Computer Networking

Networking
• An interconnected collection of autonomous
computers
• A computer network is a set of two or more
interconnected computers and other devices
which are able to communicate with each other
and share hardware and software.
 Advantages
• Resource sharing
• Cost saving
• Collaborative user interactions
• Time saving
• Increased storage
Disadvantages
• It comes with the risk of security
issues
• It encourages people to become
dependent on computers
• Network are able to share data and
other resources
• They are able to communicate them
self
 Transmission media

• It is a medium of data transfer over a network.

• It can be wired or wireless
• wired Media
– Which is used transfer the data over a network with the help of cables
– Twisted pair
– Co- axial(coax)
– Optical Fiber
• Wireless media
– Transmission of waves take place in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum
– Radio
– Microwave
– Infrared
 Wired media
• Twisted pair
– Widely used cable for creating small networks
– It contains four twisted pairs covered in an
outer shield.
– These pairs are colour coded
– Eg : RJ-45
– It is again two types :
• UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair)
• STP(Shielded Twisted Pair)
UTP
• The unshielded twisted pair cable is a Guided
Transmission Media, which is used for
transmitting both data and voice.
• UTP is also useful for LAN technologies, such as
Ethernet, security cameras, telephony system etc.
• Characters
– It is low cost cable for setting up small n/w
– easy to deploy(installation)
– It can carry data up to a length of 100m at a
stretch
 STP
• The shielded twisted pair cable is a Guided Transmission Media ,
which is quite expensive than unshielded twisted pair cable.
• Shielded cable is less prone to noise.
• STP encases each pair of insulated conductors with a metal foil. To
prevent the electromagnetic noise, and eliminate cross talk, the
casing is useful.
• Characteristics
– Shielded Twisted Pair Cable are more expensive than
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
– less susceptible to noise.
– Offers better Immunity against internal and external
electromagnetic interferences.
– Difficult to install
• Advantages :
1. It is capable of carrying a signal over long distances without
amplification.
2. It is simple, low weight, easy to install and easy to maintain.
3. It is an adequate and least expensive medium for low speed (up
to 10 mbps) applications where the distance between the nodes is
relatively small.
• Disadvantages:
1. It can easily pick up noise signals.
2. Being thin in size, it is likely to break easily.
3. It is unsuitable for broadband applications.
Co –axial
• Coaxial cable is a group of wrapped and insulated wire line
• They transmit data at higher rates. Coax has a central core
conductor.
• It consists of solid wire cores surrounded by one or more foil or
wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator
• The inner core carries the signal and the shield provides the
ground. It has high electrical properties and is suitable for high
speed communication.
• It is widely used for television signals and also by large
corporations in building security systems. Multi channel
television signals can be transmitted around metropolitan areas
at considerably less cost.
Characteristics
• It can carry data for a larger distance at stretch (185-500m)
• Less susceptibility to electromagnetic field
• Bulkier and less flexibility then twisted pair
• Its difficult to install as compared to twisted pair
• It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps)
• broadband communication i.e. several channels can be
transmitted simultaneously.
• These cables can be used for small n/w.
The two most common types of cables are
Thicknet and Thinnet.
Whereas thicknet is thicker and its cable segments can
be up to 500 metres long
the thinnet on the other hand is thinner and it can have a
maximum segment length of 185 metres.
• Advantages
1. Data transmission characteristics are better than
that of twisted pair.
2. It can be used for broadband communication i.e.
several channels can be transmitted
simultaneously.
3. It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps)
4. It can be used as the basis for shared cable
network.
Disadvantages
1. It is expensive as compared to twisted pair
cables.
Optical fiber cable
• These consists of thin strands of glass or glass like
material which are so constructed that they carry
light from a source at one end of the fiber to a
detector at the other end they are arranged in
bundles called optical fiber.
• Data transmit through light signals
• The data to be transmitted is modulated onto a light
beam using frequency modulation techniques. At
the receiver's end, the signals are demodulated.
• The light sources used are either light emitting
diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes (LDs).
 The Optical fiber consists of three layers
Core
Cladding
Protective/buffer coating
Core - glass or plastic through which the light travels
Cladding - covering of the core that reflects the light back to
the core
Protective (Buffer) coating-protects the fiber cable from
hostile environments
These optical fibers are arranged in bundles of hundreds and
thousands are protected by the cables covering called jacket.
 Characteristics
• It can carry data for a very large distance at a
stretch
• Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields
• Skilled people are required to install optical fibers
• Most efficient cable for computer network
• Most expensive
• Advantages
1. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
2. It guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission
capacity.
3. It can be used for broadband transmission where several channels
can be handled in parallel.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to install and maintain since they are quite fragile.
2. It is most expensive of all cables.
3. Connecting two fibers together or even connecting the light source
with the cable is a difficult process. Hence connection loss is a
common problem
 Wireless Transmission Media
• Wireless or unbounded or unguided media transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.
• The signals are broadcasted through air or water
• Frequency of wave are measured in Hertz(Hz).
• Frequency of electromagnetic waves changes, based on
their frequency electromagnetic waves are categories
– Radio waves
– Micro waves
– Infrared radiations etc…
 Radio waves
• Radio wave transmission, certain radio frequencies are allocated to
private/government organizations for direct voice communications.
• Each radio signal uses a different frequency and this differentiates it from
others. It ranges from 3 KHz to 3 GHz.
• The transmitter takes some message, encodes it and then transmits it
with radio wave. The receiver on the other hand receives the radio waves
and decodes it
• Both the transmitter and the receiver use antennas to radiate and
capture the radio signal.
• These are used for communication over distance ranges from few meters
• These are easy to generate.
• These can travel long distance and can penetrate buildings
• E.g.: Walkie-talkies, cordless phones, FM radios, etc…
 Characteristics
• These waves are Omni-directional
• Relatively expensive than wired media
• It offers ease of communication over different
terrains
• Transmission can be interfered by motors or other
electrical equipment's
• Permission from concerned authorities
• Less secure mode of transmission.
• Advantages
1. It is easy to communicate through radio waves in difficult
terrains since there is no need of digging and laying cables.
2. Radio waves can travel through long distances. Also they can
easily pass through obstacles like a building so they can be
used for both indoor and outdoor communication.
Disadvantages
2. It is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunderstorm
etc.
2. Data transmitted through radio waves is not secure.
 Micro waves
• These waves uses high frequency radio signals to transmit data
through space.
• Like radio waves, microwaves can pass through obstacles
buildings, mountains etc..
• A transmitter and receiver of a microwaves system are mounted
on very high towers and both should be visible to each other
• Several repeaters are required for long distance transmission
• Used for long distance telephonic communication
• Data transmission rate 16 Giga bits per second
• They travel in straight lines ,therefore the sending and receiving
antennas to be aligned with each other
 Characters
• Free from land acquisition rights
• Inexpensive than wired media
• Offers ease of communication over difficult terrains
• Transmission is in straight so the transmission
receiving antennas to be aligned properly
• Advantages
1. Microwave transmission does not require the expense of laying cables
2. It can carry 25000 voice channels at the same time.
3. Since no cables are to be laid down so it offers ease of communication over
difficult terrains like hilly areas.
Disadvantages
4. Signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and so require
amplification. To overcome this problem, repeaters are used at regular
intervals (25-30 kms). The data signals are received, amplified and then
retransmitted. This makes it a very expensive mode of communication
5. Installation and maintenance of microwave links turns out be a very
expensive affair.
6. The transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorms
etc.
 Infrared waves
• Remember VIBGYOR spectrum of light you will also recall
that red light has lowest frequency ( 400 THz to 484 THz)
• Frequency 300 GHz to 400 THz
• These waves used in short range communication (5m) in
variety of wireless communication
• Infrared communication requires a transceiver
( combination of transmitter and receiver ) in both devices
• It is playing an important role in wireless data
communication
• Easy to build but do not pass through solid objects
 Characteristics
• It is a line of sight transmission
• No government license required
• At a time only two devices can communicate
• Wave do not cross any solid object in between
• Performance drops with longer distance
• Advantages
1. Since it is having short range of communication
hence it is considered to be a secure mode of transmission.
2. It is quite inexpensive transmission medium.
Disadvantages
1. It can only be used for short range communication
2. Infrared wave transmission cannot pass through
obstructions like walls, buildings etc.
 Bluetooth
• Uses radio waves in the frequency ranges 2.402
GHz to 2.480 GHz
• Used for short range communication (10m)
• E. g : baby monitor , door openers , cellphones
• It is based on ad-hoc technology knows as ad-hoc
pico nets
•
 Characteristics
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not
required
• It can connect eight devices simultaneously
• Slow data transfer rate (1mbps)
• Advantages
– Low power consumption
– Range better than infrared waves
– Used for voice and data communication
– Pass through walls
– Low cost
– Low interference compared with other technology
• Disadvantages
– Security
– Bandwidth is low as compared with wifi
– More battery usage
 Satellites
• They can carry a large amount of data in addition to TV signals.
• Satellite communication is a special use of microwave transmission system
• Data transmits using satellite then it is said to be satellite comm.
• A satellite is placed precisely at 36000 km above the equator where its orbit
speed exactly matches the earth's rotation speed. Hence it always stays over the
same point with respect to the earth
• This allows the ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed point in the sky.
• The ground station consists of a satellite dish that functions as an antenna and
communication equipment to transmit (called Uplink) and receive (called
Downlink) data from satellites passing overhead.
• Typical data transfer rates are 1 to 10 Mbps
• Satellites are especially used for remote locations, which are difficult to reach
with wired infrastructure
• Also communication and data transfer on internet
• Advantages
– Covers vast range of area(e.g., satellites used for national transmission
are visible from all parts of the country).
– Mode of transmission useful for multimedia transmission
– Transmission and reception costs are independent of the distance
between the two points.
• Disadvantages
– Very costly(Placing the satellite into its orbit involves very high cost)
– Not preferred for low budget comm
– Since signals sent to a satellite are broadcasted to all receivers, so
necessary security measures have to be taken to prevent unauthorized
tampering of data
– Transmission is affected by weather conditions like rain, thunderstorm etc
 Types of networks
• Network can span any amount of geographical area
• It can on a table , in room , in a building , in a country,
across continents
• On the bases of area covered computer networks are
classified as
– PAN (Personal Area Network )
– LAN (Local Area Network )
– MAN(Metropolitan Area Network )
– WAN(Wide Area Network )
 PAN
• It is network of communicating devices
• Involves computer , cellphone or handheld
computing device such as PDA
• It is in proximity of an individual (Organized around
an individual person )
• Used to transfer files , photos and music
• It can be set up by using guided(USB) or unguided
media(Bluetooth/Infrared)
• its connections range is less than 10 meters
 LAN
• It is a network of communicating devices in room , building , or
campus
• Private owned network within single building or campus ( by single
person or organization )
• In building it can be single LAN or containing few small LANs
• Linked to the hundreds of computers used by thousands of people
• Communicate each other by sending mails or engaging in chat
sessions
• LAN can be set up using wired media ( UTP , Co-axial etc..) or
wireless ( Infrared , radio waves)
• It connects network few meters to few kilometer radius.
• If LAN set by using unguided media is know as Wireless LAN(WLAN)
 MAN
• Bigger version of LAN uses similar technology
• It is a network of computing/ communicating
device with in a city.
• might be private or public ( schools or banks ,
government offices with in a city )
• WAN can be set up using wired media or wireless
• Area is 5 and 50 Km diameter
• Larger than LAN and smaller than WAN
 WAN
• Spans a larger geographical area often a country or
continent and uses various commercial and private
comm.
• A Wide Area Network suits an individual, a
Company or Organization that operates different
location that is separated by large geographical
distances
 Network Devices
• NIC(Network interface Card)
• Hub
• Switch
• Repeater
• Gateway
• Modem
• RJ-45
• Ethernet Card
• Routers
• Wi-Fi Card
 NIC
• A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board
or card that is installed in a computer so that it can be
connected to a network.
• computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a
network
• Personal computers and workstations on a local area
network (LAN) typically contain a network interface card
specifically designed for the LAN transmission technology
• In most of the computes or laptops NIC is integral part of
the motherboard.
NIC is a device that enables a computer to connect to a network and communication
 Hub
• a hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple
computers or other network devices together.
• The hub contains multiple ports so that cables from individual
computers NIC are inserted
• Hubs and switches serve as a central connection for all of your network
equipment and handles a data type known as frames. Frames carry
your data. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then
transmitted on to the port of the destination PC
• Available in 4 to 24 port sizes
• Hosts are responsible for collision detection and retransmission of
packets.
• There are three types viz. active hub, passive hub and intelligent hub.
• Hub Operates in half duplex mode
• Benefits or advantages of Hubs
• Following are the benefits or advantages of Hubs:
➨It can extend total distance of the network.
➨It does not affect performance of the network seriously.
➨It is cheaper.
➨It can connect different media types.
• Following are the disadvantages of Hubs:
➨It does not have mechanisms such as collision detection and retransmission
of packets.
➨It does not operate in full duplex mode.
➨It can not connect different network architectures such as token ring and
ethernet etc.
➨It can not filter information i.e. it passes packets to all the connected
segments.
➨It does not have mechanism to reduce the network traffic.
• A hub is a device that connects several nodes to
form a network and redirects received information
to all the connected in broadcast mode
 Switch
• A switch is an intelligent hub
• It looks exactly like a hub
• It checks the destination address to route the packet appropriately.
• It has the some functions of hub
– Connects multiple computes in a network
• Difference between the two is in the way re transmit the received information
• Instead of broadcasting the received information a switch sends information
selectively to those computers for which it is intended.
• A switch is a device that is used to break a network into different sub-networks
called subnet or LAN
• Operates in full duplex mode
• Packet collision is avoided due to port to port data transmission.
• This prevents traffic overloading on the network
• allow different nodes of a network to communicate directly with one another in
a smooth and efficient manner
• Switches are commonly used in home networks and in small businesses.
• A switch is an intelligent device that connects
several nodes to form a network and redirects the
received information only to intended node(s)
• Benefits or advantages of Switches
• Following are the benefits or advantages of Switches:
➨They increase the available bandwidth of the network.
➨They help in reducing workload on individual host PCs.
➨They increase the performance of the network.
➨Networks which use switches will have less frame collisions. This is due to the fact
that switches create collision domains for each connection.
➨Switches can be connected directly to workstations.

• Drawbacks or disadvantages of Switches

• Following are the disadvantages of Switches:
➨They are more expensive compare to network bridges.
➨Network connectivity issues are difficult to be traced through the network switch.
➨Broadcast traffic may be troublesome.
➨If switches are in promiscuous mode, they are vulnerable to security attacks e.g.
spoofing IP address or capturing of Ethernet frames.
➨Proper design and configuration is needed in order to handle multicast packets.
➨While limiting broadcasts, they are not as good as routers.
 Repeater
• A repeater is an electronic device that receives a
signal , amplifies it and then retransmits it on the
network so that the signal can cover longer
distances.
• Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical,
wireless or optical signals.
• Repeater is a device that is used to regenerate a
signals which is on its way through a
communication channel
• It regenerates the received signals and re-transmits
it to its destination
 Gateway
• A gateway is a network device that establishes an
intelligent connection between a local network and
external networks with completely different
structures i.e. it connects two dissimilar networks
• The computers that control traffic within your
company's network or at your local Internet
Service Provider (ISP) are gateway nodes
• It is capable of understanding address architectures
used in different types of networks.
• Device which is used to connect different types of network and
perform necessary translation so that the connected network can
communicate.
• The following are the advantages of Application Level
Gateways:
• - Direct connections between internal and external hosts are
disallowed.
- User-level authentication is supported.
- The application commands are analyzed inside the payload
portion of the data packets.
• The following are the disadvantages of Application Level
Gateways:
• - Slower than packet filters
- Needs the internal client to know about them.
- Every possible type of connection can not be supported
 Modem(Modulator – Demodulator )
• Peripheral that allows you to connect and communicate with
other computer via telephone lines
• It modulates an analogue carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to
decode the transmitted information
• The goal of this process of modulation - demodulation is to
produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded
to reproduce the original digital data.
• Two types of modem
– Internal
– External
 RJ-45
• RJ-45 , short form of Registered Jack - 45 , is an
eight wired connector that is used to connect
computers on a local area network(LAN), especially
Ethernet. RJ-45 connectors look similar to the RJ-11
connector used for connecting telephone
equipment, but they are somewhat wider.
 Ethernet Card
• An Ethernet card is a kind of network adapter and is also known as
Network Interface Card (NIC)
• These adapters support the Ethernet standard for high-speed network
connections via cables.
• Ethernet cards are installed usually by the manufacturer inside the
desktop computers that resemble credit cards are readily available for
laptop and other mobile computers. These insert conveniently into slots
on the side or front of the device.
• Ethernet cards may operate at different network speeds depending on
the protocol standard they support.
• 10 Mbps
• 100 Mbps
• 1 Gbps(Gigabit)
 Router
• A router is a networking device that forwards data
packets between computer networks
• A Router is a network device that works like a bridge to
establish connection between two networks but it can
handle networks with different protocols
• Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the
Internet
• A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to
another router through the networks that constitute
an internetwork until it reaches its destination node.
 WI-FI card
• Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow
your desktop or laptop computer to connect to the
internet through a wireless network
• Wi-Fi transmission is through the use of radio
waves
• Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal. If a Wi-Fi
card is not installed in your computer, you may
purchase a USB antenna attachment and have it
externally connected to your device
 Node
• A device which is directly connected to computer
network. It can be a computer or any other device
like printer, scanner etc.…
 Network Topology
• A topology is an arrangement of physical connections among nodes in a
network.
• Network Topology is the schematic description of a network
arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through
lines of connection.
• Topology is the pattern of interconnection of nodes in a local area
network(LAN)
• used helps to select the communication medium and the other network
devices
• choosing a topology, care has to be taken that the installation cost is
minimum, the network so designed should be reliable and flexible
• In simple terms the addition or reduction of nodes should be easy and
also fault detection and removal should be simple
 point to point link
• Which has two ends transmitter and receiver
• The main characteristic of Point to Point link is that each
transmitter transmits to exactly one receiver and each receiver
receives exactly form one transmitter
• Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:
Bus
Star
Tree
Ring
Mesh
Hybrid
 Bus Topology
• Bus topology is also known as Linear Topology
• each node connected directly to a main (common )cable which acts as
the backbone and therefore functions as a shared communication
medium onto which various nodes are attached.
• If any node has to send some information to another node, it sends the
signal to the back bone
• A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network
sends a broadcast message in both directions onto the wire that all
other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message
• A small device called terminator is attached to each end of back bone
• This topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In some
instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect small
workgroups
• bus networks work best with a limited number of devices
 Characteristics
• It is easy to install
• It is cost effective
• Failure of node does not effect the network
• In case of backbone or terminator fault , the entire
network breaks down
• Fault diagnosis is difficult
• At a time only one node can transmit data
 Advantages of bus topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to other network
topology.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• Cables fails then whole network fails.

• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the
performance of the network decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• It is slower than the ring topology.
• If the central bus length becomes too long, then
repeaters might have to be used to amplify the
signal. The use of repeaters makes reconfiguration
necessary.
 Star topology
• Each node is directly connected to the hub/switch
• A star network features a central connection point
called a "hub node" to which all other nodes are
connected by a single path
• Every node sends signals to hub/switch this signals
are broad costed to all the nodes but accepted by
intended.
 Characteristics
• It is more efficient compared to bus topology
• Easy to install
• Easy to diagnose the fault
• Easy to expand depending on the specification of
central hub/switch
• Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire
network
• Requires more cable length
• Advantages of Star Topology
• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
• Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
 Tree Topology
• Tree topology is a combination of bus and star
topology
• Used to combine multiple star topologies
• All start topologies are connected together like a
bus
•
 Characters
• It offers to easy way to network expansion
• Even if one network fail other networks remains connected and working
• Advantages of Tree Topology
– Extension of bus and star topologies.
– Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
– Easily managed and maintained.
– Error detection is easily done.
• Disadvantages of Tree Topology
– Heavily cabled.
– Costly.
– If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
– Central hub fails, network fails.
 Ring topology
• A ring network is a network topology in which each
node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a
single continuous pathway for signals through each
node - a ring
• Data travels from node to node, with each node
along the way handling every packet.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be
made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
• Advantages of Ring Topology
– Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or
by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
– Cheap to install and expand
• Disadvantages of Ring Topology
– Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
– Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the
network activity.
– Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
 Mess topology
• It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected to each other.
• A network setup where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be
distributed, even if one of the connections go down.
• It is a topology commonly used for wireless network
• A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected
mesh topology.
• In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection
to each of the other computers in that network. The number of
connections in this network can be calculated using the following
formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
• In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in
the network have connections to multiple other computers in that
network
 Mess topology
• Advantages of a mesh topology
– Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
– A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
– Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
– Fault is diagnosed easily.
– Provides security and privacy.
• Disadvantages of a mesh topology
– The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less
desirable option.
– Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
– The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and
potential for reduced efficiency.
– Installation and configuration is difficult.
– Cabling cost is more.
– Bulk wiring is required
• A hybrid topology is a type of network
topology that uses two or more other network
topologies, including bus topology,
mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, and
tree topology
• Advantages of Hybrid Topology
– Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting
is easy.
– Effective.
– Scalable as size can be increased easily.
– Flexible.
• Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
– Complex in design.
– Costly.
 Network Protocols
• Set of rules for communication among networked devices.
Or
• In information technology, a protocol is the special set of rules that two or more
machines on a network follows to communicate with each other
• Generally includes rules of how and when a device can send or receive the data,, how
is the data packaged , and how it reaches its destination
• each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling.
– TCP/IP
– PPP
– HTTP
– FTP
– E-Mail Protocols
– Remote Access Protocol
– Chat Protocol and VOIP
– VOIP
 TCP/IP
• Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol
• Communication between two computers on internet
is done using TCP/IP protocol
• TCP/IP are the two protocols that are used together
and together they form the backbone protocol of
the internet. They can also be used for private
networks i.e. intranets and extranets. When you are
set up with direct access to the Internet, your
computer is provided with a copy of the TCP/IP
program
• TCP
– The Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) breaks the data into packets that the network
can handle efficiently.
– It manages the assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are
transmitted over the Internet. It verifies all the packets when they arrive at the
destination computer and then reassembles them in proper order. Data can be lost in
the intermediate network. So TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to
trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.
• IP
– The Internet Protocol(IP)handles the address part of each packet so that it reaches to
the right destination. It gives distinct address (called IP address) to each data packet.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see where to forward
the message. Even though some packets from the same message are routed differently
than others, they'll be reassembled at the destination.
– An IP address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An
IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each
representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal
points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.
• TCP/IP uses the client/server mode of
communication in which a computer user (a client)
makes a request and the server provides the
requested service such as sending a Web page.
Also TCP/IP communication is primarily point-to-
point transmission of data which means each
communication is from one computer in the
network to another computer
 PPP(Point to Point Protocol )
• PPP is used for communication between two computers using a
serial interface, mostly a personal computer connected by phone
line to a server
• example, an Internet Service Provider(ISP) may provide you with
a PPP connection so that the ISP's server can respond to your
requests, pass them on to the Internet, and forward your
requested Internet responses back to you
• It was basically designed to help communication between two
systems through telephone lines as it supports transmission of
network packets over a serial point to point link
• PPP is sometimes considered a member of the TCP/IP suite of
protocols
 HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol )
• HTTP is the protocol that is used for transferring hypertext
(i.e. text, graphics, image, sound, video etc.) between two
computers and is particularly used on the World Wide Web
• It is a TCP/IP based communication protocol and provides a
standard for Web browsers and servers to communicate.
• HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted,
and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in
response to various commands.
• For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this
actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server
directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page
 File Transfer protocol (FTP)
• FTP is an application protocol that uses the Internet's TCP/IP
protocols.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used
for the transfer of computer files between a client and server on a
computer network
• Used for transferring any type of files(ASCII and Binary)
• FTP is based on Client/Server principle (By giving the ftp command
with any remote address, the file transfer can be initiated. In any
FTP interface, clients identify the FTP server either by its IP address
(such as 192.168.0.1) or by its host name (such as ftp.about.com). It
is an efficient means to send and receive files from a remote host.
FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection
is used for data transfer and the other for control information)
 E-mail Protocols
• E-mail Protocols are set of rules that help the client
to properly transmit the information to or from the
mail server.
• The most commonly used Email protocols on the
internet - POP3, IMAP and SMTP
• Simple Mail transfer protocol (SMTP)

– allows transmission of email over the Internet

– Most email software is designed to use SMTP for communication purposes
when sending email
– It only works for outgoing messages. So when an email has to be sent, the
address of their Internet Service Provider's SMTP server has to be given
– These SMTP commands specify the sender’s and receiver’s e-mail address,
along with the message to be send.
– The actual mail transfer is done through Message Transfer Agents(MTA). So
the client computer must have a client MTA and the server must have a server
MTA
– One of the purposes of an SMTP is that it simplifies the communication of
email messages between servers
– The other purpose of SMTP is to set up communication rules between servers.
Every server has its own way to identify itself, define the mode of
communication that they will follow, check for errors and handle them
– SMTP has a major disadvantage that it is relatively easy to send a message
with a fake sender address.
• IMAP(Internet Message Access Protocol)
– It is a mail protocol used for accessing email on a remote web
server from a local client.
– most commonly used Internet mail protocols for retrieving emails
– IMAP allows simultaneous access by multiple clients.
– IMAP allows the client program to manipulate the e-mail message
on the server without downloading them on the local computer.
– It enables us to take any action such as downloading, delete the
mail without reading the mail. It enables us to create, manipulate
and delete remote message folders called mail boxes.
– IMAP enables the users to search the e-mails.
• POP3
• Post Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3)
– Post Office Protocol 3 or POP3 is the third version of a widespread method of
receiving email which receives and holds email for an individual until they pick
it up. SMTP has a disadvantage that if the destination computer is not online,
mails cannot be received. So the SMTP server receives the mail on behalf of
every host and the respective host then interacts with the SMTP server to
retrieve messages by using a client server protocol called POP3.
– POP3 makes it easy for anyone to check their email if their email program is
configured properly to work with the protocol. It is extremely common among
most mail servers because of its simplicity and high success rate and minimum
errors
– it can work with virtually any email program, as long as the email program is
configured to host the protocol. Many popular email programs, including
Microsoft Outlook, are automatically designed to work with POP3. Each POP3
mail server has a different address, which is usually provided to an individual by
their web hosting company
 Remote Access Protocol
• A remote access protocol manages the connection
between a remote computer and a remote access
server
• In corporations, people at branch offices,
telecommuters, and people who are travelling may
need access to the corporation's network.
 VOIP
• VoIP (voice over IP) is the transmission of voice and
multimedia content over Internet Protocol (IP)
networks
• VOIP technology to send and receive phone calls
over an IP network.
 Identification of computers
and users over a network

• Nodes are uniquely identified on the network

– MAC (Media Access control) address
– IP address
 MAC Address
• Each NIC has universally unique address assigned to it by
manufacturer .
• A media access control address (MAC address) of a device is
a unique identifier assigned to network interface controls for
communications at the data link layer of a network segment.
• MAC address of an NIC is permanent and does never change
• It is 12 digit hexadecimal numbers.
– MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS or MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
– 00-14-22-14-C8-35
• MAC address is a unique 12 digit hexadecimal number assigned
to each NIC. It never changes
 IP Address
• IP address is a unique 4 digit hexadecimal number
assigned to each on a network
– 59.177.134.65
• It can be changed by the user
 MAC VS IP
• MAC is given by the Manufacturer where as IP
address is assigned by Network administration
• IP address changes if computer transfer from one
network to another where as MAC remains same
• IP uses to track tentative location of computer but
not with MAC
 Domaine Name
Domaine Name is a name assigned to a server
through the domain name System (DNS).
It has more than one parts
top level
sub demine
Demine resolution
 Network Security concepts
• Fire wall
• Cookies
• Hackers and Crackers
 Firewall
• System designed to prevent unauthorized access to
or from a private network
• It can be implemented in both hardware and
software or combination of both
 Cookies
• Messages that a web server transmits to a web
browser so that the web server can keep track of
the users activity on specific website.
 Hackers
• A hacker is an individual who uses computer,
networking or other skills to overcome a technical
problem. The term hacker may refer to anyone
with technical skills, but it often refers to a person
who uses his or her abilities to gain unauthorized
access to systems or networks in order to commit
crimes. A hacker may, for example, steal
information to hurt people via identity theft,
damage or bring down systems and, often, hold
those systems hostage to collect ransom.
 Crackers
• A cracker is someone who breaks into someone
else's computer system, often on a network;
bypasses passwords or licenses in computer
programs; or in other ways intentionally breaches
computer security. A cracker can be doing this for
profit
 Internet Applications
• SMS(Small Message Service)
• Voice mail
• Email
• Chat
• Video conferencing
 SMS
• It can be called as texting or text messaging
• Sms can sent from internet
• Sending sms via internet is called SMS over IP

• Voice mail
– Allows you to receive your voice mail message
directly in your mail with out any additional
hardware and software
– It arrives as on audio file that one can conveniently
play on ones computer or mobile
• E mail
– Short form of electronic mail
– Message sent electronically
– Sending and receiving message by computer
• Chat
– You type on your screen which is immediately
received by the recipient ; then recipient can
type a message in response to your message
 Wireless / Mobile communication
• GSM
• CDMA
• WLL
• GSM (Global System for Mobile )
– Leading cellular system
– Stands for cell phone, established in Europe in 1980
– To connect to the specific service provider in different countries
– GSM users simply switch subscriber identification module (SIM )
– Sim
• Small removable disks that slip in and out GSM Cellphone
– GSM uses narrow TDMA which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same
radio frequency .
– TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access.)
– GSM digitizes and compress voice data then sends it down a channel with other
steam of users data .
– It uses encryption to make phone calls more secure
– it operates in the 900MHz and 1800 MHz
– GSM is also the basis for integrated digital enhanced network (IDEN)
 CDMA
• Code Division Multiple Access
• It uses spread spectrum technology
• It does not assign specific frequency to user instead every channel uses
the full availability spectrum
• Data send in small pieces over a number of the discrete frequencies
available for use at any time in the specified range.
• Each user signal is spread over the entire bandwidth by unique
spreading code
• It is military technology which used in world war II
Finally CDMA uses spread spectrum technique where data is sent in small
pieces over a number of discrete frequencies. Each users signal is spread
over the entire bandwidth by unique spreading code.at the receiver end
the same unique code is used to recover the signal .
 WLL
• Wire Less in Local loop
• WLL is a system that connects subtribes to the
public switched telephone network(PSTN) using
radio signals as a substitute for other connecting
media.
 Network security
• Denial of service attacks
• Intrusion problem
• Firewall
• Antivirus s/w
• File permissions
 Denial of service attacks
Attempt to make one or more network resources unavailable
to their legitimate users
– Denial of access to information
• Corrupting ,encrypting or changing the status of
information .
– Denial of access to application
• Forced shutting of an application as soon as the user opens
– Denial of access to resource
• Blocking a resources, may be printer , scanner or USB port.
– Denial of access to a website
• Continuously sending bulk requests to a website .
 Intrusion problems
• Attempts to mischievously steal some information
from someone's computer
– Snooping
– Eavesdropping
 Snooping
• Snooping refers to gaining unauthorised access to another person's or
organization's data.
– By getting someone's login information by casually watching what
he/she is typing.
– Reading the files on someone's computer in an unauthorised
manner
– Using some softwares which keeps track of the activities and data
being sent or received on someone's computer.
 Eavesdropping
• Eavesdropping refers to gaining unauthorised
access to another person's or organization's data
while the data is on its way on the network
– By setting up parallel telephone lines.
– By installing some software (spyware) in the target computer.
– By installing some receiver which captures the data while on its
way.
 Login-Password
• By assigning login names and strong passwords to
the users of a system, it can be ensured that only
authorized people access a computer.
 Anti virus software
• These days anti-virus softwares work against not
only the virus but also against almost all kinds of
malware. Therefore by installing a full version legal
(not the pirated one or freeware) anti-virus
software network security can be increased