and message switching.

Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a
network, or from one network to another, using specific devices called switches. A
computer user experiences switching all the time for example, accessing the Internet from
your computer device, whenever a user requests a webpage to open, the request is
processed through switching of data packets only.
Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. This means that after the
generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is the immediate next process in
data communication.

Introduction to Switch
 A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and helps multiple devices
share a network without their data interfering with each other.
 A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a data packet arrives,
the switch decides where it needs to go and sends it through the right port.
 Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the switch, like
computers or VoIP phones. Other packets come from devices connected through
hubs or routers.
 The switch knows which devices are connected to it and can send data directly
between them. If the data needs to go to another network, the switch sends it to a
router, which forwards it to the correct destination.

What is Network Switching?

A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process of switching
i.e., incoming data packets and transferring them to their destination. A switch works at
the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets
from a source computer or network and decides the appropriate port through which the
data packets will reach their target computer or network.
A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its
destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A switch does this effectively by
maintaining a switching table, (also known as forwarding table). A network switch is more
efficient than a network Hub or repeater because it maintains a switching table, which
simplifies its task and reduces congestion on a network, which effectively improves the
performance of the network. Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one
device to another in a network, or from one network to another, using specific devices
called switches. A computer user experiences switching all the time for example, accessing
the Internet from your computer device, whenever a user requests a webpage to open, the
request is processed through switching of data packets only.

Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. This means that after the
generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is the immediate next process in
data communication.
Introduction to Switch
 A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and helps multiple devices
share a network without their data interfering with each other.
 A switch works like a traffic cop at a busy intersection. When a data packet arrives,
the switch decides where it needs to go and sends it through the right port.
 Some data packets come from devices directly connected to the switch, like
computers or VoIP phones. Other packets come from devices connected through
hubs or routers.
 The switch knows which devices are connected to it and can send data directly
between them. If the data needs to go to another network, the switch sends it to a
router, which forwards it to the correct destination.
What is Network Switching?
A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process of switching
i.e., incoming data packets and transferring them to their destination. A switch works at
the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. A switch primarily handles the incoming data packets
from a source computer or network and decides the appropriate port through which the
data packets will reach their target computer or network.
A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help of its
destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A switch does this effectively by
maintaining a switching table, (also known as forwarding table). A network switch is more
efficient than a network Hub or repeater because it maintains a switching table, which
simplifies its task and reduces congestion on a network, which effectively improves the
performance of the network.

The switching process involves the following steps:

 Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a computer
connected to its ports.
 MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data frame and
collects the destination MAC Address from it.
 MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC Address, it
performs a lookup in its Switching table to find a port that leads to the MAC Address
of the data frame.
 Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch matches the
destination MAC Address of the frame to the MAC address in its switching table, it
 forwards the data frame to the respective port. However, if the destination MAC
Address does not exist in its forwarding table, it follows the flooding process, in
which it sends the data frame to all its ports except the one it came from and records
all the MAC Addresses to which the frame was delivered. This way, the switch finds
the new MAC Address and updates its forwarding table.
 Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch sends the data
frame to that port and forwards it to its target computer/network.

Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
 Message Switching
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
o Datagram Packet Switching
o Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Let us now discuss them individually:

Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has become obsolete. In
message switching technique, the entire data block/message is forwarded across the
entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.
Message Switching
Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the
source and destination beforehand. This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the
network until the data is transferred completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the
entire network, instead of its destination only.

Circuit Switching
Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller
components, data frames, or packets. These data frames are then transferred to their
destinations according to the available resources in the network at a particular time.
This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet. Here, each data
frame contains additional information about the destination and other information required
for proper transfer through network components.

Packet Switching
Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is taken as
an individual entity and thus, they are processed separately. Here, no connection is
established before data transmission occurs. Although this approach provides flexibility in
data transfer, it may cause a loss of data frames or late delivery of the data frames.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical connection
between the source and destination is made before transmitting any data. These logical
connections are called virtual circuits. Each data frame follows these logical paths and
provides a reliable way of transmitting data with less chance of data loss.
The switching process involves the following steps:
 Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a computer
connected to its ports.
 MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data frame and collects
the destination MAC Address from it.
 MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC Address, it
performs a lookup in its Switching table to find a port that leads to the MAC Address
of the data frame.
 Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch matches the
destination MAC Address of the frame to the MAC address in its switching table, it
forwards the data frame to the respective port. However, if the destination MAC
Address does not exist in its forwarding table, it follows the flooding process, in
which it sends the data frame to all its ports except the one it came from and records
all the MAC Addresses to which the frame was delivered. This way, the switch finds
the new MAC Address and updates its forwarding table.
 Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch sends the data
frame to that port and forwards it to its target computer/network.
Addressing in Networks
Objective:
To understand the structure and function of IP addressing and MAC addressing
in computer networks.

A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that share common or

different resources provided on or by network nodes. This sharing or communication
between the machines is governed by some set of rules or network protocols. These
computers or machines are identified by network addresses and may have hostnames.

Introduction to Network Address

A Network Address is a logical or physical address uniquely identifying a host or a machine
in a telecommunication network. A network may also not be unique and can contain some
structural and hierarchical information of the node in the network. Internet protocol (IP)
addresses, Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, and telephone numbers are some basic
examples of network addresses. It can be of numeric type symbolic or both in some cases.

Network Address

Network Addressing
It is the prime responsibility of the network layer to assign unique addresses to different
nodes in a network. As mentioned earlier they can be physical or logical but primarily they
are logical addresses i.e. software-based addresses. The most widely used network address
is an IP address. It uniquely identifies a node in an IP network. An IP address is a 32-bit long
numeric address represented in a form of dot-decimal notation where each byte is written
in a decimal form separated by a period. For example, 196.32.216.9 is an IP address where
196 represents first 8 bits, 32 next 8 bits and so on. The first three bytes of an IP address
represents the network and the last byte specifies the host in the network. An IP address is
further divided into sub classes:

Class A
An IP address is assigned to those networks that include large number of hosts.
 The network ID consists of 8 bits.
 The host ID consists of 24 bits.
In Class A, the network ID is determined by the remaining 7 bits, while the first bit in higher
order bits of the first octet is always set to 0.
There are a total of 27 networks in Class A, which equals 128 network addresses.
224 – 2 = 16,777,214 host addresses make up the entire number of hosts in Class A.

Class A

Class B
An IP address is assigned to networks range from small sized to large sized.
Class B networks are those that range in size from small to large networks and are given an
IP address.
 There are 16 bits in the Network ID.
 There are 16 bits in the host ID.
In Class B, the network ID is determined by the remaining 14 bits, with the higher order bits
of the first octet always set to 10. The Host ID is found in the remaining 16 bits.

There are 214 networks in Class B, which equates to 16384 network addresses.
Class B

Class C
An IP address is assigned to networks that are small sized.
 There are 24 bits in the Network ID.
 The host ID consists of 8 bits.
In Class C, the network ID is determined by the final 21 bits, with the higher order bits of the
first octet always set to 110. The host in a network is identified by its eight bits, or host ID.
There are 221 networks in all, which equals 2097152 network addresses.
There is a total of 28 – 2 = 254 host addresses.

Class C

Class D
IP address is reserved for multicast address and does not possess subnetting. Multicast
addresses are assigned a reserved IP address in Class D. It is a empty part of subnetting. In
every network, the host ID is determined by the remaining bits, with the higher order bits of
the first octet always set to 1110.

Class D

Class E
An IP address is used for the future use and for the research and development purposes and
does not possess any subnetting. An IP address is utilized in Class E for research and
development or future use. There is no subnetting on it. In every network, the host ID is
determined by the remaining bits, with the higher order bits of the first octet always set to
1111.

Class E
An IP address is divided into two parts:
1. Net ID: represents the number of networks.
2. Host ID: represents the number of hosts.
 Norms to assign Network ID
 For the hosts located in the same network, share the same network ID.
 It cannot start with 127 as 127 is used exclusively by Class A.
 If all the bits of the network ID are set to 0, it could not be assigned as it specifies a
particular host on the local network.
 If all the bits of the network ID are set to 1, it could not be assigned as it is reserved
for multicast address.

Norms to assign Host ID

 It must be unique within any network.
 If all the bits of the host ID are set to 0, it could not be assigned as it is used to
represent the network ID of the IP address.
 The Host ID with all the bits set to 1 are reserved for multicast address.

Classful Network Addressing

Number
NET ID HOST ID of Addresses
Class Leading Bits Bits Bits Networks per Network Range

0.0.0.0 to
A 0 8 24 27 224
127.255.255.255
 Number
NET ID HOST ID of Addresses
Class Leading Bits Bits Bits Networks per Network Range

128.0.0.0 to
B 10 16 16 214 216
191.255.255.255

192.0.0.0 to
C 110 24 8 221 28
223.255.255.255

Not Not Not 224.0.0.0 to

D 1110 Not defined
defined defined defined 239.255.255.255

Not Not Not 240.0.0.0 to

E 1111 Not defined
defined defined defined 255.255.255.255
Networking Devices
Objective:
To study different networking devices such as hubs, switches, routers, and
access points.

Network devices are physical devices that allow hardware on a computer network to
communicate and interact with each other. Network devices like hubs, repeaters, bridges,
switches, routers, gateways, and brouter help manage and direct data flow in a network.
They ensure efficient communication between connected devices by controlling data
transfer, boosting signals, and linking different networks. Each device serves a specific role,
from simple data forwarding to complex routing between networks. In this article, we are
going to discuss different types of network devices in detail.

Functions of Network Devices

 Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
 Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
 Network devices improve network speed and manage data flow better.
 It protects the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
 Expand the network range and solve signal problems.

Common Types of Networking Devices and Their Uses:

Network devices work as a mediator between two devices for transmission of data, and
thus play a very important role in the functioning of a computer network. Below is some
common network devices used in modern networks:
  Access Point
 Modems
 Firewalls
 Repeater
 Hub
 Bridge
 Switch
 Routers
 Gateway
 Brouter
 NIC

Access Point

An access point in networking is a device that allows wireless devices, like smartphones and
laptops, to connect to a wired network. It creates a Wi-Fi network that lets wireless devices
communicate with the internet or other devices on the network. Access points are used to
extend the range of a network or provide Wi-Fi in areas that do not have it. They are
commonly found in homes, offices, and public places to provide wireless internet access.
Modems
Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to
convert digital signal into analog signals of different frequencies and transmits these signals
to a modem at the receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the
cable systems, telephone lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also used to
convert an analog signal back into digital signal. Modems are generally used to access the
internet by customers of an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
Types of Modems
There are four main types of modems:
 DSL Modem: Uses regular phone lines to connect to the internet but it is slower
compared to other types.
 Cable Modem: Sends data through TV cables, providing faster internet than DSL.
 Wireless Modem: Connects devices to the internet using Wi-Fi relying on nearby
Wi-Fi signals.
 Cellular Modem: Connects to the internet using mobile data from a cellular
network not Wi-Fi or fixed cables.

Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls the flow of data between
your computer or network and the internet. It acts as a barrier, blocking unauthorized
access while allowing trusted data to pass through. Firewalls help protect your network
from hackers, viruses, and other online threats by filtering traffic based on security rules.
Firewalls can be physical devices (hardware), programs (software), or even cloud-based
services, which can be offered as SaaS, through public clouds, or private virtual clouds.
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend
the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal
becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors
connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations.
Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
the collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have
the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.

Types of Hubs
 Active Hub: These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a
wiring centre. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub: These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and
boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub: It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables
an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure
each port in the hub.

Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also
used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It typically connects
multiple network segments and each port is connected to different segment. A bridge is not
strictly limited to two ports; it can have multiple ports to connect and manage multiple
network segments. Modern multi-port bridges are often called Layer 2 switches because
they perform similar functions.

Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges: These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted
from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges
make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges: In these bridges, routing operations is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover
 the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads
through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.

Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as
it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the
correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but
the broadcast domain remains the same.

Types of Switch
 Unmanaged Switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do
not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or
for use as an expansion to a larger network.
 Managed Switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such
as VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart Switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized
networks.
 Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI
model and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same
network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model
and can route data between different network segments. They are more advanced
than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks.
 PoE Switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows
them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are faster
than traditional Ethernet speeds.
 Rack-Mounted Switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server
rack and are suitable for use in data canters or other large networks.
 Desktop Switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in a small
office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-mounted switches.
 Modular Switches: These switches have modular design that allows for easy
expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and data canters.

Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and
have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing
the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
Gateway
A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one
system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol
converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex
than switches or routers.

Brouter
It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of both bridge and
router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer. Working as a router, it is
capable of routing packets across networks and working as a bridge, it is capable of filtering
local area network traffic.

NIC
NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the computer to
the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique ID that is
written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an
interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC is a layer 2 device which
means that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the network model.