_________________________________________________________________________

Network Theory
Index
➢​ Basic Concepts of Network Theory
➢​ Circuit Law
➢​ Network Theorems
➢​ A.C. Fundamentals
➢​ Magnetic Circuits
➢​ Two Port Network

Basic Concepts of Networks Theory

Basic Electrical Terms

Terms Expression Unit

Charge Q = ne Coulomb (C)
Current 𝑖(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
or Ampere (A)
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐼(𝑜) + ∫ 𝐼(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑜
Electromotive force (EMF) 𝑉=
𝑑𝑊 Volt(V)
𝑑𝑞

Power 𝑃=
𝑑𝑊
=
𝑑𝑊
.
𝑑𝑞 Watt(W)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
OR
P = VI
OR
P = I2R​
OR
2
𝑉
𝑃= 𝑅
Instantaneous power P(t) = v(t)i(t) Watt(W)
Energy W = ∫Pdt Joule (J)
Resistivity or specific resistance ρ=
𝑅𝐴 Ohm – m (Ω−m)
𝑙
Conductance 𝐺=
1 mho or Siemens
𝑅
Conductivity σ=
1 1
or Siemens/m
ρ Ω−𝑚
Inductance 𝐿=
𝑁ϕ 𝑊𝑏
or Henry (H)
𝑖 𝐴
Inductance of Solenoid 2
µ𝑁 𝐴 Henry (H)
𝐿= 𝑙
Capacitance 𝐶=
ϵ𝐴
or 𝐶 =
𝑄 Farad
𝑑 𝑉
Elastence ‘S’ (Reciprocal of 𝑆=
1 DARAF
𝐶
capacitance)
Current density 𝐽=
𝐼 A/m2
𝐴
_________________________________________________________________________

Conventional current’s direction is opposite to the flow of electron direction

The direction of voltage is always taken from (-)ve to (+)ve

Sign convention for power calculation

●​ 1 hp = 746 W
●​ R2 = R1 [1 + α Δ T]
R2 = Resistance at temperature T2
R1= Resistance at temperature T1

T R α
Conductor ↑ ↑ (+)ve temperature coefficient
Semiconductor ↑ ↓ (-)ve temperature coefficient

1 2
●​ Energy stored in the inductor is 𝑤(𝑡) = 2
𝐿 𝑖 (𝑡) J
1 2
●​ Energy stored in the capacitor is 𝑤(𝑡) = 2
𝐶𝑉 (𝑡)

Ohm’s Law

At constant temperature At constant temperature

●​ J ∝ E Or J = σ E ●​ I ∝ V ​
●​ {𝐼 = } or {𝑅 = }
𝑉
𝑅
𝑉
𝐼

​Division Rule

Voltage Division Rule Current Division Rule

(For Series connected elements only) (For Parallel connected elements only)

[𝑅] − 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉 ( 𝑅1
𝑅1+𝑅2 )
, 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉( 𝑅2
𝑅1+𝑅2 ) [𝑅] − 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐼 ( )
𝑅2
𝑅1+𝑅2
, 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑅1

[𝐿] − 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉 ( 𝐿1
𝐿1+𝐿2 ) (
, 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉
𝐿2
𝐿1+𝐿2 ) [𝐿] − 𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐿2
𝐿1+𝐿2
, 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐿1
𝐿1+𝐿2

[𝐶] − 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉 ( 𝐶2
𝐶1+𝐶2 ) (
, 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝑉
𝐶1
𝐶1+𝐶2 ) [𝐶] − 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐶1
𝐶1+𝐶2
, 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐶2
𝐶1+𝐶2

[𝐺] − 𝑉𝐺1 = 𝑉 ( 𝐺2
𝐺1+𝐺2 ) (
, 𝑉𝐺2 = 𝑉
𝐺1
𝐺1+𝐺2 ) [𝐺] − 𝐼𝐺1 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐺1
𝐺1+𝐺2
, 𝐼𝐺2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐺1+𝐺2
𝐺2
_________________________________________________________________________

Delta to Star & Star to Delta

DELTA to STAR STAR to DELTA

𝑅𝑎𝑅𝑐 𝑅1𝑅2
𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑅2𝑅3
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
𝑅𝑐𝑅𝑏 𝑅1𝑅3
𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑏+𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅2

𝐿𝑎𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝐿𝑏 𝐿1 𝐿2
[𝐿] − 𝐿1 = 𝐿𝑎+𝐿𝑏+𝐿𝑐
, 𝐿2 = 𝐿𝑎+𝐿𝑏+𝐿𝑐
[𝐿] − 𝐿𝑎 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
1 1 1 1 1 1
. . .
1 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑐 1 𝐶𝑎 𝑐𝑏 1 1 1 𝐶1 𝐶2
[𝐶] − 𝑐1
= 1 1 1 , 𝐶2
= 1 1 1 [𝐶] − 𝐶𝑎
= 𝐶1
+ 𝐶2
+ 1
𝐶𝑎
+𝐶 +𝐶 𝐶𝑎
+𝑐 +𝑐 𝐶3
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐

1 1 1 1 1 1
. . .
1 𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑐 1 𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 1 1 1 𝐺1 𝐺2
[𝐺] − 𝐺1
= 1 1 1 , 𝐺2
= 1 1 1 [𝐺] − 𝐺𝑎
= 𝐺1
+ 𝐺2
+ 1
𝐺𝑎
+𝐺 +𝐺 𝐺𝑎
+𝐺 +𝐺 𝐺3
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎

Source Transformation
Source transformation is only applied to Practical Sources.
The above circuit diagrams are equivalent with respect to performance, the only difference is connection.
This technique is also applicable to dependent sources, but it should be kept in mind that the dependent
variable lies outside that branch (where source transformation is applied)
_________________________________________________________________________

Circuit Law

Kirchhoff’s Laws

KCL KVL
The algebraic sum of currents at any node is Zero The algebraic sum of voltages in any close path is
zero

It expressed as a conservation of charge It expressed as a conservation of energy

KCL does not depend on the nature of the KVL also does not depend on the nature of the
element element
KCL is not applicable to distributed networks KVL is also not applicable to distributed networks

Simplification Techniques
Nodal Analysis
●​ Applicable to both planar & Non-planar networks.
●​ No. of equation = n-1

Mesh Analysis
●​ Applicable only to planar network
●​ No. of an independent loop (l) = b – n + 1
Here, b = branches & n = Nodes
_________________________________________________________________________

Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem
It is stated that in any linear, active, bilateral network, a circuit with multiple voltage and current sources is
equal to the sum of simplified circuits using just one of the sources at a time.
●​ Voltage Source → short
●​ Current source → open
Do not disturb the dependent source present in the network.

If different frequencies operate on the circuit

●​ Total power (P) = P1 + P2

If two sinusoidal sources are of the same frequency but the phase difference is 90° operating on the
network
●​ Total power (P) = P1 + P2

If the D.C. Network is excited by the voltage source & current source, then the total power in the Network
is equal to the sum of power generated by the voltage source alone & current source alone
●​ P = Pv + Pi

If Any D.C. Network is composed of several resistances, i.e. R Ω & two constant D.C. sources.
Let
●​ P1 = Power consumed by resistance due to first source only.
●​ P2 = Power consumed by resistance due to the second source only.
Now, if both sources are acting simultaneously
2
●​ Maximum & minimum Power are given as 𝑃 = ( 𝑃1 ± 𝑃2)
{(+) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 & (−) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟}

For Three Sources

2
𝑃= ( 𝑃1 ± 𝑃2 ± 𝑃3 )
Thevenin’s Theorem
Any linear circuit across a load can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source
Vth in series with a resistor Rth as shown

VTh = Open circuit Voltage at a – b (by removing the load)

RTh = Thevenin’s Resistance or Equivalent resistance b/w a and b
_________________________________________________________________________

For A.C. Circuits

ZTh = Equivalent impedance b/w X and Y

Calculation of RTh

Circuit with both dependent & Independent Circuit with dependent sources only
source
Method 1 - In this method, set all independent In this case
sources equal to zero. VTh = 0
𝑅𝑇ℎ =
𝑉 Isc = 0 A
𝐼

RTh = Input resistance looking b/w terminals X & Y

Method 2- Using short circuit current:
𝑉𝑇ℎ
with turning off all independent sources.
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝐼𝑠𝑐

Norton’s Theorem
It states that a two-terminal linear bilateral Network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a current source (Isc) in parallel with Norton’s equivalent resistance (RN) or Impedance (ZN).
●​ Isc = short circuit current at the terminals.

Norton is a dual of Thevenin’s Theorem.

_________________________________________________________________________

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

This theorem is used to find the value of load resistance for which there would be the maximum amount
of power transfer from source to load.
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
●​ Maximum Power delivered to the load RL: 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑅𝑇ℎ

Reciprocity Theorem
In a linear, bilateral passive Network, the ratio of excitation to the response is constant even though the
source is interchanged from input terminals to output terminals.

𝑉1 𝑉2
●​ 𝐼2
= 𝐼1
𝑜𝑟 𝑍12 = 𝑍21

Tellegan’s Theorem
The Algebraic SUM of instantaneous power in a lumped Network is equal to zero.
𝑁
●​ ∑ 𝑉𝑘𝐼𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1
_________________________________________________________________________

Millman’s Theorem

𝑉1 𝑉 𝑉
𝑍1
+ 𝑍2 +…+ 𝑍𝑁
𝑉= 1 1
2
1
𝑁

𝑍1
+ 𝑍2
+…+ 𝑍𝑁

1
𝑍= 1 1 1
𝑍1
+ 𝑍 +…+ 𝑍
2 𝑁

Compensation Theorem
1. D.C. Circuit
' (−𝑉𝐶)
∆𝐼 = 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ+𝑅𝐿+∆𝑅𝐿

{ VC = I(ΔRL) & it is termed as compensating voltage}

2. A.C. Circuit

Ideal voltage source VC is connected in series.

_________________________________________________________________________

Note
Various Theorem and the circuits where they are applicable are shown below in the table

Theorem Applicability
Superposition Theorem Linear
Thevenin’s Theorem Linear
Norton Theorem Linear
Maximum Power Transfer Linear
Tellegen All
Substitution Linear
_________________________________________________________________________

A.C. Fundamentals

Important Terms
Amplitude
|𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚|+|𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚|
●​ 𝐴 = 2

Time period
2π 1
●​ 𝑇 = ω
𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝑓

Average value
𝑇
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1
●​ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑟 𝑇
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

RMS value
𝑇
1 2
●​ 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑇
∫ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

If any expression f(t) = a0 + a1sin(ωt) + a2sin(2ωt) +…..…..

Then, RMS value is given by
2 1 2 2
●​ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎0 + 2
(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + … )

The average value of the sine or cosine function of any phase & frequency is zero
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
●​ rms value =
2

Peak factor (or crest factor)

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
●​ 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Form factor
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
●​ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
_________________________________________________________________________

Important Results

Waveform Shape Max Value Avg Value RMS Value Form Factor Crest Factor
Sinusoidal Wave Am 2𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
π
2
= 1. 11 𝐴𝑚 = 2
2 2𝐴𝑚
2
π

Square Wave Am Am Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚
=1 𝐴𝑚
=1

Triangular Wave Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
2
3
=
2 𝐴𝑚 = 3
3 𝐴𝑚
3 3
2

Half-wave Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
2 π
2
Rectified Wave π 2 𝐴𝑚 = 2
π

Series RL Circuit

2 2
●​ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
2 2
●​ |𝑍| = 𝑅 + (ω𝐿)
“I” lags “V” so, lagging pf
𝑉𝑅
●​ 𝑝𝑓 = cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑉

●​ ɸ = ( ) 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑅
𝑜𝑟 ɸ = ( ) = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
ω𝐿
𝑅
_________________________________________________________________________

Series RC Circuit

2 2
●​ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶

1 2
●​ |𝑍| = 𝑅 +
2
( ) ω𝐶
“I” leads “V”, so leading power factor.
𝑉𝑅
●​ 𝑃𝑓 = cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑉

( ) 𝑜𝑟( )
1 𝑉𝑐
●​ ɸ = ω𝑅𝑐 𝑉𝑅
= 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Series RLC Circuit

VL> VC VC> VL VL = VC

2 ɸ = 0°
𝑉= 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ( )2 𝑉=
2
(
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2 i.e., unity power factor
ɸ= ( 𝑉𝐿−𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑅 ) ɸ= ( ) 𝑉𝐶−𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑅
V = VR = IR
“I” is in phase with “V”
or or
ɸ= ( 𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶
𝑅 ) ɸ= ( 𝑋𝐶−𝑋𝐿
𝑅 )
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑉
cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑉
“I” lags “V” “I” lags “V”
i.e., lagging pf i.e., lagging pf
_________________________________________________________________________

Parallel RL Circuit

𝑉 𝑉
●​ 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑅
, 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿
𝑉
●​ 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿
<− 90°

2 2
●​ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑅
●​ 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝐼

●​ ɸ = ( )
𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑅
= 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Parallel RC Circuit

𝑉
●​ 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑋𝐶
< 90°

2 2
●​ 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝑅
●​ 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝐼

●​ ɸ = ( )
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝑅
_________________________________________________________________________

Resonance

Series Resonance Parallel Resonance

Consider series RLC circuit Consider parallel RLC circuit

Resonance frequency (ω0) Resonance frequency (ω0)

1 1
ω0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 ω0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

Variation of circuit parameters with frequency Variation of circuit parameters with frequency

Quality factor Quality factor

𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑄 = 2π × 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 |𝐼𝐿| 𝑅
Or 𝑄= |𝐼|𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑋𝐿
|𝑉𝐿| 𝑋𝐿
𝐶
𝑄= |𝑉|𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑅 𝑄=𝑅 𝐿

1 𝐿
𝑄= 𝑅 𝐶

Bandwidth Bandwidth
𝑅 1
𝐵𝑊 = ω2 − ω1 = 𝐿 𝐵𝑊 = ω2 − ω1 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑓0 𝑓0 ω0 𝑓0
𝑄= 𝐵𝑊
= 𝑓2−𝑓1
= ω2−ω1 𝑄= 𝐵𝑊
ω1 = lower Half power frequency 1 1 1
ω1 = − 2𝑅𝐶
+ 2 + 𝐿𝐶
(2𝑅𝐶)
_________________________________________________________________________

1 1 1
𝑅 2
ω1 = −
𝑅
2𝐿
+ ( )
2𝐿
+
1
𝐿𝐶
ω2 = 2𝑅𝐶
+
(2𝑅𝐶)
2 + 𝐿𝐶

ω2 = upper Half power frequency ω0 = ω1ω2

2
ω2 =
𝑅
2𝐿
+ ( )
𝑅
2𝐿
+
1
𝐿𝐶

ω0 = ω1ω2𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Note Note
𝐵𝑊
ω1 ≈ ω0 −
𝐵𝑊 ω1 ≈ ω0 − 2
2
𝐵𝑊
ω2 ≈ ω0 +
𝐵𝑊 ω2 ≈ ω0 + 2
2
Valid Only when Q ≥ 10 Valid Only when Q ≥ 10
𝑓0
Q ∝ selectivity or BW∝ 1/selectivity 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓2−𝑓1
𝑓0
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑓2−𝑓1

At Half-power frequency
●​ {𝐼 = }
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

2
●​ {Z = √2R}
●​ {𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ = } 1
2
_________________________________________________________________________

Parallel R-C & R-L circuit

●​

Resonance frequency
𝐿 2
1 𝐶
−𝑅1
●​ ω0 = 𝐿 2
𝐿𝐶 𝐶
−𝑅2

The circuit will be at resonance for any frequency at

𝐿
●​ 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝐶

Relation between Damping Ratio (ξ) and Quality Factor (Q)

1
𝑉0(𝑠)
●​ = 𝐿𝐶
𝑉1(𝑠) 2
𝑠+ ( )𝑠+
𝑅
𝐿
1
𝐿𝐶
1
●​ ω𝑛 = = 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐿𝐶
𝑅 𝐶
●​ ξ = 2 𝐿
1
●​ ξ = 2𝑄

Critically Damped
1 𝐿
●​ ξ = 1, 𝑄 = 2
,𝑅 = 2 𝐶
Over Damped
1 𝐿
●​ ξ > 1, 𝑄 < 2
, 𝑅>2 𝐶

Under Damped
1 𝐿
●​ ξ < 1, 𝑄 > 2
,𝑅 < 2 𝐶

Undamped
●​ Q → ∞, ξ = 0, R = 0 (Practically impossible)
_________________________________________________________________________

Parallel RLC Circuit

Ic> IL Ic< IL IL = Ic

2 ϕ = 0°
𝐼= (
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝐿 )2 𝐼=
2
(
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐶 )2 Unity power factor
ϕ= ( )
𝐼𝑐−𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑅
ϕ= ( )
𝐼𝐿−𝐼𝑐
𝐼𝑅 I = IR
𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑅
𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓 = 𝐼
𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝐼
Leading power factor
_________________________________________________________________________

Magnetic Coupled Circuits

𝑁1ϕ1 𝑁2ϕ2
𝐿1 = 𝐼1
𝐿2 = 𝐼2
𝑁2ϕ12 𝑁1ϕ21
𝑀= 𝐼1
= 𝐼2
ϕ12 ϕ21 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐾= ϕ1
= ϕ2
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1𝐿2 ;

If K = 0 represents Loose Coupled (Under Coupling)

If K = 1 represents Tight Coupled (Critical Coupling)

T equivalent Circuit for M is Positive

T equivalent Circuit for M is Negative

1 2 1 2
Energy stored in a combination of inductors = 2
𝐿1𝐼1 + 2
𝐿2𝐼2 ± 𝑀𝐼1𝐼2

The equivalent inductance of series-aiding connections

●​ Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M

The equivalent inductance of a series-opposing connections

●​ Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M
_________________________________________________________________________

The equivalent inductance of Parallel aiding connection

2
𝐿1𝐿2−𝑀
●​ 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1+𝐿2−2𝑀

The equivalent inductance of Parallel opposing connection

2
𝐿1𝐿2−𝑀
●​ 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1+𝐿2+2𝑀

For ideal transformer: the transmission matrix is given by

𝑁 𝑁
●​ [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] = ⎡⎢ 𝑁1 0 0 𝑁2 ⎤⎥
⎣ 2 1 ⎦

N1 and N2 are the number of turns on the primary and secondary sides respectively
_________________________________________________________________________

Two Port Networks

Two Assumptions must be kept in mind while dealing with two-port Networks.
No initial condition from the input port to the output port.
No dependent source from the input port to the output port.

Classification of Parameters

Parameters Associate Equation Associate Matrix Condition for

Representation Reciprocity,
Symmetry
Open-circuit impedance (z – V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 [
[𝑍] = 𝑍11 𝑍12 𝑍21 𝑍22 ] Z12 = Z21
Parameter) V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 Z11 =Z22

Short–circuit Admittance (Y) I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 [

[𝑌] = 𝑌11 𝑌12 𝑌21 𝑌22 ] Y12 = Y21
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 Y11 = Y22

Transmission (T) or (A, B, C, D) or V1 = AV2 – BI2 [𝑇] = [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] AD – BC = 1

chain or general circuit parameters I1 = CV2 – DI2 A=D

Hybrid (h) V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 [

[ℎ] = ℎ11 ℎ12 ℎ21 ℎ22 ] h12 = -h21
I2 = h21I1 + h22V2 h11h22 – h12h21 = 1
Inverse Transmission (T’) (A’, B’, C’, V2 = A’V1 – B’I1 [𝑇'] = [𝐴' 𝐵' 𝐶' 𝐷' ] A’D’- B’C’ = 1
D’) I2 = C’V1 – D’I1 A’= D’
Inverse hybrid (g) I1 = g11V1 + g12I2 [
[𝑔] = 𝑔11 𝑔12 𝑔21 𝑔22 ] g12 = -g21
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2 g11g22 – g12g21 =1

For T-Network
[
●​ 𝑍 = 𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐 ]

For π-Network
[
●​ 𝑌 = 𝑌𝑎 + 𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑐 ]
_________________________________________________________________________

Symmetric-Lattice Network or Symmetric X-Network

●​ 𝑍 =
1
2 [𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ]

Interconnection of Two-port Networks

If two-port networks A & B are connected in series
●​ [Z]eq = [Z]A + [Z]B

If two-port networks A & B are connected in parallel, then

●​ [Y]eq = [Y]A + [Y]B

If two-port networks A & B are connected in cascade, then

●​ [A]eq = [A]A * [A]B

If two-port networks A & B are connected in series at input and parallel at output
●​ [h]eq = [h]A + [h]B

If two-port networks A & B are connected in parallel at input and series at output
●​ [g]eq = [g]A + [g]B

Bartlett's Bisection Theorem

A symmetrical network can be split into two halves then Z-parameters are given by

1
●​ 𝑍11 = 𝑍22 = 2
(𝑍𝑂𝐶𝐻 + 𝑍𝑆𝐶𝐻)
1
●​ 𝑍12 = 𝑍21 = 2
(𝑍𝑂𝐶𝐻 − 𝑍𝑆𝐶𝐻)
ZOCH – Open circuit driving point impedance for half of section
ZSCH – Short circuit driving point impedance for half of section
_________________________________________________________________________

Note
[Y] = [Z}-1, [T’] ≠ [T]-1, [g] = [h]-1

Z – Parameters are not defined for this above series element.

Y- parameters are not defined for this above shunt element.

𝑁2
Ideal Transformer (i.e., 𝑁1
= 1)

Neither Z-parameter nor Y-parameter is defined for an Ideal Transformer

The ABCD parameters of the ideal transformer are
●​ [1 0 0 1 ]

For n:1 ABCD parameters of the ideal transformer is

●​ [𝑛 0 0 1/𝑛 ]
1
●​ 𝑍11 ≠ 𝑌11

' ' ' ' −1

[
●​ [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] = 𝐴 − 𝐵 − 𝐶 𝐷 ]
All passive networks are reciprocal networks.
All active networks are non-reciprocal networks.