Unit name: Heat Hunters: Exploring the World of Thermal Energy

Key Concept: Change

Related Concepts: Development, Transformation
Global context: Globalization and sustainability
Exploration: Human impact on the environment
Statement of Inquiry: Human impact on the world drives development and transformation, leading to
significant changes in our society.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring, and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems, construct
explanations and judge arguments

Topics: Heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent heat, thermal expansion in solids , liquids and
gases

Learning Objectives:

• Define heat capacity and understand its significance in thermodynamics.

• Explain the concept of specific heat capacity in terms of energy transfer.
• Perform calculations involving specific heat capacity for various materials.
• Define latent heat and distinguish between latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
• Calculate the amount of energy involved in phase changes using latent heat values.
• To provide a clear understanding of the key concepts related to thermal expansion in solids,
liquids, and gases and their applications.
Thermal Properties of matter

1. Temperature:

The hotter an object is, the faster the motion of the molecules inside it and vice versa. Thus,
the internal energy of an object is the total energy of all the molecular motion inside that
object. Temperature, on the other hand, is a measure of theaverage kinetic energy of the
molecules in a substance. Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold.

1.1. Temperature Scales:

There are three temperature scales in use today, Fahrenheit, Celsius andKelvin.
.

The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F).
Relation between Celsius (0C) and Kelvin (K).

1.2. Heat

Heat is the transfer of energy from one body to the other by virtue of temperaturedifference between the
bodies.

1.3. Thermal Capacity / Heat Capacity:

 Consider the two pans shown below.

❖ The pans are of a similar type but different size.

❖ Each pan is filled with water.

❖ They are placed on heaters having the same power.

❖ In which pan would the water boil first? (Don't worry, it's not a trick
question...)

❖ Obviously, the smaller one. This is easily explained:

❖ The temperature of a body is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of the body.

❖ If both bodies are supplied with energy at the same rate, then the one containing the greater number
of particles will require longer to change the temperature by a given amount.

❖ To describe this situation, we say that the bigger pan of water has a greater heatcapacity than the
smaller one.

Therefore, the units of heat capacity are J/ °C or J/ K (remember that the size ofthe degree is the
same on the Celsius and Kelvin scales i.e., 1 0C = 1 K).

The heat capacity of a body depends on:

1. The constituents it is composed of (good conductor/ bad conductor of heat)

2. The mass of the body.
3. Change in the temperature (Amount of heat supplied to the body)

❖ Considering again, the two pans of water.

❖ Suppose that the small pan holds 1kg of water and the larger one holds 3kgof water.
❖ It is reasonable to expect that to change the temperature of 3kg of water,by a given amount,
will require three times as much energy as to change thetemperature of 1kg of water.
❖ We are assuming that 1kg of water always needs the same quantity of energy to
 change its temperature by a given amount.

We now define the specific heat capacity of a substance as follows:

❖ The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of energy needed to change the
temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1°C.

❖ So, the units of specific heat capacity are J. kg-1 °C-1 or J. kg-1 K-1

❖ It is perfectly reasonable to imagine an exhaustive list of specific heatcapacities of different

substances from which we can then calculate the heat capacity of anybody we might
find (assuming we also know the masses of the different substances, of course).

❖ From this definition we have the following useful equation to calculate the amount of
energy, Q, change in the temperature, ΔT, specific heat of the substance, c, given mass, of a
known substance m.

1.4. Latent heat:

The heat energy which must be supplied to change the state of a substance is called its latent
heat.
Latent heat does not raise (or increase) the temperature. But latent heat hasalways to be
supplied to change the state of a substance. The word ‘latent’ means hidden. The latent heat
which we supply is used up in overcoming the forces of attraction between the particles of
substance during the change of state. Latent heat does not increase the kinetic energy of the
particles of the substance, so the temperature of a substance does not rise during the
changeof state.
 Latent heat is of two types:

1. Latent heat of fusion

2. Latent heat of vaporization.

1.5. Latent Heat of Fusion (solid to liquid change):

❖ The heat which is going into ice but not increasing its temperature, is the energy
required to change the state of ice from solid to liquid (water). This is known as
the latent heat of fusion of ice (or latent heat of melting ofice).
❖ The latent heat of fusion (or melting) of a solid is the quantity of heat in joules
required to convert 1 kilogram of the solid (at its melting point) to liquid, without
any change in temperature.

❖ The latent heat of fusion of ice is 3.34×105 joules per kilogram (or

3.34×105 J/kg).

1.6. Latent Heat of Vaporization (liquid to gas change):

The latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the quantity of heat in joules required to convert 1
kilogram of the liquid (at its boiling point) to vapor or gas,without any change in temperature.

The latent heat of vaporization of water is 22.5×105 joules per kilogram (or 22.5×105 J/
kg).

Note: It has been found that the burns caused by steam are much more severe than those caused
by boiling water though both are at the same temperature of 100 °C. This is because steam
contains more heat, in the form of latent heat, than boiling water

Video:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3itqmCtmJPc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VmkdzRE8sQ
Practice questions:

1. Convert 35 degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit.

2. Convert 80 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius.

3. Convert 100 Kelvin to Celsius.

4. Convert -10 degrees Celsius to Kelvin.

5. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 200 grams of water from 20
degrees Celsius to 50 degrees Celsius. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g°C.

6. If it takes 1500 J of energy to raise the temperature of 250 grams of a substance by 10 degrees
Celsius, what is the specific heat capacity of the substance?

7. How much heat energy is required to change 50 grams of ice at -10 degrees Celsius to water at 20
degrees Celsius? (Latent heat of fusion for ice is 334 J/g)

8. A 100-gram piece of metal is heated until it melts completely. It takes 2000 J of energy to do this.
What is the latent heat of fusion for this metal?

Answers:
1. 95 degrees Fahrenheit
2. 26.7 degrees Celsius
3. -173.15 degrees Celsius
4. 283.15 Kelvin
5. Q = m * c * ΔT Q = 200 g * 4.18 J/g°C * (50°C - 20°C) Q = 25000 J
6. c = Q / (m * ΔT) c = 1500 J / (250 g * 10°C) c = 0.6 J/g°C
7. Q = m * L Q = 50 g * 334 J/g Q = 16700 J
8. L = Q / m L = 2000 J / 100 g L = 20 J/g
Thermal Expansion
The expansion of a substance on heating is called the thermal expansion of that substance.
This happens because, as you supply heat energy to a substance, the atoms gain energy and vibrate with
greater amplitude and speed. Due to this, the substance expands in length, area and volume.

Density decreases with the increase in temperature. In case of solids, the decrease of density is very small,
whereas in gases and liquids the density decreasing is large when its temperature increases.

Applications of Thermal Expansion in Solids

a. Top remove the metal lid of tightly closed jar
Insert the jar into a tub of hot water or place it near a heat source. The metal lid will expand cause it
to become loose. It can then be opened easily.
b. Railway tracks
Railway tracks leave a small gap between sections of the track. This would give space for the track to
expand during summertime when the temperature is quite high.
c. Joints in metal pipes
Pipes contract during winter and expand in the summer cause a strain. Hence the pipes are looped so
that the size of the loop increases or decreases and does not cause strain on the pipe.
d. Electric cables and telephone wires
The power lines and wires may break due to contraction in winter and may sag due to expansion in
summer. Hence, during summertime, these power lines are always built keeping them loose, as it will
again contract in winter. During winter, the lines are built t\keeping them a little tight since it will
expand again in the summer and sag.
e. Construction of a bridge
One end of a bridge is built in such a way that it can move since bridges expand in the summer. Also,
gaps are left between sections of bridges allowing it to expand in all direction freely so that it does
not crack in the summer.
Applications of Thermal Expansion in Liquids
Thermal expansion of liquids is used to build in the liquid-in-glass thermometer. When the liquid in the bulb
of the thermometer is supplied heat, it expands, and the level of the liquid rises in the thermometer. Based on
the amount of heat, the temperature reading will vary.
Applications of Thermal Expansion in Gases
a. Hot air balloons
Thermal expansion of gases is applied in hot-air balloons. As heat is supplied, the air expands and
decreases in density. As less dense air rises, the balloon will also rise.

b. Land and sea breeze

During the day both the sea and the land surface is heated up by the sun. The sea heats up slower than
the land because it has a much higher heat capacity. Thus, the temperature over the land surface
increases, in turn, heating up the surrounding air. This air above the land expands causing the air to
rise. This area then becomes a low-pressure area. Due to the difference in pressure, the air flows from
over the sea to the low pressure over the land. This flow of air from the sea to the land is termed as
the sea breeze.
For land breeze, the above process gets reversed.
The land cools down faster than the sea at night. Due to this, the air over the sea will be warmer than
the air over the land. Due to this, the pressure of the air over the sea will be lesser causing the air to
flow from land to sea. This is called a land breeze.

Videos:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UtfegG4DU8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2T4TV4xOZWg
Practice questions
Q1. Railroad tracks are subject to thermal expansion and contraction. Explain how this phenomenon can
lead to problems and how engineers address them.

Q2. Why are bimetallic strips used in thermostats? Explain the principle behind their operation.

Q3. How does thermal expansion play a role in the function of a liquid-in-glass thermometer?

Q4. Explain why expansion joints are crucial in the construction of bridges and pipelines.

Q5. Describe a practical application where understanding thermal expansion is important for everyday life.

Answers:
1. Railroad tracks are made of metal, which expands when heated and contracts when cooled. In hot
weather, the tracks can expand, potentially causing them to buckle or become misaligned. This can lead to
derailments or other safety issues. To address this, engineers incorporate expansion joints or leave small
gaps between sections of track to allow for thermal expansion. These gaps provide the necessary room
for the tracks to expand without causing damage.

2. Bimetallic strips are composed of two different metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion,
typically steel and brass. When subjected to temperature changes, these metals expand or contract at
different rates. This causes the strip to bend. In a thermostat, this bending action is used to control a switch,
which regulates heating or cooling systems. When the temperature rises, the strip bends in one direction,
and when it falls, it bends in the opposite direction, allowing for precise temperature control.

3. In a liquid-in-glass thermometer, a liquid (often mercury or coloured alcohol) is enclosed in a glass tube.
As the temperature increases, the liquid expands, causing it to rise up the calibrated scale. This expansion
of the liquid is due to the principle of thermal expansion. By measuring the height of the liquid column, the
thermometer provides an accurate indication of the temperature. The scale is marked with temperature
values corresponding to specific levels of expansion.

4. Expansion joints are crucial in the construction of bridges and pipelines because they allow for the
natural expansion and contraction of materials due to temperature changes. Without these joints, the
structures would be subjected to potentially damaging forces. For instance, in bridges, when the
temperature rises, the materials expand, and without expansion joints, the bridge may buckle or crack.
Similarly, in pipelines, without expansion loops or joints, the pipeline could experience excessive stress,
leading to structural damage or failure.

5. One practical application of understanding thermal expansion is in the design and construction of roads.
In regions with extreme temperature variations, such as hot summers and cold winters, the materials used
in road surfaces expand and contract significantly. If this expansion and contraction are not taken into
account, it can lead to the development of cracks, potholes, and other structural issues. Engineers
incorporate expansion joints and proper material selection to ensure that the roads can withstand
temperature-related stresses, thus prolonging their lifespan and ensuring safe travel.
Bibliography:

Websites:

• “Specific Heat Capacity Formula - Definition, Types and Faqs.” VEDANTU,

Vedantu,11 Aug. 2023, www.vedantu.com/formula/specific-heat-capacity-formula#.
• “Thermal Expansion (2.2.1): CIE IGCSE Physics Revision Notes 2023.” Save My
Exams, www.savemyexams.com/igcse/physics/cie/23/revision-notes/2-thermal-
physics/2-2-thermal-properties--temperature/2-2-1-thermal-expansion/. Accessed 11
Sept. 2023.

Videos:

• YouTube, YouTube, 22 Mar. 2013,https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=2T4TV4xOZWg. Accessed 11 Sept. 2023.
• YouTube, YouTube, 20 Oct. 2019,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VmkdzRE8sQ. Accessed 11 Sept. 2023.
 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Heat Hunters: Exploring the World of Thermal Energy

Key Concept: Change
Related Concepts: Development, Transformation Global
context: Globalization and sustainability Exploration:
Human impact on the environment
Statement of Inquiry: Human impact on the world drives development and transformation,
leading to significant changes in our society.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring, and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments

Topics: Solid pressure, Pressure exerted by liquids and gases, Liquid pressure as given by
P = hDg, (h = height, D = density), Barometer, modern pressure gauges

Learning Objectives:

• Define Pressure, units of pressure and how to calculate pressure

• Recognize real-world applications of pressure in various fields, such as
engineering, physics, and biology.
• Define and comprehend how liquid pressure is exerted by a fluid at a specific
depth.
• Define barometer and its types
• Safety and Environmental Considerations- Recognize the hazards associated with
mercury barometers and understand the importance of safe handling and disposal.

Pressure
The concept of solid pressure, which is defined by the formula:
P=F/A
Where:
• P represents pressure (measured in Pascals, Pa)
• F is the force exerted perpendicular to the surface (measured in Newtons, N)
• A is the area over which the force is applied (measured in square meters, m²)
Definition of Pressure:
o Pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area. It is the measure of the
intensity of a force distributed over a given area.
Unit of Pressure:
The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa). One Pascal is equal to one Newton per
square meter (1 Pa = 1 N/m²).

Force and Area:

o F (force) refers to the push or pull applied to an object. It is a vector quantity
and has both magnitude and direction.
o A (area) is the surface over which the force is distributed. It is a scalar quantity
and is measured in square meters (m²).

Calculation of Pressure:
o The formula for pressure (P) is given by: P=F/A
o This means that pressure is directly proportional to force and inversely
proportional to the area over which the force is applied.

Effects of Increasing Force:

If the force (FF) acting on an object remains constant and the area (AA) is
decreased, the pressure increases. Conversely, if the area is increased, the
pressure decreases.

Effects of Increasing Area:

If the force (FF) acting on an object remains constant and the area (AA) is
increased, the pressure decreases. Conversely, if the area is decreased, the
pressure increases.

Applications of Pressure:
o Pressure is a crucial concept in various aspects of our daily lives and in
various fields of science and engineering.
o For example, it is essential in understanding how gases behave, in designing
structures like bridges and buildings, in hydraulic systems, and even in
biological systems (e.g., blood pressure in the circulatory system).
o It is easier to hammer a sharp pin than to hammer a blunt pin. This is
because the area at the end of the sharp pin is smaller than the area at the end of a
blunt pin. This leads to an increase in pressure leading to hammer the sharp pin
easily.
Example Calculation:
Let's consider an example. If a force of 50 Newtons is applied to an area of 5
square meters, the pressure would be calculated as: P=F/A=50 N/5 m² =10 Pa

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0P3b8bWqAkc
Pressure in fluids :
• All flowing substances such as liquids or gases are called fluids. Like solids, the fluids
also have weight and therefore exert pressure. When filled in a container the pressure of
the fluid is exerted in all directions and at all points of the fluid.
• Solids have a definite shape but liquids do not have a definite shape. They acquire the
shape of the vessel in which they are kept. Accordingly, their area of contact changes
with the shape of the vessel.
 • Since the molecules of a fluid are in constant, rapid motion and the motion is random,
which means particles are equally likely to move in any direction. Therefore, the
pressure exerted by the fluid acts on an object from all directions.
• The pressure that a fluid exerts depends on the density ⎛density = mass /Volume⎞ and the
depth of the fluid. ⎜⎟
(i) The pressure exerted by a liquid increases with increasing depth inside the liquid.
Thus, in the figure given below,

Pressure at C > Pressure at B > Pressure at A. Pressure is most at C and least at A.

(ii) Liquid pressure remains the same in all directions at a given depth.
(iii) A liquid of higher density exerts more pressure than a liquid of low density.
Thus, while you are able to carry milk in a pouch of polythene, you won’t be able to
carry liquids like mercury in it. Because of the high density of mercury, the polythene pouch
won’t be able to withstand its pressure.
• Liquid pressure does not depend on the surface area of the liquid as well as the
shape and size of the container.
• Liquid exerts pressure on the walls of the container also. This is called lateral
pressure. Lateral pressure is exerted by the liquids and gases but not by solids.

A liquid seeks its own level

Thus, if you connect five vessels of different shapes to a horizontal pipe, the water will flow from
the horizontal pipe to these vessels and stand at the same height in all of them irrespective of the
shape of the vessel.

Pascal’s law : According to Pascal’s law, the pressure exerted at any point on an enclosed liquid
is transmitted equally and undiminished in all directions.
The formula P = hdg.
Consider a container of cross-section area A. Suppose a liquid of density d is filled in the
container up to height h. The weight of the liquid (W) = mg and acts vertically downwards. i.e.,
W = mass of the liquid × acceleration due to gravity

m/v
= (volume of the liquid × density) × acceleration due to gravity [d = ⇒ m = d × v]

= area of cross-section × height of the liquid × density × acceleration due to gravity

= A × h × d × g = Ahdg
The weight or thrust (W) of the liquid acts on area A. Hence,

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Gw0rlXn6ec

Atmospheric Pressure

• The earth’s atmospheric air is surrounded by a layer of gases and so this air surrounding the
earth exerts a pressure known as the ‘atmospheric pressure’. Its value at sea level is
101325 Pa.
• It is measured using a mercury barometer (hence atmospheric pressure is also known as
barometric pressure), indicating the height of a column of mercury which exactly
balances the weight of the column of atmosphere over the barometer. It can be
expressed in several different systems of units such as millimetres (or inches) of
mercury, pounds per square inch (psi), dynes per square
centimetre, millibars (mb), standard atmospheres, or kilopascals.
• The atmospheric pressure decreases near Earth’s surface, with height at a rate of about
3.5 millibars for every 30 meters (100 feet).
Pressure on walls of the container

The liquid at the bottom of the container (in which it is filled) exerts some pressure which
depends upon the height of water filled in the container. The value of pressure exerted by the
liquid at the side walls of the container; at any point depends upon the amount of water above
that point. Since in a container the height of liquid above a surface is same for all the points,
therefore, liquid exerts same pressure at a particular level.
Gases too exert pressure on the wall of the container containing them. A gas consists
of molecules and every molecule has some kinetic energy. These molecules when colliding with
the walls of a container, apply pressure on it.
Let us do an experiment using the tin can to demonstrate this. Fill the tin can with water and boil
it. Next, seal the tin can with a stopper so that tin can contains steam at a low pressure. Then,
pour some cold water on the tin can from outside. When you do so, it’s seen that the tin can
collapses inwards. The tin can collapses because when cold water is poured, steam inside it
condenses and the air pressure inside reduces. The difference in this pressure inside and outside
causes a force that is applied to the outer walls of the container. This force is what causes the tin
can to crush inwards.
Note: The tin-can retains its shape usually because the force applied by the gas molecules on the
outside of the container is balanced by the force inside the container.

Barometer:
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
• Its primary purpose is to forecast short-term changes in weather. It is used to predict
upcoming weather conditions, like storms or fair weather.
• There are two main types of barometers:
▪ Mercury Barometer: This uses a column of mercury in a vertical
glass tube. Changes in atmospheric pressure cause the height of the
mercury column to rise or fall.
▪ Aneroid Barometer: This uses a small, flexible metal box that changes
shape with variations in pressure. The box is connected to a pointer on a
dial, which indicates pressure.
1. Mercury Barometer:
Consists of a long glass tube filled with mercury, inverted in a container of
mercury. The mercury level in the tube adjusts until it is in equilibrium with
atmospheric pressure.
The height of the mercury column (h) is a measure of atmospheric pressure.
Units of Pressure:
The height of the mercury column is typically measured in millimetres (mm) or
inches (in). The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level supports a column of
mercury approximately 760 mm high, which is known as 1 atmosphere (atm).
 Working Principle:
Atmospheric pressure forces mercury up the tube until the weight of the column
of mercury (which is balanced by atmospheric pressure) equals the weight of the
mercury in the reservoir.

2. Aneroid Barometer:
Contains a small, flexible metal box that changes shape with variations in
pressure. The box is connected to a pointer on a dial, which indicates pressure.

3. Modern Alternatives:
Mercury barometers have largely been replaced by aneroid barometers due to the
toxicity of mercury.

Modern Pressure Gauges:

Modern pressure gauges are devices designed to measure pressure in various
environments, including gases and liquids.
There are several types of modern pressure gauges:
▪ Bourdon Tube Gauge: It uses a curved tube that straightens as
pressure increases, moving a pointer on a dial.
▪ Diaphragm Gauge: It uses a flexible diaphragm to measure pressure
changes.
▪ Digital Pressure Gauge: It provides a digital readout of pressure and is
often used in electronic systems.
▪ Working Principle - Bourdon Tube Gauge:
The Bourdon tube is a flattened, circular, or oval-shaped tube with an elliptical
cross-section. When pressure is applied, the tube tends to straighten. This
straightening motion is translated into a rotational motion that moves the pointer
on the dial.

Units of Pressure:
Pressure is typically measured in units such as Pascals (Pa), kilopascals (kPa),
pounds per square inch (psi), etc., depending on the specific application.

Accuracy and Precision:

Modern pressure gauges are designed to be accurate and reliable, providing
precise measurements of pressure in a wide range of applications.

Applications:
Pressure gauges are used in various industries including manufacturing,
automotive, aerospace, and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
systems.

Maintenance and Calibration:

It's important to regularly calibrate and maintain pressure gauges to ensure their
accuracy and reliability.
Safety Considerations:
Pressure gauges must be used and handled with care, especially in high- pressure
environments, to prevent accidents or damage to the gauge

Practice questions:

1: Calculate the pressure exerted by a force of 50 Newtons on an area of 5 square meters. 2: If

a force of 200 Newtons is applied to an area of 10 square centimetres, what is the pressure?
3: A column of water has a height of 15 meters. If the density of water is
1000 kg/m31000kg/m3 and gravity is 9.8 m/s29.8m/s2, calculate the pressure at the base. 4: If
the density of a liquid is 800 kg/m3800kg/m3 and the height of the liquid column is 20 meters,
what is the pressure at the base?
5: Explain how a mercury barometer works and what it measures.
6: Why is the use of mercury in barometers discouraged today?

Answers:
1. P=F/A=50 /5=10 Pa
2. 200,000Pa
3. 147,000Pa
4.156,800P
5. A mercury barometer works by balancing the atmospheric pressure with the weight of a
column of mercury in a vertical glass tube. It measures atmospheric pressure, which is the
force exerted by the weight of the air above it.
6. Mercury is toxic and poses environmental risks if not handled properly. Spills of mercury
can contaminate the environment and pose health hazards. Because of this, mercury barometers
have been largely replaced by safer alternatives.

Bibliography:

Websites:

o What Is Pressure? Definition, Formula, Unit, Examples - TOPPR, www.toppr.com/guides/

physics/force-and-pressure/introduction-to-pressure. Accessed 28Sept. 2023.
o Topics in Physics - Kopykitab, content.kopykitab.com/ebooks/2015/11/5485/sample/
sample_5485.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept. 2023.

Videos:

o “GCSE Physics - What Is Pressure? #48.” YouTube, YouTube, 21 Nov. 2019,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=0P3b8bWqAkc.
o “GCSE Physics - Liquid Pressure & Upthrust #49.” YouTube, YouTube, 24 Nov. 2019,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Gw0rlXn6ec.
 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Heat Hunters: Exploring the World of Thermal Energy

Key Concept: Change
Related Concepts: Development, Transformation Global
context: Globalization and sustainability Exploration:
Human impact on the environment
Statement of Inquiry: Human impact on the world drives development and transformation,
leading to significant changes in our society.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems, construct
explanations and judge arguments

Topics: Thermal conduction and Heat equation

Learning Objectives:

• To understand the fundamental process by which heat is transferred through a material due to the
kinetic energy of its particles.
• To develop a mathematical understanding of how heat is distributed and transferred within a
given medium over time.

The different modes of transfer of thermal energy through conduction considering the
material, cross-sectional area, and the temperature gradient:Your feet feel cold as you walk
barefoot across the living room carpet in your cold house and then step onto the kitchen tile floor. This
result is intriguing, since the carpet and tile floor are both at the same temperature. The different sensation
you feel is explained by the different rates of heat transfer: the heat loss during the same time interval is
greater for skin in contact with the tiles than with the carpet, so the temperature drop is greater on the
tiles.
Some materials conduct thermal energy faster than others. In general, good conductors of
electricity (metals like copper, aluminum, gold, and silver) are also good heat conductors,
whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and rubber) are poor heat conductors. Figure 2
shows molecules in two bodies at different temperatures. The (average) kinetic energy of a
molecule in the hot body is higher than in the colder body. If two molecules collide, an energy
transfer from the hot to the cold molecule occurs. The cumulative effect from all collisions
results in a net flux of heat from the hot body to the colder body. The heat flux thus depends on
the temperature difference ΔΤ = Τhot − Tcold. Therefore, you will get a more severe burn from
boiling water than from hot tap water. Conversely, if the temperatures are the same, the net heat
transfer rate falls to zero, and equilibrium is achieved. Owing to the fact that the number of
collisions increases with increasing area, heat conduction depends on the cross-sectional area. If
you touch a cold wall with your palm, your hand cools faster than if you just touch it with your
fingertip.
 A third factor in the mechanism of conduction is the thickness of the material through which
heat transfers. The figure below shows a slab of material with different temperatures on either
side. Suppose that T2 is greater than T1, so that heat is transferred from left to right.
Heat transfer from the left side to the right side is accomplished by a series of molecular
collisions. The thicker the material, the more time it takes to transfer the same amount of
heat. This model explains why thick clothing is warmer than thin clothing in winters, and
why Arctic mammals protect themselves with thick blubber.

Lastly, the heat transfer rate depends on the material properties described by the coefficient of
thermal conductivity. All four factors are included in a simple equation that was deduced from
and is confirmed by experiments. The rate of conductive heat transfer through a slab of material,
such as the one in Figure 3, is given by

where Q/t is the rate of heat transfer in watts or kilocalories per second, k is the thermal
conductivity of the material, A and d are its surface area and thickness, as shown in Figure 3,
and (T2 − T1) is the temperature difference across the slab. Table 1 gives representative values
of thermal conductivity.
Video : https://youtu.be/6jQsLAqrZGQ Practice Questions:

Q1. Explain how the process of conduction works, and how the material of an object affects its
ability to conduct heat.
Q2. If you have two rods, one made of aluminum and the other made of wood, and they are both
at the same initial temperature, which one will heat up faster when placed on a hot plate? Explain
your answer.
Q3. How does the cross-sectional area of an object affect the rate at which it conducts heat?
Q4.Explain how a stovetop works based on the principle of conduction.
Q5.If you have two metal rods of the same material, but one is thicker than the other, which one
will conduct heat faster? Explain your reasoning.
Q6.How does the temperature gradient affect the rate of conduction in a material?
Q7. A steel rod of length 2 meters and cross-sectional area 0.01 square meters has a temperature
difference of 100 degrees Celsius between its ends. The thermal conductivity of steel is 50 W/mK
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the rod.
Q8. A copper wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.02 cm2 and a length of 3 meters is subjected to
a temperature difference of 50 degrees Celsius. The thermal conductivity of copper is 400 W/mK.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer.
Q9. A plastic sheet with a thickness of 0.5 cm and thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/mK has a
temperature difference of 20 degrees Celsius across its surfaces. If the sheet has a surface area
of 2 m2, calculate the rate of heat transfer.
Answers:
1. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through direct contact between particles of
a substance. In a solid, this occurs when the vibrating particles collide with
neighbouring particles, passing on energy. The material of an object affects its ability to
conduct heat. Materials with tightly packed particles (e.g., metals) conduct heat well,
while materials with loosely packed particles (e.g., insulators like wood or plastic)
conduct heat poorly.
2. The aluminum rod will heat up faster. This is because aluminum is a good conductor of
heat due to its tightly packed atoms, allowing for efficient transfer of thermal energy.
Wood, on the other hand, is a poor conductor because its atoms are not as tightly packed,
inhibiting the flow of heat.
3. A larger cross-sectional area allows for more particles to be in contact, which
facilitates faster conduction. This means that objects with a larger surface area can
conduct heat more effectively than those with a smaller surface area, assuming all
other factors (e.g., material, temperature gradient) remain constant.
4. A stovetop works by transferring thermal energy through conduction. When the stovetop
is turned on, it becomes hot. The heat is conducted through the material of the stovetop
and into the bottom of the cooking pot or pan that is in direct contact with it. This heats
the contents of the pot or pan, allowing them to cook.
5. The thicker rod will conduct heat faster. This is because a thicker rod has a larger cross-
sectional area, which means there are more particles in contact with each other, allowing
for a more efficient transfer of thermal energy.
6. The temperature gradient refers to the difference in temperature between two points in a
material. The greater the temperature gradient, the faster heat will be conducted. This is
because a larger temperature difference results in a greater driving force for the thermal
energy to move from the hotter region to the colder region.

7.

8.
 9.

Bibliography:
• Williams, Matt. “What Is Heat Conduction?” Phys.Org, Phys.org, 9 Dec. 2014,
phys.org/news/2014-12-what-is-heat-conduction.html.
• “Understanding Conduction and the Heat Equation.” YouTube, YouTube, 5 Apr.
2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jQsLAqrZGQ.
 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Vehicle Technology

Key Concept: Change
Related Concepts: Consequences and interaction
Global context: Scientific and technical innovations
- Modernization, industrialization, and engineering
Statement of Inquiry: Engineering today interacts with scientific and technical innovation to
bring positive change in society

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems, construct
explanations and judge arguments

Topics: Distance, displacement, speed and velocity

Learning Objectives:

• Differentiate between distance and displacement, and understand scenarios where they may be
equal or different.
• Calculate average speed using appropriate formulas, considering both uniform and non-uniform
motion.
• Recognize the effect of acceleration on an object's motion, including changes in speed and
direction.

1. Distance and Displacement:

The actual path or length travelled by an object during its journey from its initial position to its
final position is called distance.
Distance is a scalar quantity which requires only magnitude but no direction to explain it.
Example: Ramesh travelled 65 km (about 40.39 mi). (Distance is measured by odometer in
vehicles)

Displacement is the shortest distance travelled by an object between two points. Displacement
is a vector quantity requiring both magnitude and direction for its explanation.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6v3a3E36ulY
 What is uniform motion?
When an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time the object is said to have a
uniform motion.

What is non-uniform motion?

When an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time the object is said to have a
non-uniform motion.
2. Speed and Velocity:
The speed of an object is defined as the distance travelled by the object per unit of time.

Average Speed – If the motion of the object is non-uniform, then we calculate the average speed
to signify the rate of motion of that object throughout the journey.

Instantaneous Speed - The magnitude of speed at a particular instance of time.

Velocity:
Velocity is defined as a vector measurement of the rate and direction of motion. Put simply,
velocity is the speed at which something moves in one direction. The speed of a car traveling
north on a major freeway and the speed a rocket launching into space can both be measured
using velocity.
Velocity= displacement/time
And,
Velocity= speed + direction SI
Unit of velocity= m/s

Video: What is Velocity? | Physics | Don't Memorise

Video: GCSE Physics - The difference between Speed and Velocity & Distance and
Displacement #51

Acceleration

It is defined as change in velocity per unit time. Acceleration is measured in m/s2.

Practice questions:
1. A student walks 5 meters North, then turns around and walks 3 meters South, and
finally turns around again and walks 2 meters North. Calculate the total distance
covered and the total displacement.
2. A car travels 200 meters in 20 seconds. Calculate its speed in m/s and in km/h. If the car
travels in the positive direction, what is its velocity?
3. A car accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration.
4. A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 2 m/s2 for 10 seconds. Find its final
velocity and the distance covered.
 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Vehicle Technology

Key Concept: Relationships
Related Concepts: Movement, Patterns
Global context: Orientation in space and time
Statement of Inquiry: Understanding the relationship between movement and time can help form
patterns to assist our perception of where we are.
.
Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments
Topics: motion graphs, Equations of motion and Newton’s laws of motion
Learning Objectives:
• Describe how the slope of a position-time graph relates to velocity.
• Explain how the slope of a velocity-time graph relates to acceleration.
• State and apply the equations of motion for constant acceleration.
• Solve problems involving displacement, velocity, and acceleration using the equations of
motion.
• Apply the equations of motion to describe the motion of an object in free fall.
• Apply Newton's Laws to explain the motion of objects in various situations.
Graphical representation of motions
(i) Distance-time graph
For a distance-time graph, time is taken on x-axis and distance is taken on the y-axis. [Note:
All independent quantities are taken along the x-axis and dependent quantities are taken along
the y-axis.]
(ii) Velocity-time graph

Equation of motion by graphical methods

(i)velocity-time relation:
(ii) The equation for position-time relation:
(iii) Equation for position-velocity relation:

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xViRvJxTu6k

Newton’s Laws of motion:

• Newton’s first law of motion : Newton’s first law states that , “everybody
continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless an unbalanced
force acts on it.” Example: When we shake mango tree, the mangoes fall down.

Interpretation of first law: According to first law, a body continues to remain at rest if no
unbalanced forces act on it. Similarly, the body will remain moving with uniform velocity
in a straight line unless an unbalanced forces act on it.

• Newton’s second law of motion : Newton’s second law of motion states that,
acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the force applied to it in the
direction of motion and inversely proportional to its mass.” Example: A cricket player
while catching a ball moves his hands backwards.
 Interpretation of second law: If a small body is pushed gently, a small acceleration is
produced. If it is pushed harder, a larger acceleration is produced. If two bodies, one
lighter and another heavier, are pulled by the same amount of force in the same direction
separately, it is found that the heavier body has less acceleration than the lighter body.

• Newton’s third law of motion : Newton’s third law of motion states that, “to
every action there is equal and opposite reaction.” Example: While rowing a boat, a
person pushes water backwards with the help of the oars. Due to the reaction offered by
water, the boat move forwards.

Interpretation of third law: Third law implies that forces always occur in pair and a single
force is thus impossible.

Practice Questions:

1. A car acquires a velocity of 72km/h in 10 seconds starting from rest. Find (a) the
acceleration (b) the average velocity (c) the distance travelled in this time.

2. A body is accelerating at a constant rate of 10m/s2. If the body starts from rest, how much
distance will it cover in 2 seconds?

3. The length of minutes hand of a clock in 5 cm. Calculate its speed.

4. An object undergoes an acceleration of 8m/s2 starting from rest. Find the distance travelled in
1 second.

5. A moving train is brought to rest within 20 seconds by applying brakes. Find the initial
velocity, if the retardation due to brakes is 2m/s2.

6. A scooter acquires a velocity of 36km/h in 10 seconds just after the start. Calculate the
acceleration of the scoter.

7. A racing car has uniform acceleration of 4m/s2. What distance will it cover in 10 seconds
after start?

8. A car accelerates uniformly from 18km/h to 36 km/h in 5 seconds. Calculate (i)

acceleration and (ii) the distance covered by the car in that time.

9. A body starts to slide over a horizontal surface with an initial velocity of 0.5 m/s. Due to
friction, its velocity decreases at the rate of 0.05 m/s2. How much time will it take for the body to
stop?
10. A car increases its speed from 20 km/h to 50 km/h in 10 seconds. What is its
acceleration?

11. A train starting from the rest moves with a uniform acceleration of 0.2 m/s2 for 5 minutes.
Calculate the speed acquired and the distance travelled in this time.

12. A bus was moving with a speed of 54 km/h. On applying brakes, it stopped in 8 seconds.
Calculate the acceleration and the distance travelled before stopping.

13. A train starting from rest attains a velocity of 72 km/h in 5 minutes. Assuming that the
acceleration is uniform, find (i) the acceleration and (ii) the distance travelled by the train for
attaining this velocity.

14. A car starts from rest and moves along the x-axis with constant acceleration 5m/s2 for 8
seconds. If it then continues with constant velocity, what distance will the car cover in 12
seconds since it started from the rest?

15. A motor cycle moving with a speed of 5 m/s is subjected to an acceleration of 0.2 m/s2.
Calculate the speed of the motor cycle after 10 seconds and the distance travelled in this time.

16. The brakes applied to a car produce an acceleration of 6 m/s2 in the opposite direction to the
motion. If the car takes 2 seconds to stop after the application of brakes, calculate the distance
it travels during this time.

Bibliography:

• Gurukul, Physics. “Problems Based on Equations of Motion for Class 9 Science.” Gurukul of
Excellence, 7 Aug. 2023, physicsgurukul.com/2022/03/14/problems-based-on-equations-of-
motion/.
• CBSE, Sastry. “Motion Class 9 Notes Science Chapter 8.” Learn CBSE, 15 June 2022,
www.learncbse.in/motion-cbse-notes-class-9-science/.
 Physics Academic
Year 2023-24

Unit name: Vehicle Technology

Key Concept: Systems
Related Concepts: Development, Function
Global context: Scientific and Technical Innovation:
Exploration: opportunity, risk, consequences and responsibility
Statement of Inquiry: Scientific and technical innovation brings with it opportunities for development
of systems; however, it is human responsibility to mitigate the risks of innovation.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments
Topics: Linear momentum, Impulse, Introduction to conservation of momentum
Learning Objectives:
• To understand and apply for Impulse

• To understand and apply formula for momentum.

• To understand and apply formula for change in momentum.
• To understand the concept of conservation of momentum in a closed system.
• To analyse conservation of momentum in elastic and inelastic collisions without change
in direction.

Impulse
Impulse in Physics is a term that is used to describe or quantify the effect of force acting over
time to change the momentum of an object. It is represented by the symbol J and is usually
expressed in Newton seconds or kg m/s.

Here, we will discuss the concept of impulse in detail and understand how it is applied to
different situations. Students will also learn the relation between impulse and momentum,
along with suitable examples.
Before we learn what is impulse in detail, let us understand the concept of momentum.

Momentum
The term momentum is commonly used in sports. When a commentator says that a player has
momentum, it means that the player is on the move, and it is difficult for them to stop. A
body that has momentum cannot be stopped, and therefore it is mandatory to apply a force against
its direction of motion for a particular period.

The greater the momentum, the harder it is to stop. Hence, a higher amount of force is required,
and considerable time should be spent to bring the body to a halt. As the force acts on the body
for a given time, the body’s velocity changes, and hence the body’s momentum changes.

A force changes the velocity of an object in either way. Also, if the object’s velocity changes, the
momentum also changes.

Impulse Equation

Impulse is often stated to be the product of the average net force that acts on an object for a
certain duration. The equation for impulse is given as,

I= F⋅Δt

Note: We assume that force is constant over time.

Impulse is a vector quantity like force, and it also has direction.

Newton’s Second Law

According to Newton’s second law, i.e., Fnet = m. An acceleration of a body is directly
proportional to the net force that acts on the body and inversely proportional to the mass. If
combined with the acceleration [a = (v / t)], the resultant equation is described as:

F = m • a or
F = m (v / t)
When both sides of the equation are multiplied by t, a new equation formed is expressed as:

F t = mv

The above equation describes one of the two primary principles to be applied in the analysis of
the Collision. According to the Physics textbook, the impulse is defined as the change in
momentum calculated by multiplying force by time. Since momentum is mass multiplied by
velocity, the quantity mxv equals to change in momentum.

You need to understand the physics behind collisions. The collisions are based on the laws of
momentum, and the first law is described in the above equation, known as the change in impulse
equation.

The body experiences a force in a collision for a particular period and results in a change of
momentum. The impact of the force acting for a particular amount of time is that the body either
slows down or speeds up or changes its direction.

The object experiences an impulse in a collision, and this impulse is equal to the change in
momentum. For instance, a football halfback who is running down the field and encounters a
collision with a defensive back. The collision changes the halfback’s speed and, therefore, his
momentum.
Collision
A collision occurs when two objects come in direct contact. It is the event in which two or more
bodies exert forces on each other in about a relatively short time. There are two types of
collisions, namely:

What Is an Elastic Collision?

When two bodies collide but there is no loss in the overall kinetic energy, it is called a
perfectly elastic collision.

Elastic Collision Definition:

An elastic collision is a collision in which there is no net loss in kinetic energy in the system due
to the collision. Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved in an elastic collision.

Basically, in the case of elastic collision, the kinetic energy before and after the collision remains
the same and is not converted to any other form of energy.

It can be either one-dimensional or two-dimensional. In the real world, perfectly elastic collision
is impossible because there is bound to be some energy conversion, however small.

However, though there is no change in the Linear momentum of the whole system, there is a
change in the individual momenta of the involved components, which are equal and opposite in
magnitude and cancel each other out and the initial energy is conserved.

The collision of billiard balls is nearly elastic because the kinetic energy is conserved before
and after the collision
Elastic Collision Formula

The Elastic Collision formula of momentum is given by:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Were,

• m1 = Mass of 1st body

• m2 = Mass of 2nd body
• u1 =Initial velocity of 1st body
• u2 = Initial velocity of the second body
• v1 = Final velocity of the first body
• v2 = Final velocity of the second body

The Elastic Collision formula of kinetic energy is given by:

(1/2) m 1u1 2 + (1/2) m 2u 22 = (1/2) m 1v1 2 + (1/2) m 2v 22

Elastic Collision Example Problem: Two billiard balls collide. Ball 1 moves with a velocity of
6 m/s, and ball 2 is at rest. After the collision, ball 1 comes to a complete stop. What is the
velocity of ball 2 after the collision? Is this collision elastic or inelastic? The mass of each ball is
0.20 kg.

Solution:
To find the velocity of ball 2, use a momentum table.

Objects Momentum Before Momentum After

Ball 1 0.20 kg × 6 m/s = 1.2 0

Ball 2 0 0.20 kg × v2

Total 1.2 kg × m/s 0.20 kg × v2

1.2 kg × m/s = 0.20 kg × v2 v2

=1.2 / 0.20 = 6 m/s

To determine whether the collision is elastic or inelastic, calculate the total kinetic energy of the
system both before and after the collision.

Objects KE Before (J) KE After (J)

Ball 1 0.50 × 0.20 × 62 = 3.6 0

Ball 2 0 0.50 × 0.20 × 62 = 3.6

Total 3.6 3.6

Since the kinetic energy before the collision equals the kinetic energy after the collision (kinetic
energy is conserved), this is an elastic collision.

Difference between Elastic and Inelastic Collision:

Some key differences between inelastic and elastic collisions are given below in tabular
format.
Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision

The total kinetic energy is conserved. The total kinetic energy of the bodies
at the beginning and the end of the
collision is different.

Momentum is conserved. Momentum is conserved.

No conversion of energy takes place. Kinetic energy is changed into other

energy such as sound or heat energy.

Highly unlikely in the real world as there is almost This is the normal form of collision in
always a change in energy. the real world.

An example of this can be swinging balls or An example of an inelastic collision

a spacecraft flying near a planet but not can be the collision of two cars.
getting affected by its gravity in the end.
Applications of Elastic Collision

• The collision time affects the amount of force an object experiences during a collision.
The greater the collision time, the smaller the force acting upon the object. Thus, to
maximize the force experienced by an object during a collision, the collision time must
be decreased.
• Likewise, the collision time must be increased to minimise the force. There are
several real-world applications of these phenomena. The airbags in automobiles
increase the collapse time and minimize the effect of force on objects during a
collision. Airbag accomplishes this by extending the time required to stop the
momentum of the passenger and the driver.

Impulse-Momentum Theorem

The Impulse-Momentum theorem helps us establish the relation between the two concepts.
The theorem basically states that the change that is seen in the momentum of an object is
equivalent to the amount of impulse exerted on it.

Basically, what students should understand is that impulse is a measure of change in momentum.
Here, we also get an alternative formula which is given as,

I=p2 – p1
Where,

p1 = initial momentum p2 =

final momentum

With this formula, we can further clearly relate impulse to the changes in the momentum of the
object.

Impulse Examples and Calculation

Here are a few examples of impulse in action.

A cricket player lowers his hand just before catching the ball. This increases the time of impact
and decreases the effect of force.

When someone falls from the bed on a cemented floor receives more injuries when compared to
falling on a heap of sand. This happens because the sand yields more than the cemented floor,
therefore, increasing the impact time and lowering the impact of force.

Calculation:

We will look at a calculation where the impulse for a ball hit an object and comes to a halt.
Here, the object weighs 3.0 kg and has a velocity of 5 m/s before colliding with the object.
Find the impulse.

Δ I= p2 – p1

Δp =m v 2 – m v 1
Δ p = (3.0 kg) (0 m/s) – (3.0 kg) (5 m/s) = -15 kg m/s

Conservation of Linear momentum

Every moving object has momentum, and momentum is defined as the product of an object's
mass and its velocity. As an equation, this can be written as, where p represents the momentum.
Since an object's velocity can change, the momentum of the object can change. The Law of
Conservation of Momentum is useful in describing the momentum of a system of objects. In its
simplest terms, the Law of Conservation of Momentum tells us that the total momentum of an
isolated system remains constant. An isolated system is one in which no outside forces act upon
the objects in the system. Newton's Cradle is an excellent visual representation of conservation of
momentum. When one ball moves and collides with the others, the momentum of the entire
system is conserved as the ball's momentum is transferred to the ball on the other end.
According to the conservation of linear momentum,

If the net external force acting on a system of bodies is zero, then the momentum of the
systemremains constant.
 We must remember that the momentum of the system is conserved and not that of the individual
particles. The momentum of the individual bodies in the system might increase or decrease
according to the situation, but the momentum of the system will always be conserved, if there is
no external net force acting on it.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that if two objects collide, then the total
momentum before and after the collision will be the same if there is no external force acting on the
colliding objects.

The conservation of linear momentum formula mathematically expresses that the momentum of
the system remains constant when the net external force is zero.
Initial momentum = Final momentum

Pi =Pf

One of the applications of conservation of momentum is the launching of rockets. The rocket fuel
burns are pushing the exhaust gases downwards, and due to this, the rocket gets pushed upwards.
Motorboats also work on the same principle; it pushes the water backward and gets pushed forward in
reaction to conserve momentum.

Practice Questions:
1. A 0.2 kg object is initially at rest. A force of 5 N is applied to it for 2 seconds.
Calculate the impulse, final velocity, and change in momentum.
2. Two identical cars, each with a mass of 1000 kg, are moving towards each other with
velocities of 20 m/s and -15 m/s, respectively. If the collision is perfectly elastic, find the
final velocities of the cars.
3. Two objects, one with a mass of 2 kg and the other with a mass of 3 kg, collide and stick
together. If the initial velocities are 4 m/s and 2 m/s, find the final velocity of the system.

Bibliography:

• Admin. “What Is Impulse?: Impulse Formula and Applications.” BYJUS, BYJU’S, 24

Apr. 2023, byjus.com/jee/impulse/.
 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Vehicle Technology

Key Concept: Systems
Related Concepts: Development, Function
Global context: Scientific and Technical Innovation:
Exploration: opportunity, risk, consequences and responsibility
Statement of Inquiry: Scientific and technical innovation brings with it opportunities for development
of systems; however, it is human responsibility to mitigate the risks of innovation.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments
Topics:
Learning Objectives:
• Define Hooke's Law and its significance in physics
• Define what moments are and how they relate to forces
• Understand the concept of torque and its mathematical representation.
• Explain the Principle of Moments and its application in equilibrium.
• Define the concept of the centre of mass and its significance.
• Apply the concept of centre of mass to analyze the stability and equilibrium of
objects.
• Define the centre of gravity and its relationship to the centre of
mass.
• Apply the concept of centre of gravity to analyze the stability of objects.
• Define uniform circular motion and its characteristics.
• Understand the difference between uniform circular motion and linear motion.
 o The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force

• Where:
o F is the force applied
o k is the spring constant
o x is the extension of the spring

• The spring constant is the force per unit extension

o The units are N/m
o The spring constant is a measure of how stiff the spring is
o

• Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
• Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension
graph
• Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched
• If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit of proportionality
(sometimes called the elastic limit). At this point the object will no longer obey Hooke’s
law and will not return to its original length

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit of proportionality

Investigating Force & Extension :

• When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change
• The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the
properties of a material

An experiment to measure the extension of a spring

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
• A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the
bottom, and the position of the spring is measured against the ruler
• The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
• A further mass is added and the new position measured
• The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added
• The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been
carried out a total of three times, and averages can then be taken
• Once measurements have been taken:
o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in
kg) by 9.81 N/kg (the gravitational field strength)
o The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of
the spring from each of the subsequent positions
• Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be
plotted

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Moments:
• As well as causing objects to speed up, slow down, change direction and deform,
forces can also cause objects to rotate
• An example of a rotation caused by a force is on one side of a pivot (a fixed point that the
object can rotate around)
o This rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise

The force will cause the object to rotate clockwise about the pivot

• A moment is defined as:

The turning effect of a force about a pivot

• The size of a moment is defined by the equation: M

=F×d
• Where:
o M = moment in newton metres (Nm)
o F = force in newtons (N)
o d = perpendicular distance of the force to the pivot in metres (m)

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The moment depends on the force and perpendicular distance to the pivot
• This is why, for example, the door handle is placed on the opposite side to the hinge
o This means for a given force, the perpendicular distance from the pivot (the
hinge) is larger
o This creates a larger moment (turning effect) to make it easier to open the
door
• Opening a door with a handle close to the pivot would be much harder, and would
require a lot more force
• Some other examples involving moments include:
o Using a crowbar to prize open something
o Turning a tap on or off
o A wheelbarrow
o Scissors

Principle of moments:
The principle of moments states that:

If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total
anticlockwise moment about that pivot
• Remember that the moment = force × distance from a pivot
• The forces should be perpendicular to the distance from the pivot
• For example, on a horizontal beam, the forces which will cause a moment are those
directed upwards or downwards

Example: A parent and child are at opposite ends of a playground see-saw. The parent weighs
690 N and the child weighs 140 N. The adult sits 0.3 m from the pivot.

Calculate the distance the child must sit from the pivot for the see-saw to be balanced.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Solution:

Step 1: List the known quantities

• Clockwise force (child), Fchild = 140 N

• Anticlockwise force (adult), Fadult = 690 N

• Distance of adult from the pivot, dadult = 0.3 m

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

• Moments are calculated using: Moment =

force × distance from pivot

• For the see-saw to balance, the principle of moments states that

Total clockwise moments = Total anticlockwise moments

Step 3: Calculate the total clockwise moments

• The clockwise moment is from the child

Momentchild = Fchild × dchild = 140 × dchild

Step 4: Calculate the total anticlockwise moments

• The anticlockwise moment is from the adult

Momentadult = Fadult × dadult = 690 × 0.3 = 207 Nm

Step 5: Substitute into the principle of moments equation

140 × dchild = 207

Step 6: Rearrange for the distance of the child from the pivot

dchild = 207 ÷ 140 = 1.48 m

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Centre of mass and Centre of gravity:
What is the Centre of Mass?
The centre of mass is defined as the point at which the mass’s relative position is calculated to be
zero. The mass distribution is considered uniform around the centre of mass. Because the centre
of mass is independent of the gravitational field (g), the body remains unaffected by changes in
the gravitational field’s force.
In simple rigid objects with uniform density, the centre of mass is located at the centre or
centroid. In the case of sophisticated objects, the total centre of mass becomes zero.

What is the Centre of Gravity?

The centre of gravity is defined as the exact place in a body around which the instants due to
gravity are regarded as zero. The centre of gravity is the point at which the entire body is
perfectly balanced in relation to gravity.
If that exact place is given support in the opposite direction of gravity, the body will achieve
equilibrium. The centre of gravity is abbreviated as C.G. or simply G. The object’s centre of
gravity could be inside or outside the object’s body. The gravitational field (g) always affects
the centre of gravity because when the gravitational field’s value varies, the centre of gravity’s
value changes as well.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Difference Between Centre of Mass and Centre of Gravity

Centre of Mass Centre of Gravity

The centre of mass is the point where mass The centre of gravity is the point where
distribution is uniform in all directions. weight is evenly distributed in all directions.

The Centre of mass is based on the mass of The Centre of gravity is based on the weight
the body. of the body.

It is said to be the centre where the entire It is defined as the point at which the body’s
bodily mass is concentrated. entire weight is suspended.

There is a uniform distribution of mass There is a uniform distribution of the weight

of the body. of the body.

When a body travels through an axis, the When a body travels through an axis, the
mass operating on the left side is equal to weight on the left side becomes equal to the
the mass acting on the right side. weight on the right side.

Changes in the force of the earth’s acting

The change in the gravitational field has no gravity usually cause the object to move
effect on it. closer to the parts of the object in a
stronger field.

When spinning around that point, it provides Because of gravity, the net torque is zero.
some angular momentum.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6mFGzESlmxI

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Centre of Mass

• The centre of mass will be at the centre of a symmetrical object. The centre of
mass is the point at which the object will balance. It is often found in the centre of a
symmetrical object

• The weight of an object acts at the centre of mass. Weight will act as a
uniform force, directly downwards from the centre of mass.

Using a Newton meter

• Newton meters are used to measure weight. Newton meters are calibrated
spring-balances, which are used to measure weight. When an object is placed
onto the end of the newton meter, the spring will extend. Then the force (weight)
can be read off the scale.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Stability
The stability of an object can be affected by the:

1. Position of the centre of gravity. The lower the centre of gravity,

the more stable the object. The higher the centre of gravity, the less stable the
object. It is more likely to topple over.
2. Area of the base. An object with a larger overall base area will be
more stable. For example, think about a tall glass compared to a mug. The mug
has a larger base surface area and is much less likely to topple over than the
glass.

Combining these two factors determines the stability of an object. If the objects centre of
gravity does not pass through the base when it is tilted, it will topple over

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Finding the Centre of Mass of an Irregular Shaped Object
Method:

1. Gather your equipment. You will need a clamp, a plumb line, a pin and a
lamina.
2. Attach the object. Attach the irregular shaped lamina to a pin.
3. Allow the card to swing. Hang up the card and let it turn until the centre of
mass is vertically under the pin.
4. Attach a plumb line. Repeat using a plumb line. Mark the position of the
thread.
5. Repeat. Mark the position of the thread at least two more times, changing the
position of the pin.
6. Determine the centre of mass. The point at which the lines cross is the centre of
mass.

Solved Problems:
Problem 1: Two-point masses of 3 kg and 5 kg are located at 4 m and 8 m on X-axis. Find the
centre of mass.
Solution: Given, m1
= 3 kg
m2 = 5 kg x1
= 4 m x2 =
8m
Using Centre of mass formula,
Xcm = m1x1+m2x2/ m1+m2
= (3)(4) + (5)(8)/ 3 + 5
= 6.5
So, the centre of mass is 6.5 m.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Problem 2: Two-point masses of 2 kg and 5 kg are located at 10 m and -5 m on Y-axis
respectively. Calculate the centre of mass.
Solution: Given, m1
= 2 kg
m2 = 5 kg y1
= 10 m y2 =
-5 m
Using centre of mass formula,
Ycm = m1y1+m2y2/m1+m2
= (2)(10)+(5)(-5)/2+5
= 5/7
So, the centre of mass is 5/7 m.
Problem 3: In a human body, where is the centre of gravity?
Solution: The centre of gravity is roughly anterior to the second sacral vertebra in anatomical
location. However, because humans do not remain in the same anatomical posture for long
periods of time, the precise location of the COG changes with each new position of the torso
and limbs.

Problem 4: What effect does the Centre of Gravity have on the balance?
Solution: The stability of objects is affected by their centre of gravity. The lower the object’s
centre of gravity (G), the more stable it is. The higher the thing, the more probable it is to
collapse over if pushed. Racing automobiles have low centre of gravity, allowing them to turn
quickly without tipping over.

Problem 5: What is the significance of the centre of gravity?

Solution: The centre of gravity greatly simplifies gravitational and dynamical calculations by
treating an object’s mass as though it were concentrated at one spot.

Uniform Circular Motion: The movement of a body following a circular path is

called a circular motion. Now, the motion of a body moving with constant speed along a
circular path is called Uniform Circular Motion. Here, the speed is constant but the velocity
changes.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

If a particle is moving in a circle, it must have some acceleration acting towards the centre
which is making it move around the centre. Since this acceleration is perpendicular to the
velocity of a particle at every instant, it is only changing the direction of velocity and not
magnitude and that’s why the motion is uniform circular motion. We call this
acceleration centripetal acceleration (or radial acceleration), and the force acting towards the
centre is called centripetal force.

In the case of uniform circular motion, the acceleration is:

ar = v2/r = ω2r

If the mass of the particle is m, we can say from the second law of motion that:

F = ma mv2/r=

mω2r

This is not a special force, actually force like tension or friction may be a cause of origination of
centripetal force. When the vehicles turn on the roads, it is the frictional force between tyres and
ground that provides the required centripetal force for turning.

Uniform Circular Motion Examples

Following are the examples of uniform circular motion:
• Motion of artificial satellites around the earth is an example of uniform circular motion.
The gravitational force from the earth makes the satellites stay in the circular orbit
around the earth.
• The motion of electrons around its nucleus.
• The motion of blades of the windmills.
• The tip of second’s hand of a watch with a circular dial shows uniform circular
motion.
• Note: So if a particle is moving in a uniform circular motion:
• 1) Its speed is constant
• 2) Velocity is changing at every instant
• 3) There is no tangential acceleration
• 4) Radial (centripetal) acceleration = ω2r
• 5) v=ωr
In case of non-uniform circular motion, there is some tangential acceleration due to
which the speed of the particle increases or decreases. The resultant acceleration is the
vector sum of radial acceleration and tangential acceleration.
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
Centripetal Force:
Centripetal force is the force acting on an object in curvilinear motion directed towards the axis
of rotation or centre of curvature.
• The Centripetal Force Formula is given as the product of mass (in kg) and tangential
velocity (in meters per second) squared, divided by the radius (in meters) that implies
that on doubling the tangential velocity, the centripetal force will be quadrupled.
Mathematically it is written as:

Where, F is the Centripetal force, m is the mass of the object, v is the speed or velocity of
the object and r is the radius.

Centripetal Force Examples in Daily Life

The centripetal force pulls or pushes an object towards the centre of a circle as it travels,
causing angular or circular motion.

• When spinning a ball on a string or twirling a lasso, the force of tension on the
rope pulls the object towards the centre.
• The centripetal force is provided by the frictional force between the ground and
the wheels when turning a car.
• When going through a loop on a roller coaster, the force is provided by the normal
force as the seat or wall pushes you towards the centre.
• For the planets orbiting around the Sun, the centripetal force is provided by
Gravity

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5nSGCsHUZY

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Practice questions: Criterion A

1. Write down what is the tendency to overturn by a cyclist if he turns around a curve at 15
miles/hour and if he doubles the speed?
2. List down the device used for measuring the speed of rotation.
3. State what happens to the velocity vector of a particle, if the particle is moving in a
circle, at equal angles in equal times.
4. Outline which property is conserved when a particle is moving with constant angular
velocity?
5. Write down what happens to the direction when a vector is multiplied by a positive
number?
6. A racer is moving with a constant tangential speed of 50 m/s, takes one lap around a
circular track in 40 seconds. Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration of the car.

Answers:

1. From formula, we

know that

This means that F is directly proportional to v2

Therefore, it can be said that if v becomes double, then F will become four times. So the
tendency to overturn is quadrupled.

2.The tachometer is a device that is used for measuring the speed of rotation.

3. The velocity vector of a particle will change its direction. This is because it is always
directed in the direction of the tangent to the circle.

4. When a particle is moving with constant angular velocity, the energy of the particle is
conserved. This is because in a uniform circular motion, kinetic energy remains unchanged
and the momentum of the particle varies with a change in velocity.

5. The work done by the body when it moves along a circle with a constant speed is zero.
This means that the work done by the centripetal force is zero.

6. Given:

Speed v = 50 m/s T

= 40 seconds. We

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

know

that,Acceleration,

T = 2 π r / v Therefore, r

= Tv / 2π

When both the formulas are combined, we get a =

v2 / (Tv/2 π) = v / (T/2 π)

= 50 /[ 40 / 6.28]

a = 7.86

Bibliography:

Admin. “Hooke’s Law - Definition, Equations, Applications, Limitations.” BYJUS, BYJU’S, 5

May 2023, byjus.com/jee/hookes-law/.

Admin. “Uniform Circular Motion - Definition, Laws, Formula, Examples, Videos, and Faqs.”
BYJUS, BYJU’S, 1 June 2023, byjus.com/physics/uniform-circular- motion/
#what%20is%20uniform%20circular%20motion.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Work energy and Power

Key Concept: Systems
Related Concepts: Energy, Environment, Transformation Global
context: Globalization and sustainability Exploration: Human
impact on the environment
Statement of Inquiry: Careful consideration of energy transformation helps in building a
sustainable system.

. Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments
Topics: Work done, Kinetic energy, Different forms of energy, Work energy theorem, Energy
conversions and transformations, Efficiency and power

Learning Objectives:
• Define work in physics and its relation to force and displacement.
• Calculate work done in various situations using the formula W = F * d * cos(θ)
• Understand the significance of the angle between force and displacement in
determining work.
• Apply the concept of work to practical scenarios involving different types of forces.
• Define kinetic energy and its relation to an object's mass and velocity.
• Identify and describe various forms of energy including mechanical, thermal,
chemical, electrical, nuclear, and electromagnetic energy.
• Explore examples of each form of energy in everyday life and scientific applications.
• Apply the work-energy theorem to solve problems involving the relationship
between work done on an object and its change in kinetic energy.
• Analyze real-world examples of energy conversion, such as a car engine, a light bulb, or
a hydroelectric dam.
• Define efficiency as the ratio of useful output energy to input energy in a system.
• Calculate efficiency using the formula: Efficiency = (Useful output energy / Total
input energy) * 100%.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Introduction:
When a force acts on a body and it moves through a certain distance, work is said to be done. The
concept of work is closely related to energy as more the energy spent, more is the work done. A
person with more power can also do more work.

The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are frequently used in everyday language. A farmer
clearing weeds in his field is said to be working hard . In physics, the word work has a special
meaning. Work is said to be done when the force acting on body produced motion in it in the
direction of force (or in the direction of component of force). Thus a boy pushing the wall is
doing no work from physics’ point of view. A body which has the capacity to do work is said to
possess energy. The greater the capacity of a body to do work, the greater the energy it has. The
term power is usually associated with speed. In karate, a powerful punch is one delivered at great
speed. In physics we shall define these terms very precisely. Thus work, energy and the power
are related to each other.

In our day to day life, the word work means any kind of mental and physical activity. Work is said
to be done when a force displaces a body through certain distance in the direction of force. For
example, we say that we are doing work while,
• reading a book,
• cooking the food,
• A boy pulling a toy car with a string. The change in position of the toy car shows that
some work has been done.
• walking on a level road with a box on our head,
• pushing a wall of a house but fails to do so.
• A bullock pulling a cart. The cart moves. The bullock pulls the cart with a
force which moves the cart in the direction of force and hence the work is said to be
done.

In all these cases, either mental or physical activity is involved.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

But is physics, the term work has entirely a different meaning. In physics work is done if a force
applied on a body displaced the body in its own direction. In other words, the condition which
must be satisfied for the work done are : (i) a force must act on the body and (ii) the body must be
displaced from one position to another position. Thus, no work is done in (i) ,
(ii) ,(iv) ,(v) cases mentioned above. But in the case (ii) and (vi) when a force displaces a body
through certain distance in the direction of force work is said to be done.

Definition:
Work is said to be done when a force displaces a body through certain distance in the direction
of force.

For example :
• A batsmen uses a bat to hit a ball when he wants to hit the ball six.
• A bullock pulling a cart. The cart moves. The bullock pulls the cart with a force which
moves the cart in the direction of force and hence the work is said to be done.
• A man pushing a car.

Thus, the work done by a force on a body depends on two factors :

• Magnitude of the force.
• Distance through which the body moves in the direction of force.

In other word the work done by a given force on a body depends only on the force, the
displacement, and the angle between them. It does not depend on the velocity or the
acceleration of the body, or on the presence of other forces.

MEASUREMENT OF WORK:

Let a constant force, F acts on an object and displaces the object through a distance‘s’ in the
direction of the force applied. Then, the work done W is given by the product of force exerted on
the body and the distance moved by the body in the direction of force. i.e.

Work = Force × Displacement W =

F ×s

Work done has only magnitude and no direction. Therefore, it is a scalar quantity. If F

= 1 N and s = 1 m, then work done by the force will be 1 Nm.

The S. I. unit of work is Joule or Nm.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 1J=1Nm

1 Joule is the amount of work done on an object when a force of 1 N displaces it by 1 m along
the line of action of force.

The condition for a force to do work is that it should produce motion in an object.

If however the distance moved is zero, then the work done on the object is always zero.

Units of Work done :

Work done, W = Fd

In C.G.S. system the unit of work done is dyne x cm = erg.

Definition of 1 erg :

If F = 1 dyne and d = 1 cm. then

W = 1 × 1 = 1 erg.

If one dyne force is applied on a body and displacement in the body in 1 cm in the direction of
force, then work done will be one erg.

S.I. unit of work done is Newton × metre = joule.

Work is measured by the product of force and the displacement in the direction of force. Work
is a scalar quantity.

Work = Force × displacement in the direction of force

W = f d cos θ
Where W is the work done, F is the force, d is the displacement, θ is the angle between force and
displacement and F cosθ is the component of force in the direction of displacement.

We understand from the work equation that if there is no displacement, there is no work done,
irrespective of how large the force is. To summarize, we can say that no work is done if:
• the displacement is zero
• the force is zero
• the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular to each other.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

We can understand work done by following examples:
• A man pushing a stationary wall. There is no movement of the wall. So the work done by
the man on the wall is zero. However the work done on the body of the man himself is
not zero. This is because when the man pushes the wall, his muscles are stretched and
blood is displaced to the strained muscles more rapidly. So, due to energy consumption
man feels tired.
• A man standing still at a bus stop with heavy suitcases in his hands may get tired soon but
there is no work done in this situation. This is because the suitcases held by the man do
not move at all.

Both the case s=0 .Distance covered by the body is zero. Then work done will be zero.

Some special cases :

Case -I : If , then -

From equation (i)

W = Fd cos = Fd cos00 So,

W = Fd (maximum)

When force and displacement are in same direction then work done will be maximum.

Case - II : When = 900, then - From

equation (i)

W = Fd cos900 So,

W=0

When force and displacement are perpendicular to each other then work done will be zero.

e.g. If a body is moving in horizontal direction then work done by the force of gravity will be
zero.

e.g. If a body is moving on a circular path then work done by the centripetal force will be zero,

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

because the direction of centripetal force is towards the center of the circle and displacement
will be along the tangent.Case III :

If = 180o

then from equation (i)

W = Fd cos 1800 cos 1800 = -1 then

W = - Fd

When the force and displacement are in opposite direction then work done will be negative.e.g.
When a spring is compressed then the force applied by the spring and the displacement will be
in opposite direction to each other, so work done by the spring will be negative.

When the spring is stretched then the work done will also be negative.

e.g. When a body of mass m in lifted upward a fore F = mg has to be applied upward Work

done by the force of gravity will be negative

Work done, W = - mgh

Example: An object is horizontally dragged across the surface by a 100 N force acting parallel
to the surface. Find out the amount of work done by the force in moving the object through a
distance of 8 m.

Solution:

Given: F = 100 N, d = 8 m

Since F and d are in the same direction, θ = 0, [θ is the angle of the force to the direction of movement],
therefore W = F d Cos θ

W = 100 x 8 x Cos 0

W = 800 J [Since Cos 0 = 1]

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Kinetic Energy:
Energy of a body due to its motion is known as the kinetic energy of the body. If a body of mass
m is moving with velocity v, then its kinetic energy =1/2 mv2.

Examples :
• A speeding car
• A rolling stone
• A running athlete
• A flying air craft

Work Energy Theorem

The work-energy theorem states that the total work done by all of the forces on the object is
equal to the change in kinetic energy of the object. This theorem is important because it allows
us to predict the direction, speed, or energy of a moving object.

W= Kf – Ki = 1/2mv2 – ½ mu2 Where

Kf= Final kinetic energy

Ki= Initial kinetic energy W =

net work done

The work-energy principle or work-energy theorem relates the work done by all forces acting
on an object to its energy. It states that the total amount of work done on an object is equal to the
object's change in kinetic energy (final kinetic energy minus initial kinetic energy). This
principle applies when multiple forces act on an object that changes its state of rest or motion.
Therefore, it is an important principle to understand how forces do work which eventually
allows us to predict whether the object will speed up or slow down. When the object speeds up,
its energy increases and the energy decreases when the object slows down. In the language of
physics, "positive work" and "negative work" are sometimes being used. A positive work (+W)
means that the object's kinetic energy increases, which means it is speeding up because of the
force applied. If the kinetic energy decreases, negative work (- W) is done, and the object slows
down.

An example would be a biker moving at a constant speed on a flat, horizontal surface. When
another person pushes the biker from behind, this applied force can increase the kinetic energy
of the biker and speed up its motion (+W). Likewise, when a force is applied in the opposite
direction of the biker, the applied force can decrease the kinetic energy slowing it down (-W).

Let us now express the kinetic energy of an object in the form of an equation. Consider an
object of mass, ‘m’ moving with a uniform velocity u on a perfectly frictionless surface.
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
Let it now be displaced through a distance s when a constant force, F acts on it, in the direction
of its displacement.

So, work done = F × s … (i)

The work done on the object will cause a change in its velocity. Let its velocity change from u to
v.

Let, a be the acceleration produced.

The relation connecting the initial velocity (u) and final velocity (v) of an object moving with a
uniform acceleration (a) and the displacement (s) is

v2 – u2 = 2 as

This gives,

…(ii)

We know, F = m × a or …(iii)

So, putting the values of ‘s’ and ‘F’ in equation (i)

W = m × a×

or

If the object is starting from its stationary position, that is u = 0, then,

It is clear that the work done is equal to the change is the kinetic energy of an object.

If u=0 ,the work done will be

Thus, kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass m and moving with a uniform velocity, v is
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
From this formula, it is clear that
• The kinetic energy of a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body.
• The kinetic energy of a body is directly proportional to the square of velocity of the
body.

Note:
• If the mass of a body is doubled, its kinetic energy also gets doubled and if the mass of
a body is halved, its kinetic energy also gets halved. If the velocity of a body is
doubled, its kinetic energy becomes 4 times. If the velocity of a body is halved, then its
kinetic energy becomes 1/4th.
• Since the kinetic energy of a body depends on its mass and velocity, therefore heavy
bodies moving with high velocities have more kinetic energy, than slow moving bodies
of small mass.

Example 1: What is the work to be done to increase the velocity of a car from 30 km/h to 60 km/
h. If mass of the car is 1500 kg.

Solution: Mass of car, m = 1500 kg. Initial

velocity, u = 30 km/h = 8.33 m/s. Final

velocity, v = 60 km/h = 16.67 m/s.

Work done,

W = × 1500[(16.67)2 - (8.33)2]

= 750(277.9 - 69.4)

W = 750 × 208.5 = 156375 J.

W = 1.56 × 105 J.

2. Calculate the kinetic energy of a body of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity of 0.1 m/s.

Solution: kinetic energy

= 0.01 J
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
3. An object of mass 15 kg is moving with a uniform velocity of 4 m/s. What is the kinetic
energy possessed by the object?

Solution:
m = 15 kg v =

4 m/s

= 120 J

Potential Energy :
It is the energy possessed by the body due to its position or configuration. Configuration means
the change in relative position of its parts or condition.

(i) Potential energy due to position : A body lying in an elevated position such as a stone lying
on the roof of a building or water stored in a reservoir has got some potential energy. When
allowed to fall, it is capable of doing some work. If it were raised higher, it could do more work
and hence would have possessed more potential energy.These are the examples of potential
energy possessed by a body due to its position. This type of potential energy is also called
gravitational potential energy.

(ii) Potential energy due to configuration or elastic potential energy or strain potential
energy :Elastic potential energy is due to a change in the shape of the body. The change in
shape of a body can be brought about by compressing, stretching, bending or twisting.

(b) We can see more examples as :

• Water stored in dam has potential energy due to its position.
• A stone lying on the top of all hill or a mountain has potential energy due to its
position.
• A stretched or compressed spring has potential energy due to this shape. When spring is
stretched or compressed, work is done on it. This work done is stored as potential energy
of the stretched or compressed spring.
• A wound spring of a watch has potential energy due to its shape.
• A stretched bow and arrow has potential energy due to its shape.

P.E= mgh
• Gravitational potential energy of a body on the surface of the earth (i.e. h = 0) is zero.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • Gravitational potential energy of a body increases if the body moves upward (i.e. h
increases).
• Gravitational potential energy of a body deceases if the body moves downward (i.e.
decreases).
• Gravitational potential energy depends only on the initial and final position of the body
and not on the path followed by the body to go form initial position to final position. It
means, the gravitational potential energy of body at height h will be same if it is either
taken straight upward to height h or it is taken along a curved path to height h.

FORMS OF ENERGY:
There are various forms of energy :

• Mechanical Energy. It is the energy possessed by a body due to its position (potential
energy) or motion (kinetic energy). The sum of these two energies is called mechanical
energy.
• Solar Energy. The energy radiated by the Sun is called solar energy. Plants collect and
store this energy to make food through photosynthesis.
• Chemical Energy. It is the energy possessed by fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and
natural gas) and is also called the fuel energy. The food that we eat has chemical
energy stored in it.
• Heat Energy. It is the energy released when coal, oil, gas or wood burn and it
produces in us the sensation of warmth.
• Light Energy. It is the form of energy which produces in us the sensation of sight. Sun
is the natural source of light.
• Sound Energy. It is the energy possessed by vibrating objects and it produces in us the
sensation of hearing.
• Electrical Energy. The energy possessed by charges (either at rest or in motion) is
called electric energy.
• Nuclear Energy. The energy produced in the processes of fission and fusion is called
nuclear energy.
The kinetic energy and potential energy taken together is known as mechanical energy.
Law of conservation of Energy:
According to law of conservation of energy whenever energy gets transformed, the total energy
remains unchanged. Energy can be transformed from one form to another.

i.e. energy can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy before and after the
transformation remains the same.

If you take all forms of energy into account, the total energy of an isolated system always
remains constant. All the forms of energy follow the law of conservation of energy. In brief, the
law of conservation of energy states that in a closed system, i.e., a system that is isolated from its
surroundings, the total energy of the system is conserved.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

So in an isolated system such as the universe, if there is a loss of energy in some part of it, there
must be a gain of an equal amount of energy in some other part of the universe.
Although this principle cannot be proved, there is no known example of a violation of the
principle of conservation of energy.

In Physics, most of the inventions rely on the fact that energy is conserved when it is transferred
from one form to another. A number of electrical and mechanical devices operate solely on the
law of conservation of energy. We will discuss a few examples here.

• In a torch, the chemical energy of the batteries is converted into electrical energy,
which is converted into light and heat energy.
• In hydroelectric power plants, waterfalls on the turbines from a height. This, in turn,
rotates the turbines and generates electricity. Hence, the potential energy of water is
converted into the kinetic energy of the turbine, which is further converted into
electrical energy.
• In a loudspeaker, electrical energy is converted into sound energy.
• In a microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy.
• In a generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
• When fuels are burnt, chemical energy is converted into heat and light energy.
• Chemical energy from food is converted to thermal energy when it is broken down in the
body and is used to keep it warm.

Energy Conversions Or Energy Transformation

(i) An Electric motor used in electric fans, washing machines, refrigerators, mixer and grinder
etc. convert

Electrical energy → Mechanical energy.

(ii) A Generator converts

Mechanical energy → Electrical energy.

(iii) An Electric Iron converts

Electrical energy → Heat Energy

(iv) An Electric Heater converts

Electrical Energy → Heat Energy

(v) An Electric Bulb converts

Electrical Energy → Heat Energy → Light Energy

In an electric bulb flow of electricity causes the tungsten filament in the bulb to become white hot
and give out light. So in an electric bulb the energy transformation takes place as follows

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • Solar Cell : Light Energy → Electrical Energy
• Solar Heater : Light Energy → Heat Energy
• Burning LPG : Chemical Energy → Heat Energy + Light Energy
• Cell or Battery : Chemical Energy → Electrical Energy
• Car Engine : It converts the chemical energy of petrol into heat energy and then into
kinetic energy or mechanical energy.

Chemical → Heat → Kinetic Energy or Mechanical Energy

• Steam Engine: Heat Energy → Kinetic Energy

• Radio: Electrical Energy → Kinetic Energy of diaphragm in speaker→ Sound Energy
• At thermal power station: Chemical energy → Heat Energy → Kinetic Energy →
Electrical Energy.

When coal is burnt, the chemical energy of coal is changed into heat energy. This heat energy
converts water into steam. The high pressure steam turns the steam turbines changing the heat
energy into kinetic energy. The turbines run electricity generators which convert kinetic energy
into electrical energy.

Few more examples

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

The commercial unit of energy is kWh (Kilowatt hour).
1 kWh is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical appliance having a
power rating of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour.

The energy used in households, industries and commercial establishments are usually
expressed in kilowatt hour. For e.g. electrical energy used during a month is expressed in terms
of ‘units’. Here, 1 ‘unit’ means 1 kWh or BOTU (Board of Trade unit).

Efficiency :
The efficiency of a system is a measure of the amount of wasted energy in an energy transfer Efficiency

is defined as:

The ratio of the useful power or energy output from a system to its total power or energy
input
• If a system has high efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is useful
• If a system has low efficiency, this means most of the energy transferred is wasted
• The overall efficiency of a typical thermal power station is approximately 30%
o This means that 70% of the energy transferred from the power station to the
National Grid is wasted energy
• In the production of electricity:
o Energy is used to heat water to produce steam
o The steam turns a turbine
o The turbine turns a generator
o The generator produces electricity
▪ At each stage of this process, energy is dissipated to the surroundings

Efficiency can be determined quantitatively by the ratio of useful output to total input. The
ratio of energy transferred to a useful form compared to the total energy supplied initially is
called the efficiency of the device.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Power
A certain amount of work done appears to be tiring if done quickly and in a very short time.
Same amount of work is done slowly in a larger interval of time gives no feeling of tiredness.

This fact has given rise to a new concept i.e. the rate at which work is done and it defines
power.

Definition:

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate of doing work i.e. work done per unit time
(second) by a man or machine, is called power of the man or the machine. it is represented by the
symbol P. Power is a scalar quantity.

Hence

P= F × v

i.e. Power = Force × Velocity

Unit: S.I. unit of power is watt (W).

One watt is the power of a man or a machine capable of doing work at the rate of one joule per
second

e. or W = J s-1

DISTINCTION WITH ENERGY:

• Energy measures total work done.
• Power measures work done per unit time (second).
• e.g. An old man works slowly for eight hours and manufactures 24 items in a day. His
younger son works quickly for two hours and manufactures 16 items in a day.
The old man has more energy but less power. The
young mas has less energy but more power.
Energy of an object tells us the total amount of work it can performed. But power is rate
at which work is done and not the total work done.
The unit of power called watt is named after a Scottish inventor, Engineer and designer
James Watt.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Practice Problems: Criterion A- Knowing and Understanding
1. Calculate how much work should be done on a bicycle of mass 20 kg to increase its speed
from 2 m/s to 5 m/s?

2. A boy of mass 50 kg runs up a staircase of 45 steps in 9 s. If the height of each step is 15

cm. Find his power. (g = 10 m/s2)

3. State the work energy theorem?

4. A heat engine gives out 500 J of heat energy as useful work. Determine the energy supplied to
it as input if its efficiency is 40%.

Answers:
Ist Case: m = 20 kg

IInd Case : m = 20 kg

=10 x 25

= 250 J

Work done = Change in kinetic energy

= 250 – 40

= 210 J

1. Mass of man, m = 50 kg.

Height covered, h = 45 × 15 = 675 cm = 6.75 m Power P

P = 375 watt.

2. The work-energy theorem states that the work done by the net force on a body is equal to the
change in kinetic energy
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
.​
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w4QFJb9a8vo

References:
• “Work, Energy, and Power: Crash Course Physics #9.” YouTube, YouTube, 26 May 2016,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=w4QFJb9a8vo.
• Leander. “1.7.1 Energy Stores & Transfers: CIE IGCSE Physics Revision Notes 2023.” Save My
Exams, www.savemyexams.com/igcse/physics/cie/23/revision-notes/1-motion-forces--energy/1-7-
energy-work--power/1-7-1-energy-stores--transfers/. Accessed 14 Mar. 2024.
• “Physics Class 9 Notes: Chapter- Work, Power and Energy: Work.” Physics Wallah, Physics Wallah, 31
Dec. 1969, www.pw.live/chapter-work-power-and-energy-class-9/work.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Academic Year 2023-24

Unit name: Work energy and Power

Key Concept: Systems
Related Concepts: Energy, Environment, Transformation Global
context: Globalization and sustainability Exploration: Human
impact on the environment
Statement of Inquiry: Careful consideration of energy transformation helps in building a
sustainable system.

Aim: Cultivate analytical, inquiring and flexible minds that pose questions, solve problems,
construct explanations and judge arguments
Topics: Elastic Potential Energy, Numericals on Elastic Potential Energy, Sankey
Diagrams and its Importance.

Learning Objectives:

1) To understand about the Elastic Potential Energy.

2) Solving numericals using the formula of Elastic Potential Energy.
3) Sakey Diagrams
4) Rules to draw Sankey Diagrams.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy, also known as elastic energy, is the energy stored in an elastic
object when a force is applied to deform it. The energy is stored as long as the force is
present. When the force is released, the energy is converted into another form according
to the conservation of energy law. The applied force must be within a specific limit,
known as the elastic limit.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Examples

The following objects from everyday life store elastic potential energy:

• The spring of a wind-up clock

• The stretched bow of an archer
• A bent diving board just before a diver takes a dive
• The rubber band of a stretched slingshot
• When a bouncy ball hits the wall or floor.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 1. A spring has a spring constant of 200 N/m. If it is compressed by 0.1 m from its

equilibrium position, what is the elastic potential energy stored in the spring?

Spring constant, k =200 N/m

Displacement, x=0.1 m

Using the formula for elastic potential energy:

1
2
Eelastic = k x
2
1
2
= * 200 *(0.1)
2

=
1J

2. A force of 50 N is required to stretch a spring by 0.2 m. Calculate the

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 elastic potential energy stored in the spring.

Given: Force, F=50 N Displacement x=0.2 m

To find the spring constant (k), we can rearrange Hooke's Law, F=kx to solve for k

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 k=F/x

k=500/0.2 =250 N/m

1
2
Eelastic = k x
2
1 2
= * 250 *(0.2)
2

=
5J

Sankey diagrams

A Sankey diagram gives a visual illustration of an input/output situation. It is

drawn to scale - there are lots of variations as to how they are drawn - only thing
they have in common is that the width of the 'arms' represents the energy transferred
but the length of the 'arms' does not!
Sankey diagrams allow us to visualize flow through a process or system more
easily than a table of numerical data can.
They show not only the energy transfers involved but also the quantitative
distribution of values in the transfers.

Sankey diagrams do add an 'indisputable expressive power to mathematical

rendering of a system'. When constructed properly, Sankey diagrams represent flow
in a manner that can be perceived by anyone, instantly.
However, Sankey diagrams can be difficult, time-consuming, and uninteresting to
produce by hand - very tedious to draw! The benefits of being able to generate these
diagrams automatically, anytime, are obvious to anyone who has tried to draw one
and commercial computer packages for their production are available.
They are used not only in physics and engineering to demonstrate how energy is
distributed but also for cash flow in businesses.
there is a specific way in which the Sankey diagrams is to be drawn.

• The input is from the left of the diagram.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 • The wanted (useful) output is to the right.
• All unwanted (wasted) output is made to go vertically down.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Remember the total input always equals the total output - but an efficient system
will have a high percentage of useful output.

************************************

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

The Sun is Earth’s major source of energy, yet the planet only receives a small portion of its
energy, and the Sun is just an ordinary star. Many stars produce much more energy than the Sun.
The energy source for all stars is nuclear fusion. Stars are made mostly of hydrogen and helium,
which are packed so densely in a star that in the star’s centre the pressure is great enough to
initiate nuclear fusion reactions. In a nuclear fusion reaction, the nuclei of two atoms combine to
create a new atom. Most commonly, in the core of a star, two hydrogen atoms fuse to become a
helium atom. Although nuclear fusion reactions require a lot of energy to get started, once they
are going, they produce enormous amounts of energy. In a star, the energy from fusion reactions
in the core pushes outward to balance the inward pull of gravity. This energy moves outward
through the layers of the star until it finally reaches the star’s outer surface. The outer layer of the
star glows brightly, sending the energy out into space as electromagnetic radiation, including
visible light, heat, ultraviolet light, and radio waves.

In particle accelerators, subatomic particles are propelled until they have attained almost the
same amount of energy as found in the core of a star. When these particles collide head-on, new
particles are created. This process simulates the nuclear fusion that takes place in the cores of
stars. The process also simulates the conditions that allowed for the first helium atom to be
produced from the collision of two hydrogen atoms in the first few minutes of the universe.

Fusion Reactions in Stars

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 • In the centre of a stable star, hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to form helium
• The equation for this reaction is:

Deuterium and tritium are both isotopes of hydrogen. They can be formed through other
fusion reactions in the star
• Fusion is defined as:

The joining of two small nuclei to produce a larger nucleus

• Low-mass nuclei (such as hydrogen and helium) can undergo fusion and release
energy
• A huge amount of energy is released in the reaction
• This provides a pressure that prevents the star from collapsing under its gravity

The fusion of deuterium and tritium to form helium with the release of energy

• For two nuclei to fuse, both nuclei must have high kinetic energy
o This is because the protons inside the nuclei are positively charged, which
means that they repel one another
• It takes a great deal of energy to overcome the electrostatic force between protons
o This is why fusion reactions can only be achieved in an extremely high-energy
environment, such as a star’s core
• When two protons fuse, the element deuterium is produced
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 • In the centre of stars, the deuterium combines with a tritium nucleus to form a helium
nucleus, plus the release of energy, which provides fuel for the star to continue burning

The Big Bang

• Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that
was extremely hot and dense
• Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
• This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to form the
universe today
• Each point expands away from the others
o This is seen from galaxies moving away from each other, and the further away
they are the faster they move
• Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding
and supports the Big Bang Theory
o As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to expand

All galaxies are moving away from each other, indicating that the universe is expanding
• An analogy of this is points drawn on a balloon where the balloon represents space
and the points as galaxies

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 o When the balloon is deflated, all the points are close together and an equal
distance apart
o As the balloon expands, all the points become further apart by the same
amount
o This is because the space itself has expanded between the galaxies

A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies

Galactic Redshift
• Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
• If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched out

Diagram showing the wavefronts produced from a stationary object and a moving
object

• A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to
change:

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 o The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases (λ – Δλ) and the
frequency increases
o The wavelength behind the source increases (λ + Δλ) and the frequency
decreases
o This effect is known as the Doppler effect

• The Doppler effect also affects light

• If an object moves towards an observer the wavelength of light decreases
o This is known as blueshift as the light moves towards the blue end of the
spectrum
• If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
o This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the
spectrum

Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blue shifted and light from
a star moving away from an observer will be redshifted

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The observer in front observes a blue shift, the observer behind observes a red shift

The Doppler Effect

• The Doppler Effect is defined as: The apparent change in wavelength and frequency of
a wave emitted by a moving source
• This effect can be observed in a variety of scenarios whenever sources of
waves move:
o The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes
from a high pitch to a low pitch as the vehicle whizzes past
o Galaxies in outer space emit electromagnetic radiation - light waves - which
appear to be redder than normal because the stars are moving away from us

Explaining the Doppler Effect

• Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out symmetrically

These stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out
symmetrically

• If the object emitting waves begins to move, the waves can get squashed together at
one end of the object, and stretched at the other end

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears to be smaller
because they squash together. To an observer behind the moving car, the waves appear
to stretch out

• The waves at the front of the moving vehicle appear to be squashed together:
o This means the wavelength decreases (and the frequency of the
waves increases)
• The waves behind the moving vehicle appear to be stretched out:
o This means the wavelength increases (and the frequency of the
waves decreases)

Redshift and CMBR

Evidence for the Big Bang
• The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
• The main pieces of evidence are
o Galactic redshift
o Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)

Evidence from Galactic Redshift

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of the
universe
• The diagram below shows the light coming to us from a close object, such as the Sun,
and the light coming to the Earth from a distant galaxy

Comparing the light spectrum produced from the Sun and a distant galaxy
• Red shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because:
• Red shift is observed when the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer to the
red end of the spectrum
o This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe, so the
wavelength increases (or frequency decreases)
o This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
• Light spectrums produced from distant galaxies are red shifted more than nearby
galaxies
o This shows that the greater the distance to the galaxy, the
greater the redshift
o This means that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away
from the Earth
• These observations imply that the universe is expanding and therefore support the
Big Bang Theory

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the
universe began with a “big bang”

EXTENDED

Evidence from CMB Radiation

• The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation led to the Big
Bang theory becoming the currently accepted model
o The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the
early stages of the Universe
o It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation
• In 1964, Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum coming from all directions and at a generally uniform
temperature of 2.73 K
o They were unable to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the
atmosphere
o Around this time, space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to
send telescopes into orbit above the atmosphere

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • According to the Big Bang theory, the early Universe was an extremely hot and dense
environment
o As a result of this, it must have emitted thermal radiation
• The radiation is in the microwave region
o This is because over the past 14 billion years or so, the radiation initially from the
Big Bang has become redshifted as the Universe has expanded
o Initially, this would have been high energy radiation, towards the gamma end of
the spectrum
o As the Universe expanded, the wavelength of the radiation increased
o Over time, it has increased so much that it is now in the microwave region of the
spectrum

The CMB is a result of high energy radiation being redshifted over billions of years
• The CMB radiation is very uniform and has the exact profile expected to be emitted
from a hot body that has cooled down over a very long time
o This phenomenon is something that other theories (such as the Steady State
Theory) cannot explain

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • The CMB is represented by the following map:

The CMB map with areas of higher and lower temperature. Places with higher
temperature have a higher concentration of galaxies, Suns and planets

• This is the closest image to a map of the observable Universe

• The different colours represent different temperatures
o The red / orange / brown regions represent warmer temperature indicating a
higher density of galaxies
o The blue regions represent cooler temperature indicating a lower density of
galaxies
• The temperature of the CMB radiation is mostly uniform, however, there are
minuscule temperature fluctuations (on the order of 0.00001 K)
o This implies that all objects in the Universe are more or less uniformly
spread out

Life cycle of stars:

• The life cycle of a star follows predictable stages
• The exact route a star's development takes depends on its initial mass

Initial Stages for All Masses

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 • The first four stages in the life cycle of stars are the same for stars of all masses
• After these stages, the life-cycle branches depending on whether the star is:
o Low mass: stars with a core mass of less than about 1.4 times the mass of the
Sun (< 1.4 MSun)

o High mass: stars with a core mass of more than about 1.4 times the mass of the
Sun (> 1.4 MSun)

1. Nebula
• All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
o Gravitational attraction between individual atoms forms denser clumps of
matter
o This inward movement of matter is called gravitational collapse

2. Protostar
• The gravitational collapse causes the gas to heat up and glow, forming a protostar
o Work done on the particles of gas and dust by collisions between the particles
causes an increase in their kinetic energy, resulting in an increase
in temperature
o Protostars can be detected by telescopes that can observe infrared radiation
• Eventually the temperature will reach millions of degrees Kelvin and the fusion of
hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei begins
o The protostar’s gravitational field continues to attract more gas and dust,
increasing the temperature and pressure of the core
o With more frequent collisions, the kinetic energy of the particles increases,
increasing the probability that fusion will occur

3. Main Sequence Star

• The star reaches a stable state where the inward and outward forces are in equilibrium
o As the temperature of the star increases and its volume decreases due to
gravitational collapse, the gas pressure increases

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Forces acting within a main sequence star. The balanced inward and outward forces will remain
that way for millions, or even billions of years
• A star will spend most of its life on the main sequence
o 90% of stars are on the main sequence
o Main sequence stars can vary in mass from ~10% of the mass of the Sun to
200 times the mass of the Sun
o The Sun has been on the main sequence for 4.6 billion years and will remain
there for an estimated 6.5 billion years

Next Stages for Low Mass Stars

• The fate of a star beyond the main sequence depends on its mass
o The cut-off point is 1.4 times the mass of the Sun
o A star is classed as a low-mass star if it has a mass less than 1.4 times the mass of
the Sun
o A low-mass star will become a red giant before turning into a white dwarf

4. Red Giant
• Hydrogen fuelling the star begins to run out
o Most of the hydrogen nuclei in the core of the star have been fused into helium
o Nuclear fusion slows
o Energy released by fusion decreases
• The star initially shrinks and then swells and cools to form a red giant
• Fusion continues in the shell around the core
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 • The outer layers of the star are released
o Core helium burning releases massive amounts of energy in the fusion
reactions

6. White Dwarf
• The solid core collapses under its own mass, leaving a very hot, dense core called a
white dwarf

The lifecycle of a low mass star

Next Stages for Massive Stars

4. Red Super Giant

• The star follows the same process as the formation of a red giant
o The shell burning and core burning cycle in massive stars goes beyond that of
low-mass stars, fusing elements up to iron

5. Supernova
• The iron core collapses
• The outer shell is blown out in an explosive supernova

6. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)

• After the supernova explosion, the collapsed neutron core can remain intact having
formed a neutron star
o If the neutron core mass is greater than 3 times the solar mass, the pressure on the
core becomes so great that the core collapses and produces a black hole
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
 Lifecycle of massive stars

Hubble’s Law

Edwin Hubble:

Scientists who predicted the law before the actual discovery:

1. 1912, Vesto M. Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a "spiral nebula"
2. 1916, Albert Einstein published his general theory of relativity
3. In 1922, Alexander Friedmann derived his Friedmann equations from Einstein
field equations, showing that the universe might expand
4. In 1927, two years before Hubble published his own article, the Belgian priest
and astronomer Georges Lemaitre was the first to publish research deriving what is
now known as Hubble's law.

Hubble deduced that the speed at which they were moving away from us, or velocity of
recession, was linearly related to their distance, such that v is proportional to D.
v = H0 D
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
Velocity is directly proportional to distance.

Where v is the velocity of recession (Km/s), D (km) is the distance of the object
and H0 is a constant known as Hubble's constant.

In other words, surrounding galaxies will always appear to be moving away from the observer, with
those farther away moving away faster.

Hubble's Law graph. This graph shows data for the velocity of galaxies (v, left) plotted against
the distance to the galaxies (d, right). The resulting straight-line graph means the two values are
proportional, related by a constant called the Hubble constant (H, equation shown).

The slope of the above graph,

Slope = 1/H0

Extra:
Link to observe expansion of universe. https://wittman.physics.ucdavis.edu/
Animations/hubblemodel.html
0
Hubble Telescope 360 Tour. https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=XZ_WeTGCU9o&feature=emb_logo

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION:
The magnitudes and the direction of the gravitational force between two particles are given by
the universal law of gravitation, which was formulated by Newton. This law is known as
Universal law of gravitation.

Newton's law of gravitation states that everybody in this universe attracts every other body with
a force, which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their centres. The direction of the force is along the line
joining the particles.

Mathematical derivation:
The direction of force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.

Let two objects A and B of masses M and m lie at a distance d from each other as shown in
figure. Let the force of attraction between two objects be F. According to the universal law of
gravitation, the force between two objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses.
That is,

And the force between two objects is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them, that is,

Combining equation (i) and (ii)

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

The SI unit of G can be obtained by substituting the unit of force, distance and mass in equation
(iii).

Some importance facts of Universal law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed
to be unconnected:

• the force that binds us to the earth;

• the motion of the moon around the earth;
• the motion of planets around the Sun; and
• the tides due to the moon and the Sun.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary motion:

Kepler's three laws of planetary motion can be described as follows:
• The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the centre of the sun
being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses)
• An imaginary line drawn from the centre of the sun to the centre of the planet will
sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law of Equal Areas)
• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to the ratio of the
cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The Law of Harmonies)

The Law of Ellipses

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

Kepler's first law - sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses - explains that planets are orbiting
the sun in a path described as an ellipse. An
ellipse can easily be constructed using a pencil, two tacks,
a string, a sheet of paper and a piece of cardboard. Tack the
sheet of paper to the cardboard using the two tacks. Then
tie the string into a loop and wrap the loop around the two
tacks. Take your pencil and pull the string until the pencil
and two tacks make a triangle (see diagram at the right).
Then begin to trace out a path with the pencil, keeping the
string wrapped tightly around the tacks. The resulting
shape will be an ellipse. An ellipse is a special curve in
which the sum of
the distances from every point on the curve to two other points is a constant. The two other
points (represented here by the tack locations) are known as the foci of the ellipse. The closer
together that these points are, the more closely that the ellipse resembles the shape of a circle. In
fact, a circle is the special case of an ellipse in which the two foci are at the same location.
Kepler's first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the sun in a path that resembles an ellipse,
with the sun being located at one of the foci of that ellipse.

The Law of Equal Areas

Kepler's second law - sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas - describes the speed at
which any given planet will move while orbiting the sun. The speed at which any planet moves
through space is constantly changing. A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and
slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary line were drawn from the centre of
the planet to the centre of the sun, that line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of
time. For instance, if an imaginary line were drawn from the earth to the sun, then the area swept
out by the line in every 31-day month would be the same. This is depicted in the diagram below.
As can be observed in the diagram, the areas formed when the earth is closest to the sun can be
approximated as a wide but short triangle; whereas the areas formed when the earth is farthest
from the sun can be approximated as a narrow but long triangle.
These areas are the same size. Since the base of these triangles are shortest when the earth is
farthest from the sun, the earth would have to be moving more slowly in order for this imaginary
area to be the same size as when the earth is closest to the sun.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

The Law of Harmonies

Kepler's third law - sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies - compares the orbital period
and radius of orbit of a planet to those of other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that
describe the motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a comparison between
the motion characteristics of different planets. The comparison being made is that the ratio of the
squares of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same for every
one of the planets. As an illustration, consider the orbital period and average distance from sun
(orbital radius) for Earth and mars as given in the table below.

2 3
Planet Peri Average T2 /R3
od Distance (s /m )
(s) (m)
Earth 3.156 x 107 s 1.4957 x 1011 2.977 x 10-19
Mars 5.93 x 107 s 2.278 x 1011 2.975 x 10-19

Observe that the T2/R3 ratio is the same for Earth as it is for mars. In fact, if the
same T2/R3 ratio is computed for the other planets, it can be found that this ratio is nearly the
same value for all the planets (see table below). Amazingly, every planet has the
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
same T2/R3 ratio.

2 3
Planet Peri Average T2/R 3
od Distance (yr /au )
(yr) (au)
Mercury 0.241 0.39 0.98
Venus .615 0.72 1.01
Earth 1.00 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.88 1.52 1.01
Jupiter 11.8 5.20 0.99
Saturn 29.5 9.54 1.00
Uranus 84.0 19.18 1.00
Neptune 165 30.06 1.00
Pluto 248 39.44 1.00

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 (NOTE: The average distance value is given in astronomical units where 1 a.u. is equal to the
distance from the earth to the sun - 1.4957 x 1011 m. The orbital period is given in units of earth-
years where 1 earth year is the time required for the earth to orbit the sun - 3.156 x
107 seconds.)

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, often abbreviated as H-R Diagram, is a
fundamental tool in astronomy used to classify stars based on their luminosity
(brightness) and temperature. It's named after Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris
Russell, who independently developed it around 1910.
Its main features:
1. Luminosity (Absolute Magnitude): The vertical axis of the diagram
represents the luminosity or absolute magnitude of stars. Luminosity is
the total amount of energy emitted by a star per unit time.
2. Temperature (Spectral Type): The horizontal axis represents the
temperature of stars, usually expressed in terms of spectral type. Spectral
type categorizes stars based on the characteristics of their spectra, which
are related to their surface temperatures. The sequence of spectral types
goes from hot to cool: O, B, A, F, G, K, M.
3. Main Sequence: The main diagonal band running from the top-left to the
bottom-right of the diagram is called the main sequence. It represents the
stage in a star's life cycle where it's fusing hydrogen into helium in its core,
which is the most stable phase for stars like our Sun.
4. Giant and Supergiant Branches: Above and to the right of the main
sequence are the giant and supergiant stars. These are larger and more
luminous than main sequence stars. Giants are typically older stars that
have exhausted their core hydrogen, while supergiant’s are extremely
massive stars in advanced stages of evolution.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 5. White Dwarfs: Below and to the left of the main sequence are the white
dwarfs. These are small, hot stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuel
and are in the final stages of stellar evolution. They represent the end state
for stars with low to medium mass.

The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram is crucial for understanding stellar evolution, as

it allows astronomers to classify stars based on their intrinsic properties and track
their changes over time.

Practice questions: Criterion A

1. What is the universal law of gravitation and who is credited with its discovery?

2. How do Kepler's laws of planetary motion help us understand the movement of

planets around the sun?

3. What is the significance of fusion reactions in the sun?

4. How does the universal law of gravitation relate to the fusion reactions happening in the
sun?

5. Explain how Kepler's laws, the universal law of gravitation, and fusion reactions in the
sun are interconnected in understanding the dynamics of our solar system.

Answer Key:

1. The universal law of gravitation states that every mass attracts every other mass with a
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 square of the distance between their centres. This law was discovered by Sir Isaac
Newton.

2. Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of planets around the sun. The three
laws explain how planets move, the speed at which they travel at different points in their
orbit, and their relationship to the sun.

3. Fusion reactions in the sun are crucial as they create and release energy by combining
hydrogen atoms to form helium. This process powers the sun and provides the energy
that sustains life on Earth.

4. The universal law of gravitation is the force responsible for holding the sun together due
to its massive gravitational pull. This force also governs the movement of planets around
the sun, while fusion reactions in the sun rely on high temperatures and pressures
generated from gravitational forces.

5. To explain how Kepler's laws, the universal law of gravitation, and fusion reactions in the
sun are interconnected in understanding the dynamics of our solar system, we need to
delve into the fundamental principles that govern the workings of celestial bodies like
planets and stars.

Kepler's laws of planetary motion, formulated by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th
century, describe the motion of planets around the sun. These laws help us understand the
shape of planetary orbits, the speed at which planets move at different points in their
orbit, and the relationship between a planet and the sun.

The universal law of gravitation, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, states that every mass
attracts every other mass with a force proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres. This law
explains the gravitational force that holds celestial bodies like planets in orbit around the
sun.

Fusion reactions in the sun play a crucial role in sustaining its energy output. These
reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen atoms to form helium, releasing immense
amounts of energy in the process. The energy generated from these fusion reactions
powers the sun and provides the light and heat necessary for life on Earth.

The interconnectedness of these concepts lies in the fact that the universal law of
gravitation governs the gravitational forces that keep planets in their orbits around the
sun. Kepler's laws help us understand the precise motion and positions of planets in their
orbits, while fusion reactions in the sun rely on the immense gravitational pressure and
high temperatures generated by the sun's mass to sustain the nuclear fusion process.

By studying and understanding these interconnected concepts, we gain a comprehensive

view of how the dynamics of our solar system are shaped by the interactions between
gravitational forces, planetary motion, and stellar energy production.
MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours
References:
• https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-4/Kepler-s-Three-Laws
• https://www.pw.live/chapter-gravitation-class-9/newtons-laws-of-gravitation
• https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/h/hertzsprung-russell+diagram
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XZ_WeTGCU9o
• https://wittman.physics.ucdavis.edu/Animations/hubblemodel.html

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 INDUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, Pune

MYP Year 5

Resource booklet- August

Subject- Physics

INDEX

1) Command Terms related to the topics taught with description

2) Assessment Criteria with strands
3) Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in
HYE.
4) Criteria based worksheet-
Criterion A- WORKSHEET 1
5) ANSWER KEYS
6) Additional Reading material, links, resources.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Topic Name: Atomic Physics

1) Important command Terms for your reference:

• Analyze: Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.
(To identify parts and relationships, and to interpret information to reach
conclusions.)
• Apply: Use knowledge and understanding in response to a given situation or real
circumstances. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given
problem or issue
• Calculate: Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the
working.
• Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical
quantity.
• Demonstrate: Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or
practical application.
• Describe: Give a detailed account or picture of a situation, event, pattern or
process. Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
• Discuss: Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of
arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented
clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
• Evaluate: Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
• Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons and causes. (See also
“Justify”.)
• Interpret: Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw
conclusions from given information. Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to
support an answer or conclusion. (See also “Explain”).

2. Assessment Criteria with strands

Criterion A: Knowing and understanding

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain scientific knowledge
ii. apply scientific knowledge and understanding to solve problems set in familiar
and unfamiliar situations
iii. analyze and evaluate information to make scientifically supported judgments.

Criterion B: Inquiring and designing Maximum: 8

At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain a problem or question to be tested by a scientific investigation
ii. formulate a testable hypothesis and explain it using scientific reasoning

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 iii. explain how to manipulate the variables, and explain how data will be collected
iv. design scientific investigations.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Criterion C: Processing and evaluating Maximum:
8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. present collected and transformed data
ii. interpret data and explain results using scientific reasoning
iii. evaluate the validity of a hypothesis based on the outcome of the scientific
investigation
iv. evaluate the validity of the method
v. explain improvements or extensions to the method.

Criterion D: Reflecting on the impacts of science Maximum: 8

At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain the ways in which science is applied and used to address a specific
problem or issue
ii. discuss and evaluate the various implications of using science and its application to
solve a specific problem or issue
iii. apply scientific language effectively
iv. document the work of others and sources of information used.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 3. Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in HYE.

Unit 5 Atomic Physics

5.1.The nuclear model of the atom

Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus The

nucleus consists of protons and neutrons
Total number of protons and neutrons is called the nucleon number

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Isotopes are atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but different
nucleon numbers (difference in number of neutrons)
Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical quantities(e.g.,
molecular mass, density)
Protons can be thought of as atomic DNA
Ions are formed when an atom gains or loses electrons
Examples of isotopes: Protium, Deuterium, Tritium (isotopes of the hydrogen
element)

Alpha particles are positively charged particles

Scattering of alpha particles by gold foil refers to the deflection of alpha
particles when they collide with the atoms of a gold foil
The experiment was performed by Ernest Rutherford in 1909 to determine the
structure of the atom
The results of the experiment showed that most of the mass of an atom is
concentrated in a small, dense nucleus
A few alpha particles were deflected at large angles, indicating that they had
encountered something massive in the gold foil
This led Rutherford to propose that the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by electrons

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The experiment helped to confirm the atomic model with a central nucleus and
electrons in orbit around it.

The 3 findings from the scattering of alpha particles by gold foil experiment:
1) The majority of alpha particles passed through the foil without being
deflected.
2) Some alpha particles were slightly deflected, suggesting the existence ofempty
spaces within the foil.
3) A small number of alpha particles were greatly deflected or completely
bounced back, suggesting the presence of dense, positively charged objects
within the foil.
Nuclear fission involves the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller
nuclei
The nucleus is typically bombarded by a neutron, causing the nucleus to become
unstable
This instability leads to the nucleus splitting into two or more smaller nuclei
When the nucleus splits, it also releases a large amount of energy and additionalfree neutrons

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The free neutrons can then go on to collide with other nuclei, leading to a chain
reaction
This chain reaction can be harnessed to produce nuclear energy or used in nuclear
weapons
Nuclide equation: An example of a nuclear fission reaction is the fission of
uranium-235 (U-235): U-235 + neutron -> Ba-141 + Kr- 92 + 3 neutrons
Nuclear fusion involves the joining of two or more lighter nuclei to form a
heavier nucleus
This requires high temperatures and pressures to overcome the repulsive forces
between the positively charged nuclei
When the nuclei are joined, they form a single, heavier nucleus
The process releases a large amount of energy, which can also be harnessed to
produce energy or used in weapons
During the process of fusion, a small amount of mass is transformed into a large amount
of energy, according to the famous equation E=mc^2. This equation states that energy
(E) is equal to mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared.In the process of fusion, the
total mass of the system decreases, but the totalenergy released is much greater.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

5.2. Radioactivity

Radioactivity refers to the spontaneous emission of radioactive particles froman

unstable nucleus
The emission is a way for the nucleus to become more stable by reducing its energy
There are three types of radioactive emission: alpha, beta and gamma
Alpha emission involves the release of alpha particles, which are helium nuclei Beta
emission involves the release of beta particles, which are high-energy electrons
Gamma emission involves the release of gamma rays, which are high-energy photons
The instability of the nucleus can be due to an imbalance of protons and
neutrons, known as isotopes

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The process of radioactivity can result in the nucleus changing into another element
through a decay process.

α β γ
Charge Positive Negative No charge
Ionization Strongest Less Less than β
ionization tha
nα
Penetration Least More Most
tha penetrating
nα
Protection A A few Several
thick millimetr centimetr
sheet es of es of lead
o f Perspex
paper or
aluminiu
m
Deflectio Can Can Not
n in be be deflect
electric deflect deflect ed
field ed ed
Deflectio Can Can Not
n in be be deflect
magnetic deflect deflect ed
field ed ed

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Example problem

Determine which of the following emissions are alpha, beta andgamma

emissions

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 The nucleus of an unstable isotope emits nuclear radiation, including α, β, and γ rays,
to become stable
The process of emitting nuclear radiation is called radioactive decay
Radioactive decay occurs spontaneously and randomly
The unstable nucleus before decay is called the parent nuclide
The stable nucleus produced after decay is called the daughter nuclide

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Alpha decay
−4
→ +4
−2 2

1) During an alpha decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits an alpha

4
particle ( 2 ).
2) Atom X losses 2 neutron and 2 proton and become atom Y.
e.g.
238 → 234 ℎ + 4
92 90 2

Beta decay

→ 0
+ +1
−1

1) A beta particle is an electron emitted from a nucleus.

2) The beta particles are very small and move with very high speed.
3) During a beta decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits a beta particle
0
( − 1 ).
4) One of the neutron is disintegrated to become proton and electron. The electron
is emitted out from the nucleus whereas the proton stay in the nucleus
5) Hence, the proton number goes up by 1 while the nucleon number remains
unchanged.
e.g.
234 ℎ → 234 + 0
90 91 −1

Gamma Emission
Gamma emission causes no change in nucleon or proton number. This is because
gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation and not a particle.

→ +

Unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay

Daughter nucleus may still be unstable

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝑍
𝐻
𝑒
𝑍
𝑍
𝑋
𝑋
𝑒
𝑍
𝑍
𝑌
𝐴
𝑌
𝑌
𝛾
𝐻
𝑒
𝑒
 Daughter nuclide undergoes another radioactive decay Process
continues until stable nuclide is reached
This is called series decay

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

 Example problem

State the radioac ve decays that the element has gone through.

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

ti
 Radioactive decay occurs randomly and spontaneously, transforming an unstable
nucleus into a more stable one.
The number of unstable nuclei in a sample decreases with time.
Half-life is defined as the time taken for the number of unstable nuclei in a
sample to reduce to half of its original number.
Example: Antimony-133 has a half-life of 2.5 minutes.

Example problem

The diagram shows the graph of the ac vity of a radioisotope, X, against me.What is the
half-life of the radioisotope substance?

MYP 4 Physics 8 Hours

ti
ti
 Radioisotopes have a wide range of applications in various fields. One of the most well-
known uses of radioisotopes is in archaeology, where Carbon-14 is used for carbon dating. In
industry, radioisotopes are used for monitoring the content of food, which helps ensure that
the food is safe for consumption. In agriculture, radioisotopes can beused for a variety of
purposes, including pest control. By introducing a small amount of radioactive material into
the soil, farmers can effectively control the population of pests, reducing damage to crops and
increasing yields. Overall, radioisotopes play a significant role in many areas of science and
technology, providing valuable tools for research, development, and practical applications.

Ionizing nuclear radiation has effects on living things.

Cell Death: Ionizing radiation has enough energy to damage or kill living cells.
Mutations: Ionizing radiation can cause changes in the genetic material of livingcells,
leading to mutations.
developing cancer.
Safe movement, use, and storage of radioactive materials is essential to
mitigated the risk of nuclear radiation.
Proper handling and transportation to minimize exposure to radiation
Storage in secure, designated areas to prevent contamination
Use of protective equipment, such as gloves and masks, when handling
radioactive materials
Several safety precautions for handling ionizing radiation are needed.
Reduce Exposure Time: Minimize the amount of time spent near a source of
ionizing radiation.
Increase Distance: Increase the distance between the source of radiation andliving
tissue to reduce exposure.
Use Shielding: Place materials, such as lead or concrete, between the source of
radiation and living tissue to absorb radiation and reduce exposure.

Criterion A worksheet:
Crit A- Knowing and understanding

Q 1.1

Complete the nuclear decay equation (Use f(x) function to answer)

15
Teacher’s explanation:

Q 1.2

One isotope of Uranium has a mass number 235 and atomic number 92.

All isotopes have the same number of neutrons. Justify the above statement.

Teacher’s explanation:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. The number of protons determines the element, while the number of
neutrons determines the isotope.

Here's a breakdown for Uranium-235:

• Atomic number (92): This indicates the number of protons in the nucleus.
• Mass number (235): This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

To find the number of neutrons, we can subtract the atomic number from the mass
number:
• Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
• Number of neutrons = 235 - 92 = 143

Therefore, Uranium-235 has 143

neutrons.

Other isotopes of Uranium will have different mass numbers due to varying numbers of
neutrons, but they will all have the same atomic number (92) to remain Uranium.

The graph shows a decay curve for a radioactive source

16
Q 1.3

Use the graph to calculate the half-life of the radioactive sample.

Teacher's explanation

2 days (The correct unit must be included to award points)

Q 1.4

A doctor states that the sample shown the graph is not suitable to use in medical
procedures. Suggest why the doctor came to this conclusion.
Teacher's explanation

The half-life is long.

Therefore, is dangerous for the patient

Q 1.5

A different radioactive isotope has a half-life of 30 s. If the initial count rate is 1000
counts/s, determine the count rate 1 and half minutes later.

Teacher's explanation

112 minutes is 3 half-lives

17
10002 = 500

5002= 250

2502 =125counts/s
(The correct unit must be included to award points)

NOTE: More reading material has been added on toddle in class assignments as a
“learning experience”

Extra Links to watch:

1. Atomic structure, isotopes, isobars- https://youtu.be/KwOHJbE4Tro

2. Alpha beta and gamma radiation- https://youtu.be/VeXpMijpazE
3. Nuclear equations- https://youtu.be/CaYoDxWxww8
4. Half-life- https://youtu.be/zXw2cOSBB8E
5. Why is radiation harmful- https://youtu.be/Z4GV13xB00U
6. Nuclear fission and fusion- https://youtu.be/ZKHpix5dgAU
https://youtu.be/g_BUbEIyaz8
7. Hazards of radioactivity- https://youtu.be/Z4GV13xB00U
8. Uses in medicine- https://youtu.be/gDrR_dVmqZk

*********************************************************************

18
 INDUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, Pune

MYP Year 5

Resource booklet- August

Subject- Physics

INDEX

1) Command Terms related to the topics taught with description

2) Assessment Criteria with strands
3) Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in
HYE.
4) Criteria based worksheet-
Criterion A- WORKSHEET 1
5) ANSWER KEYS
6) Additional Reading material, links, resources.

19
 Topic Name: Atomic Physics

1) Important command Terms for your reference:

• Analyze: Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.
(To identify parts and relationships, and to interpret information to reach
conclusions.)
• Apply: Use knowledge and understanding in response to a given situation or real
circumstances. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given
problem or issue
• Calculate: Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the
working.
• Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical
quantity.
• Demonstrate: Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or
practical application.
• Describe: Give a detailed account or picture of a situation, event, pattern or
process. Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
• Discuss: Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of
arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented
clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
• Evaluate: Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
• Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons and causes. (See also
“Justify”.)
• Interpret: Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw
conclusions from given information. Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to
support an answer or conclusion. (See also “Explain”).

2. Assessment Criteria with strands

Criterion A: Knowing and understanding

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain scientific knowledge
ii. apply scientific knowledge and understanding to solve problems set in familiar
and unfamiliar situations
iii. analyze and evaluate information to make scientifically supported judgments.

Criterion B: Inquiring and designing Maximum: 8

At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain a problem or question to be tested by a scientific investigation
20
ii. formulate a testable hypothesis and explain it using scientific reasoning
iii. explain how to manipulate the variables, and explain how data will be collected
iv. design scientific investigations.

21
Criterion C: Processing and evaluating Maximum:
8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. present collected and transformed data
ii. interpret data and explain results using scientific reasoning
iii. evaluate the validity of a hypothesis based on the outcome of the scientific
investigation
iv. evaluate the validity of the method
v. explain improvements or extensions to the method.

Criterion D: Reflecting on the impacts of science Maximum: 8

At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain the ways in which science is applied and used to address a specific
problem or issue
ii. discuss and evaluate the various implications of using science and its application to
solve a specific problem or issue
iii. apply scientific language effectively
iv. document the work of others and sources of information used.

22
 3. Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in HYE.

Unit 5 Atomic Physics

The nucleus of an unstable isotope emits nuclear radiation, including α, β, and γ rays,
to become stable
The process of emitting nuclear radiation is called radioactive decay
Radioactive decay occurs spontaneously and randomly
The unstable nucleus before decay is called the parent nuclide
The stable nucleus produced after decay is called the daughter nuclide 23
 Alpha decay
−4
→ +4
−2 2

1) During an alpha decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits an alpha

4
particle ( 2 ).
2) Atom X losses 2 neutron and 2 proton and become atom Y.
e.g.
238 → 234 ℎ + 4
92 90 2

Beta decay

→ 0
+ +1
−1

1) A beta particle is an electron emitted from a nucleus.

2) The beta particles are very small and move with very high speed.
3) During a beta decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits a beta particle
0
( − 1 ).
4) One of the neutron is disintegrated to become proton and electron. The electron
is emitted out from the nucleus whereas the proton stay in the nucleus
5) Hence, the proton number goes up by 1 while the nucleon number remains
unchanged.
e.g.
234 ℎ → 234 + 0
90 91 −1

Gamma Emission
Gamma emission causes no change in nucleon or proton number. This is because
gamma ray is an electromagnetic radiation and not a particle.

→ +

Unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay

24
Daughter nucleus may still be unstable
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝐴
𝑍
𝐻
𝑒
𝑍
𝑍
𝑋
𝑋
𝑒
𝑍
𝑍
𝑌
𝐴
𝑌
𝑌
𝛾
𝐻
𝑒
𝑒
Daughter nuclide undergoes another radioactive decay Process
continues until stable nuclide is reached
This is called series decay

25
 Example problem

State the radioac ve decays that the element has gone through.

26
ti
 Radioactive decay occurs randomly and spontaneously, transforming an unstable
nucleus into a more stable one.
The number of unstable nuclei in a sample decreases with time.
Half-life is defined as the time taken for the number of unstable nuclei in a
sample to reduce to half of its original number.
Example: Antimony-133 has a half-life of 2.5 minutes.

Example problem

The diagram shows the graph of the ac vity of a radioisotope, X, against me.What is the
half-life of the radioisotope substance?

27
ti
ti
 Radioisotopes have a wide range of applications in various fields. One of the most well-
known uses of radioisotopes is in archaeology, where Carbon-14 is used for carbon dating. In
industry, radioisotopes are used for monitoring the content of food, which helps ensure that
the food is safe for consumption. In agriculture, radioisotopes can beused for a variety of
purposes, including pest control. By introducing a small amount of radioactive material into
the soil, farmers can effectively control the population of pests, reducing damage to crops and
increasing yields. Overall, radioisotopes play a significant role in many areas of science and
technology, providing valuable tools for research, development, and practical applications.

Ionizing nuclear radiation has effects on living things.

Cell Death: Ionizing radiation has enough energy to damage or kill living cells.
Mutations: Ionizing radiation can cause changes in the genetic material of livingcells,
leading to mutations.
developing cancer.
Safe movement, use, and storage of radioactive materials is essential to
mitigated the risk of nuclear radiation.
Proper handling and transportation to minimize exposure to radiation
Storage in secure, designated areas to prevent contamination
Use of protective equipment, such as gloves and masks, when handling
radioactive materials
Several safety precautions for handling ionizing radiation are needed.
Reduce Exposure Time: Minimize the amount of time spent near a source of
ionizing radiation.
Increase Distance: Increase the distance between the source of radiation andliving
tissue to reduce exposure.
Use Shielding: Place materials, such as lead or concrete, between the source of
radiation and living tissue to absorb radiation and reduce exposure.

Criterion A worksheet:
Crit A- Knowing and understanding

Q 1.1

Complete the nuclear decay equation (Use f(x) function to answer)

8
Teacher’s explanation:

Q 1.2

One isotope of Uranium has a mass number 235 and atomic number 92.

All isotopes have the same number of neutrons. Justify the above statement.

Teacher’s explanation:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons. The number of protons determines the element, while the number of
neutrons determines the isotope.

Here's a breakdown for Uranium-235:

• Atomic number (92): This indicates the number of protons in the nucleus.
• Mass number (235): This is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

To find the number of neutrons, we can subtract the atomic number from the mass
number:
• Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
• Number of neutrons = 235 - 92 = 143

Therefore, Uranium-235 has 143 neutrons.

Other isotopes of Uranium will have different mass numbers due to varying numbers of
neutrons, but they will all have the same atomic number (92) to remain Uranium.

The graph shows a decay curve for a radioactive source

9
Q 1.3

Use the graph to calculate the half-life of the radioactive sample.

Teacher's explanation

2 days (The correct unit must be included to award points)

Q 1.4

A doctor states that the sample shown the graph is not suitable to use in medical
procedures. Suggest why the doctor came to this conclusion.
Teacher's explanation

The half-life is long.

Therefore, is dangerous for the patient

Q 1.5

A different radioactive isotope has a half-life of 30 s. If the initial count rate is 1000
counts/s, determine the count rate 1 and half minutes later.

Teacher's explanation

112 minutes is 3 half-lives

10
10002 = 500

5002= 250

2502 =125counts/s
(The correct unit must be included to award points)

NOTE: More reading material has been added on toddle in class assignments as a
“learning experience”

Extra Links to watch:

1. Atomic structure, isotopes, isobars- https://youtu.be/KwOHJbE4Tro

2. Alpha beta and gamma radiation- https://youtu.be/VeXpMijpazE
3. Nuclear equations- https://youtu.be/CaYoDxWxww8
4. Half-life- https://youtu.be/zXw2cOSBB8E
5. Why is radiation harmful- https://youtu.be/Z4GV13xB00U
6. Nuclear fission and fusion- https://youtu.be/ZKHpix5dgAU
https://youtu.be/g_BUbEIyaz8
7. Hazards of radioactivity- https://youtu.be/Z4GV13xB00U
8. Uses in medicine- https://youtu.be/gDrR_dVmqZk

*********************************************************************

11
 INDUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, Pune

MYP Year 5

Resource booklet- October

Subject- Physics

INDEX

1) Command Terms related to the topics taught with description

2) Assessment Criteria with strands
3) Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in HYE.
4) Criteria based worksheet-
Criterion A- WORKSHEET 1
5) ANSWER KEYS
6) Additional Reading material, links, resources.

1
 Topic Name: Electromagnetism

1) Important command Terms for your reference:

• Analyze: Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure. (To
identify parts and relationships, and to interpret information to reach conclusions.)
• Apply: Use knowledge and understanding in response to a given situation or real
circumstances. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a
given problem or issue
• Calculate: Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working.
• Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.
• Demonstrate: Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or
practical application.
• Describe: Give a detailed account or picture of a situation, event, pattern or
process. Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
• Discuss: Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of
arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented
clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
• Evaluate: Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
• Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons and causes. (See also
“Justify”.)
• Interpret: Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw
conclusions from given information. Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to
support an answer or conclusion. (See also “Explain”).

2. Assessment Criteria with strands

Criterion A: Knowing and understanding

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain scientific knowledge
ii. apply scientific knowledge and understanding to solve problems set in familiar
and unfamiliar situations
iii. analyze and evaluate information to make scientifically supported judgments.

Criterion B: Inquiring and designing

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
2
i. explain a problem or question to be tested by a scientific investigation
ii. formulate a testable hypothesis and explain it using scientific reasoning
iii. explain how to manipulate the variables, and explain how data will be collected
iv. design scientific investigations.

Criterion C: Processing and evaluating

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. present collected and transformed data
ii. interpret data and explain results using scientific reasoning
iii. evaluate the validity of a hypothesis based on the outcome of the scientific
investigation
iv. evaluate the validity of the method
v. explain improvements or extensions to the method.

Criterion D: Reflecting on the impacts of science

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain the ways in which science is applied and used to address a specific
problem or issue
ii. discuss and evaluate the various implications of using science and its application
to solve a specific problem or issue
iii. apply scientific language effectively
iv. document the work of others and sources of information used.

3
 3. Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in HYE.

Unit 5: Electromagnetism

Electricity and Magnetism

Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into magnets.
• Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets even when not magnetized..
Magnetic Poles
• Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found near the ends of magnets.
• Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
• Every magnet has a North Pole (NN) and a South Pole (SS).
• The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's geographic North Pole.
Law of Magnetic Poles
• Similar poles (N−NN−N or S−SS−S) repel each other.
• Opposite poles (N−SN−S) attract each other.
• The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move farther apart.

Induced Magnetism
• Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a magnet.
Magnetisation of Iron and Steel
• Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by hanging them from a magnet.
• Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with unlike poles attracting each other.
• Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it to collapse because iron shows
temporary magnetism.
• Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they have permanent magnetism.
• Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose magnetism quickly.
• Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but remain magnetised longer.

4
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials
• Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are attracted to magnets and can be
magnetised.
• Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not attracted to magnets and cannot
be magnetised.
Magnetic Fields
• A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where magnetic forces act.
• Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are closer together and lower where
they are further apart.
• Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing the direction from North to
South poles.
• The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer lines represent stronger magnetic

fields.
Electromagnets
• They are formed from a coil of wire through which an electrical current passes.
• Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off, unlike permanent magnets.
• They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes magnetised when current flows
through the coil.

5
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
• Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in stronger magnetism.
• More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils around the core increases magnet
strength.
• Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together increases electromagnet

strength.
Electrical quantities
Electric Charge
• Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while unlike charges (+ and –) attract.
Force Between Charges
• The force between electric charges decreases as their separation increases.
• Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract negative charges.
• Negative charges repel other negative charges and attract positive charges.

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

• Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive) and electrons (negative)
orbiting around it.
• Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges, making atoms electrically neutral
overall.
Production of Charges
• Charges are produced by friction, which transfers electrons between materials.
• Electrons move between materials during rubbing; protons remain in the nuclei and do
not move.
Units of charge

6
 • Charge is measured in coulombs (CC) and defined in terms of the ampere (AA)
• The charge on an electron is (e=1.6×10−19e=1.6×10−19) CC.
Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors
• Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing can charge them statically.
• Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require insulation to hold a charge.

Type Description Examples

Insulators Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; Plastics (polythene, cellulose
rubbing can charge them statically. acetate), Perspex, nylon
Conductors Electrons can move freely; require Metals, carbon
insulation to hold a charge.
Electric Fields
• When charges are near each other, they experience a force known as the electric force.
• Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due to nearby charges.
• Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged parallel metal plates, shown by
evenly spaced lines perpendicular to the plates.
• Electric field direction is indicated by arrows, showing the force acting towards a small
positive charge (acting away from negative charges).

The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and charge)

• Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per unit time, symbolized as
(I=QtI=tQ).
• Unit of current is the ampere (A)A), with one milliampere (mAmA) equal to one-
thousandth of an ampere and is measured by an ammeter.
• Unit of charge is the coulomb (CC), defined as the charge passing a point when a steady
current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second (1C=1As1C=1As).
Charge Calculation
Q=I×tQ=I×t
where QQ is charge, II is current, and tt is time in seconds.
Conventional Current
• Conventional current flows from positive to negative terminals of a battery, opposite to
electron flow.
• Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with arrows, while electrons move
in the opposite direction.
Direct and Alternating Current
7
 Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)
Electrons flow continuously in one Electrons regularly change their direction of
direction. flow.
Provided by batteries Produced by generators.
Frequency of Alternating Current
• Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per second.
• It is measured in Hertz (HzHz), where 1 HzHz equals one cycle per second.

Voltage, Resistance and Power

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)(e.m.f.)
• Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron excess at the negative terminal and
shortage at the positive terminal
• Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a connected circuit as long as
chemical actions last.
• The battery does work when moving the charge around the circuit.
• Electromotive force (e.m.f.e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in moving unit
charge around a complete circuit.
• Electromotive force is measured in volts (V)(V).
Potential Difference
• Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit components and surroundings.
• Potential difference (p.d.p.d.) is the work done by unit charge passing through a
component
• P.d.P.d. is measured in volts.
• Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.p.d.
• 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 VV = 1 JCCJ )
• Formula: V=WQV=QW or W=Q×VW=Q×V
Resistance
• Electrons move more easily through some conductors when p.d.p.d. is applied.
• Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.

8
 • Good conductors have low resistance while poor conductors have high resistance
• Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
• Formula: R=VIR=IV
Variable Resistors
• They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or act as a potential divider by

dividing voltage across components as desired.

• Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area, and material of the wire
• Resistance increases with length but decreases with a larger cross-sectional area
• Formula: (R∝lAR∝Al)
I–VI–V graphs and Ohm’s Law
• Metals and some alloys give I–VI–V graphs that are straight lines through the origin,
showing that II is directly proportional to VV or that I∝VI∝V.
• Doubling VV doubles II.
• Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V=IRV=IR
• Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where resistance does not change with VV.

Semiconductor Diode
• Diode has small resistance when connected one way and very large resistance
when p.d.p.d. is reversed.
• It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a non-ohmic conductor.

9
Filament Lamp
• Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
• I–VI–V graph curve flattens as VV and II increase, showing increasing resistance with

increasing current and increasing temperature.

Thermistor

10
 • An increase in temperature generally increases the resistance of metals.
• Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with rising temperature.
• It is a non-ohmic conductor

Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)

• Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with increased light intensity.
• Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to function.
• I–VI–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
• LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor.
Power in Electric Circuits
• Power defined as work done or energy transferred per time taken: P=WtP=tW
• PP is power in watts (WW), WW is work done in joules (JJ), tt is time in seconds (ss)
• For a steady current (I)(I) in a device with a potential difference (VV) across it, the work
done has a formula W=I×t×VW=I×t×V
• Substituting work done with the power P=IVP=IV multiplied by time in seconds (tt), the
energy transferred is: E=Pt=IVtE=Pt=IVt
Example
• Lamp with 240 VV supply and 0.25 AA current
• Power = P=IVP=IV = 240 VV ×× 0.25 AA = 60 WW
• 60 JJ of energy transferred to the lamp each second
Voltage in terms of power and current
• Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V=PIV=IP
• If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of resistance RR:
P=V×IP=V×I = IRIR ×× II = I2RI2R
• Doubling the current produces four times the thermal energy per second P=I2RP=I2R
• Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)kWh)
• 1 kWhkWh = 1000 JssJ ×× 3600 ss = 3600000 JJ = 3.6 MJMJ
• The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using kWhkWh where each kWhkWh has
a fixed price and is multiplied by the units you consume.

11
Electric Circuits
Electrical component symbols

Current in a Series Circuit

• In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to flow.

• The current remains the same throughout:
• Current (II) is consistent at every point in the series circuit.
• The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter where it is placed in the circuit.
Current in a Parallel Circuit
• In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by side, providing alternative paths
for current flow.
• The total current is the sum of the currents through each branch
• If the total current from the source is (I0I0), and the current through each branch
is I1,I2I1,I2 and I3I3 then I0=I1+I2+I3I0=I1+I2+I3

Potential Difference (p.d.)(p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits

• In a series circuit, the total potential difference across the components is the sum of the
individual potential differences: V0=V1+V2+V3V0=V1+V2+V3
• In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each component is the same as the
potential difference across one branch: Vacross each branch=V0Vacross each branch=V0
Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f.e.m.f.)
• Cells in series increase the total e.m.f.e.m.f. of the battery. For example, if two 1.5 V cells
are connected in series then the e.m.f.e.m.f.= 1.5 VV + 1.5 VV = 3.0 VV
Resistors in Series
• In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0)(R0) is the sum of the individual
resistances: R0=R1+R2+R3R0=R1+R2+R3
• Given resistors R1,R2,R1,R2, and R3R3 the total voltage (VV) across them

12
 is: V=I×RV=I×R
Worked Example
• For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 ΩΩ, 4 ΩΩ and 5 ΩΩ in series:
• Combined resistance: R0=R1+R2+R3R0=R1+R2+R3= 3 ΩΩ + 4 ΩΩ + 5 ΩΩ= 12 ΩΩ
• Current (II): II = VRRV = 4.5V12Ω12Ω4.5V = 0.375 AA
• p.d.p.d. across 44 ΩΩ resistor: V2V2 = I×R2I×R2= 0.375 AA ×× 4 ΩΩ = 1.51.5 VV
Resistors in Parallel
• The combined resistance (R0)(R0) of resistors in parallel is given by: 1R0R01 = 1R1R11
+ 1R2R21 + 1R3R31…
• Two resistors R1R1 and R2R2 have resistance of 1R0R01 = 1R1R11 + 1R2R21= R0R0
= R1×R2R1+R2R1+R2R1×R2
Properties of Parallel Circuits
1. The current from the source is greater than the current in each branch.
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less than that of any individual resistor.
Applications of electric circuits
Increase in Resistance of a Conductor
• In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the temperature of the metal increases:
• The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons to move.
• This results in an increase in resistance.
From Ohm's Law V=IRV=IR , if resistance (RR) increases while maintaining a constant
current(I)(I), the potential difference (VV) across the conductor also increases.
Variable Potential Divider
• In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
• When it’s used in a potential divider circuit:
o As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance decreases.
o This lowers the combined resistance of the two resistors, increasing the current if
the supply voltage remains constant.
o The potential difference across the fixed resistor increases relative to that across
the thermistor.
• A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by adjusting the position of the
contact, changing the output potential difference.

13
Potential Divider
For two resistors R1R1 and R2R2 in series with a supply voltage (V)(V):
• The total current (I)(I) is given by: I=VR1+R2I=R1+R2V
Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.
• In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
o The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more current to flow.
o This increase in current can light a lamp or cause other actions.

14
Thermistor
• A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with temperature increase.
• In a series circuit with a thermistor:
o As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing the potential difference
across it.
o This causes an increase in voltage across a series resistor, which can trigger a

relay or alarm.
Electrical safety
Dangers of Electricity
15
 • Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and fire risk.
• Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
• Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced resistance.
• Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads, and multiple sockets.
• Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit through a person's body to earth.
o Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around 24 mA (it is safe).
o Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA (can be deadly).
o Larger currents are more dangerous.
o Longer exposure increases risk.
Reducing Risk
• Turn off power before repairs.
• Use earth pin and cord grips.
• Keep appliances dry and away from water.
• Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting tools.
First Aid for Electric Shock
• Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with the equipment.
• Call for medical assistance.
Causes of fires
• Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring.
• Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can lead to fire.
• Preventive Measures:
o Match fuse rating to appliance.
o Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters.
o Use thick wires for high-power appliances.
House Circuits
• Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the neutral is earthed.
• Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to earth.

Switches and Fuses

• Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.
• Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.
Circuit Breakers
• Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current exceeds a preset level.
• Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Earthing
• Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.
• Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth, preventing them from becoming live.
Double Insulation

16
 • Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an earth wire.
Electromagnetic induction
• Process of generating electricity from a changing magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Induction Experiments
• Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
• Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced current.
• Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles induces current because of changing
magnetic flux (cutting magnetic field lines)
• Upward movement: current flows in one direction.
• Downward movement: current flows in the opposite direction.
• Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while wire is moving

Criterion A worksheet:
Crit A- Knowing and understanding

17
18
NOTE: More reading material has been added on toddle in class assignments as a
“learning experience”

*********************************************************************

19
 INDUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, Pune

MYP Year 5

Resource booklet- November- December

Subject- Physics

INDEX

1) Command Terms related to the topics taught with description

2) Assessment Criteria with strands
3) Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit and to be assessed in HYE.
4) Criteria based worksheet-
Criterion A- WORKSHEET 1
5) ANSWER KEYS
6) Additional Reading material, links, resources.

1
 Topic Name: Electromagnetism

1) Important command Terms for your reference:

• Analyze: Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure. (To
identify parts and relationships, and to interpret information to reach conclusions.)
• Apply: Use knowledge and understanding in response to a given situation or real
circumstances. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a
given problem or issue
• Calculate: Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working.
• Define: Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.
• Demonstrate: Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or
practical application.
• Describe: Give a detailed account or picture of a situation, event, pattern or
process. Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
• Discuss: Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of
arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented
clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
• Evaluate: Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
• Explain: Give a detailed account including reasons and causes. (See also
“Justify”.)
• Interpret: Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw
conclusions from given information. Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to
support an answer or conclusion. (See also “Explain”).

2. Assessment Criteria with strands

Criterion A: Knowing and understanding

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain scientific knowledge
ii. apply scientific knowledge and understanding to solve problems set in familiar
and unfamiliar situations
iii. analyze and evaluate information to make scientifically supported judgments.

Criterion B: Inquiring and designing

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
2
i. explain a problem or question to be tested by a scientific investigation
ii. formulate a testable hypothesis and explain it using scientific reasoning
iii. explain how to manipulate the variables, and explain how data will be collected
iv. design scientific investigations.

Criterion C: Processing and evaluating

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. present collected and transformed data
ii. interpret data and explain results using scientific reasoning
iii. evaluate the validity of a hypothesis based on the outcome of the scientific
investigation
iv. evaluate the validity of the method
v. explain improvements or extensions to the method.

Criterion D: Reflecting on the impacts of science

Maximum: 8
At the end of year 5, students should be able to:
i. explain the ways in which science is applied and used to address a specific
problem or issue
ii. discuss and evaluate the various implications of using science and its application
to solve a specific problem or issue
iii. apply scientific language effectively
iv. document the work of others and sources of information used.

3
3. Topics specific notes covered during the ongoing unit.

Electricity and Magnetism

Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into magnets.
• Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets even when not magnetized..
Magnetic Poles
• Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found near the ends of magnets.
• Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
• Every magnet has a North Pole (NN) and a South Pole (SS).
• The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's geographic North Pole.
Law of Magnetic Poles
• Similar poles (N−NN−N or S−SS−S) repel each other.
• Opposite poles (N−SN−S) attract each other.
• The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move farther apart.

Induced Magnetism
• Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a magnet.
Magnetisation of Iron and Steel
• Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by hanging them from a magnet.
• Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with unlike poles attracting each
other.
• Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it to collapse because iron
shows temporary magnetism.
• Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they have permanent
magnetism.
• Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose magnetism quickly.

4
• Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but remain magnetised longer.

Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

• Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are attracted to magnets and can be
magnetised.
• Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not attracted to magnets and
cannot be magnetised.
Magnetic Fields
• A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where magnetic forces act.
• Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are closer together and lower
where they are further apart.
• Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing the direction from North to
South poles.
• The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer lines represent stronger

magnetic fields.
Electromagnets
• They are formed from a coil of wire through which an electrical current passes.

5
• Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off, unlike permanent
magnets.
• They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes magnetised when current flows
through the coil.
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
• Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in stronger magnetism.
• More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils around the core increases
magnet strength.
• Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together increases electromagnet

strength.
Electrical quantities
Electric Charge
• Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while unlike charges (+ and –)
attract.
Force Between Charges
• The force between electric charges decreases as their separation increases.
• Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract negative charges.
• Negative charges repel other negative charges and attract positive charges.

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

• Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive) and electrons (negative)
orbiting around it.

6
• Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges, making atoms electrically
neutral overall.
Production of Charges
• Charges are produced by friction, which transfers electrons between materials.
• Electrons move between materials during rubbing; protons remain in the nuclei and
do not move.
Units of charge
• Charge is measured in coulombs (CC) and defined in terms of the ampere (AA)
• The charge on an electron is (e=1.6×10−19e=1.6×10−19) CC.
Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors
• Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing can charge them
statically.
• Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require insulation to hold a charge.
Type Description Examples

Electrons are firmly bound Plastics

Insulators to atoms; rubbing can (polythene,
charge them statically. cellulose acetate),
Perspex, nylon
E l e c t ro n s c a n m o v e
Conductors freely; require insulation Metals, carbon
to hold a charge.
Electric Fields
• When charges are near each other, they experience a force known as the electric
force.
• Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due to nearby charges.
• Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged parallel metal plates, shown
by evenly spaced lines perpendicular to the plates.
• Electric field direction is indicated by arrows, showing the force acting towards a
small positive charge (acting away from negative charges).

The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and charge)

7
• Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per unit time, symbolized as
(I=QtI=tQ).
• Unit of current is the ampere (A)A), with one milliampere (mAmA) equal to one-
thousandth of an ampere and is measured by an ammeter.
• Unit of charge is the coulomb (CC), defined as the charge passing a point when a
steady current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second (1C=1As1C=1As).
Charge Calculation
Q=I×tQ=I×t
where QQ is charge, II is current, and tt is time in seconds.
Conventional Current
• Conventional current flows from positive to negative terminals of a battery, opposite
to electron flow.
• Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with arrows, while electrons
move in the opposite direction.
Direct and Alternating Current
Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)

Electrons flow continuously in one Electrons regularly change

direction. their direction of flow.

Provided by batteries Produced by generators.

Frequency of Alternating Current

• Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per second.
• It is measured in Hertz (HzHz), where 1 HzHz equals one cycle per second.

Voltage, Resistance and Power

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.)(e.m.f.)

8
• Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron excess at the negative terminal
and shortage at the positive terminal
• Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a connected circuit as long as
chemical actions last.
• The battery does work when moving the charge around the circuit.
• Electromotive force (e.m.f.e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in moving
unit charge around a complete circuit.
• Electromotive force is measured in volts (V)(V).
Potential Difference
• Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit components and
surroundings.
• Potential difference (p.d.p.d.) is the work done by unit charge passing through a
component
• P.d.P.d. is measured in volts.
• Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.p.d.
• 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 VV = 1 JCCJ )
• Formula: V=WQV=QW or W=Q×VW=Q×V
Resistance
• Electrons move more easily through some conductors when p.d.p.d. is applied.
• Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
• Good conductors have low resistance while poor conductors have high resistance
• Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
• Formula: R=VIR=IV
Variable Resistors
• They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or act as a potential divider by

dividing voltage across components as desired.

• Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area, and material of the wire
• Resistance increases with length but decreases with a larger cross-sectional area
• Formula: (R∝lAR∝Al)
I–VI–V graphs and Ohm’s Law
• Metals and some alloys give I–VI–V graphs that are straight lines through the
origin, showing that II is directly proportional to VV or that I∝VI∝V.
• Doubling VV doubles II.
• Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V=IRV=IR

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• Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where resistance does not change

with VV.
Semiconductor Diode
• Diode has small resistance when connected one way and very large resistance
when p.d.p.d. is reversed.
• It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a non-ohmic conductor.

Filament Lamp
• Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures

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• I–VI–V graph curve flattens as VV and II increase, showing increasing resistance
with increasing current and increasing temperature.

Thermistor
• An increase in temperature generally increases the resistance of metals.
• Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with rising temperature.
• It is a non-ohmic conductor

Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)

• Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with increased light intensity.

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• Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to function.
• I–VI–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor
• LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor.
Power in Electric Circuits
• Power defined as work done or energy transferred per time taken: P=WtP=tW
• PP is power in watts (WW), WW is work done in joules (JJ), tt is time in seconds (ss)
• For a steady current (I)(I) in a device with a potential difference (VV) across it, the
work done has a formula W=I×t×VW=I×t×V
• Substituting work done with the power P=IVP=IV multiplied by time in seconds (tt),
the energy transferred is: E=Pt=IVtE=Pt=IVt
Example
• Lamp with 240 VV supply and 0.25 AA current
• Power = P=IVP=IV = 240 VV ×× 0.25 AA = 60 WW
• 60 JJ of energy transferred to the lamp each second
Voltage in terms of power and current
• Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V=PIV=IP
• If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of resistance RR:
P=V×IP=V×I = IRIR ×× II = I2RI2R
• Doubling the current produces four times the thermal energy per
second P=I2RP=I2R
• Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)kWh)
• 1 kWhkWh = 1000 JssJ ×× 3600 ss = 3600000 JJ = 3.6 MJMJ
• The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using kWhkWh where
each kWhkWh has a fixed price and is multiplied by the units you consume.
Electric Circuits
Electrical component symbols

Current in a Series
Circuit
• In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to flow.
• The current remains the same throughout:
• Current (II) is consistent at every point in the series circuit.
• The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter where it is placed in the
circuit.
Current in a Parallel Circuit
• In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by side, providing alternative
paths for current flow.
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• The total current is the sum of the currents through each branch
• If the total current from the source is (I0I0), and the current through each branch
is I1,I2I1,I2 and I3I3 then I0=I1+I2+I3I0=I1+I2+I3

Potential Difference (p.d.)(p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits

• In a series circuit, the total potential difference across the components is the sum of
the individual potential differences: V0=V1+V2+V3V0=V1+V2+V3
• In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each component is the same as
the potential difference across one
branch: Vacross each branch=V0Vacross each branch=V0
Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f.e.m.f.)
• Cells in series increase the total e.m.f.e.m.f. of the battery. For example, if two 1.5 V
cells are connected in series then the e.m.f.e.m.f.= 1.5 VV + 1.5 VV = 3.0 VV
Resistors in Series
• In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0)(R0) is the sum of the individual
resistances: R0=R1+R2+R3R0=R1+R2+R3
• Given resistors R1,R2,R1,R2, and R3R3 the total voltage (VV) across them
is: V=I×RV=I×R
Worked Example
• For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 ΩΩ, 4 ΩΩ and 5 ΩΩ in series:
• Combined resistance: R0=R1+R2+R3R0=R1+R2+R3= 3 ΩΩ + 4 ΩΩ + 5 ΩΩ=
12 ΩΩ
• Current (II): II = VRRV = 4.5V12Ω12Ω4.5V = 0.375 AA
• p.d.p.d. across 44 ΩΩ resistor: V2V2 = I×R2I×R2= 0.375 AA ×× 4 ΩΩ = 1.51.5 VV
Resistors in Parallel
• The combined resistance (R0)(R0) of resistors in parallel is given by: 1R0R01
= 1R1R11 + 1R2R21 + 1R3R31…
• Two resistors R1R1 and R2R2 have resistance of 1R0R01 = 1R1R11 + 1R2R21
= R0R0 = R1×R2R1+R2R1+R2R1×R2
Properties of Parallel Circuits
1. The current from the source is greater than the current in each branch.

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2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less than that of any individual
resistor.
Applications of electric circuits
Increase in Resistance of a Conductor
• In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the temperature of the metal
increases:
• The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons to move.
• This results in an increase in resistance.
From Ohm's Law V=IRV=IR , if resistance (RR) increases while maintaining a
constant current(I)(I), the potential difference (VV) across the conductor also
increases.
Variable Potential Divider
• In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
• When it’s used in a potential divider circuit:
o As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance decreases.
o This lowers the combined resistance of the two resistors, increasing the
current if the supply voltage remains constant.
o The potential difference across the fixed resistor increases relative to that
across the thermistor.
• A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by adjusting the position of the
contact, changing the output potential difference.

Potential Divider
For two resistors R1R1 and R2R2 in series with a supply voltage (V)(V):
• The total current (I)(I) is given by: I=VR1+R2I=R1+R2V

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 Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light intensity.
• In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
o The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more current to flow.
o This increase in current can light a lamp or cause other actions.

Thermistor
• A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with temperature increase.
• In a series circuit with a thermistor:
o As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing the potential difference
across it.

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 o This causes an increase in voltage across a series resistor, which can trigger a

relay or alarm.
Relays
• A relay allows a small current to control a larger current needed to operate an
appliance.
• In a switching circuit:
o If the switching circuit output is high, a small current flows through the
relay, closing the mains switch.
o This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high voltage mains supply.
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
• An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode connected to the negative
terminal):
o Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative terminal) does not emit light
and can damage the LED if the reverse voltage exceeds 5 VV.
o A suitable resistor RR (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 VV supply) is needed to limit the
current.
Semiconductor Diode
• A diode allows current to pass in only one direction:
o Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is connected to the positive
terminal and the cathode to the negative terminal.

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 o Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has high resistance.

Electrical safety
Dangers of Electricity
• Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and fire risk.
• Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
• Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced resistance.
• Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads, and multiple sockets.
• Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit through a person's body to
earth.
o Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around 24 mA (it is safe).
o Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA (can be deadly).
o Larger currents are more dangerous.
o Longer exposure increases risk.
Reducing Risk
• Turn off power before repairs.
• Use earth pin and cord grips.
• Keep appliances dry and away from water.
• Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting tools.
First Aid for Electric Shock
• Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with the equipment.
• Call for medical assistance.

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 Causes of fires
• Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring.
• Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can lead to fire.
• Preventive Measures:
o Match fuse rating to appliance.
o Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters.
o Use thick wires for high-power appliances.
House Circuits
• Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the neutral is earthed.
• Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to earth.

Switches and Fuses

• Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.
• Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.
Circuit Breakers
• Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current exceeds a preset level.
• Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Earthing
• Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.
• Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth, preventing them from becoming
live.
Double Insulation
• Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an earth wire.
Electromagnetic induction
• Process of generating electricity from a changing magnetic field.
Electromagnetic Induction Experiments
• Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
• Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced current.
• Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles induces current because of
changing magnetic flux (cutting magnetic field lines)
• Upward movement: current flows in one direction.
• Downward movement: current flows in the opposite direction.

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• Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while wire is moving.

Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)

• Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in one direction.
• Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the opposite direction.
• No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside solenoid.
• Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet movement.
• This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the magnet.

Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f.e.m.f.

• Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced e.m.f.
• More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f.
• Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f.
• e.m.f.e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts through
magnetic field lines.
Direction of Induced e.m.f.e.m.f. (Lenz’s Law)
• Induced e.m.f.e.m.f. always opposes the change causing it.
• If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current generates a magnetic field that
opposes the motion.
• If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current generates a field that attracts
the magnet.
Magnetic Fields
• Straight Wire:

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 o When current flows through a vertical wire, iron filings around it form
circles.
o Meaning that around a straight wire, there are circular magnetic field lines.
o Field direction changes with current direction (upwards or downwards
through the wire)
o Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards or downwards)
indicates magnetic field direction by the remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-

clockwise).
• Solenoid
o A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field similar to a bar magnet.
o End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves like the south pole.
o Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current direction, thumb points to the
north pole.
o Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and denser compared to

outside.
Variation of Magnetic Field Strength
• Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the wire.
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• Field lines spread out as distance increases.
• Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and lines become closer together.
• Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the magnetic field.
Applications of electromagnetic effects
Relay
• A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet.
• It allows one circuit to control another
• When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the soft iron core.
• The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron armature.
• The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in another circuit.

• Components
o Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
o Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the armature.
o L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open contacts.
o Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.
Reed Switch
• A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit.
• Operated by current flowing through a coil, which magnetizes reeds of magnetic
material.
• Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each other, and close the circuit.
• Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and open the circuit.

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 Loudspeaker
• It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
• Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic field.
• Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
• A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it.
• Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
• Components
o Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
o Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
o Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.

Electric Bell
• A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell
• Pressing the bell push completes the circuit.
• Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing them.
• Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature), causing the hammer to hit the
gong.
• The circuit breaks at contact screw point
• Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its original position.

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• The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the cycle repeats as long as the

bell push is pressed.

Motors and generators
Simple d.c.d.c. Electric Motor
• Components
o Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate.
o C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
o Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two halves, connected to the
ends of the coil. It rotates with the coil.
• Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator to supply current

continuously. Operation
• When direct current (d.c.)d.c.) flows through the coil, a force acts on the coil due to
the interaction with the magnetic field.
• This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to rotate.
• The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of current in the coil as it rotates,
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making sure there is continuous rotation by maintaining the direction of force.
 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c.d.c. motor

The a.ca.c Generator

Components
• Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C-shaped magnet.
• Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with the coil.
• Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct current.

Operation
• As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through the field lines, inducing an
electromotive force (e.m.f.e.m.f.)
• The e.m.f.e.m.f. varies as the coil moves
• Vertical Position: No e.m.f.e.m.f. as the coil cuts the least number of field lines.
• Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f.e.m.f. as the coil cuts the most field lines.
• The direction of e.m.f.e.m.f. reverses as the coil continues to rotate, producing
alternating current (a.c.a.c.) in the circuit.

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• The frequency of the a.ca.c. is determined by the rotation speed of the coil. For
example, a coil rotating twice per second generates an a.ca.c. with a frequency of
2 Hz.Hz.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the a.c.a.c. generator.

Transformers
• The transformer changes alternating voltage to different values.
• Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron core.
• Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate limbs.
Mutual Induction
• This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a voltage in a neighboring
coil.
• Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the secondary coil, inducing
voltage.
• Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or complete iron ring core due to
increased magnetic field lines.

Transformer Equation

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 • The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an alternating voltage in the
secondary.
• Relationship given by VpVsVsVp = NpNsNsNp
• VpVp and VsVs the primary and secondary voltages.
• NpNp and NsNs are the primary and secondary turns.
• Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary (Vs>Vp)(Vs>Vp).
• Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, (Vs<VpVs<Vp).
Worked Example
• A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V to 10V.
• Turns ratio: NpNsNsNp = 230V10V10V230V = 231123
• If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has 8080 ×× 223= 1822 turns.
Energy Losses
• If VV s stepped up, current II is stepped down proportionally.
• Ideal transformer (100% efficient): IpVpIpVp = IsVsIsVs
• IpIp and IsIs are primary and secondary currents.
• If VV is doubled, II is halved.

Investigation skills

This task addresses the key concept of change and focuses on criterion B (Inquiring and
designing) and criterion C (Processing and evaluating). In this task, you will investigate
relationships in electromagnetism.

Electromagnetism is the phenomenon of magnetism produced by electric currents.

You are a member of a team of engineers working for a renewable energy company. The
company is developing a prototype electromagnetic energy harvesting device that can
generate electricity from the motion of vehicles passing over a road. The device utilizes
electromagnetic induction to convert the kinetic energy of the moving vehicles into
electrical energy. Your task is to investigate the relationship between the rate of change of
magnetic field and induced current in a coil when subjected to the motion of a magnet.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/faradays-law/latest/faradays-law_all.html

Q1. State a question that would be examined and answered through this research.

How does the rate of change of magnetic field affect the induced current in a coil when
subjected to the motion of a magnet?
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Q2. Identify the independent, dependent and control variables for this investigation.

Independent Variable: The rate of change of magnetic field (which can be controlled by
adjusting the speed or distance between the magnet and coil).
Dependent Variable: The induced current in the coil.
Control Variable: The properties of the coil (e.g., number of turns, material), the properties of
the magnet (e.g., strength), and the power source used to maintain a constant voltage across
the coil.

Q3. Outline the reason behind the control variable.

By keeping the properties of the coil, magnet, and power source constant, we ensure that any
changes observed in the induced current are primarily attributed to the manipulated
independent variable (rate of change of magnetic field).

Q4. Formulate relevant hypothesis.

When (independent variable) is changed the (dependent variable)

will change
by
This is because .

When the rate of change of magnetic field is increased, the induced current in the coil will
increase proportionally.
This is because according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, a changing
magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) and subsequently an induced current in
a conductor, such as the coil. Therefore, a higher rate of change of magnetic field will result
in a greater EMF and induced current in the coil.

Q5. Describe and explain how the principles of electromagnetic induction can be applied to
generate electrical energy from the movement of vehicles crossing a road.

The principles of electromagnetic induction can be effectively utilized to generate electricity

from the motion of vehicles passing over a road. This process involves the use of
electromagnetic coils placed strategically beneath the road surface. As a vehicle passes over
these coils, the changing magnetic field created by the vehicle's motion induces an electric
current in the coils through electromagnetic induction. This induced current can then be
harnessed and used as a source of electrical energy.
To facilitate this process, the coils are connected to a power conversion system, which includes
rectifiers and inverters. The rectifiers convert the alternating current (AC) induced in the coils
into direct current (DC), which is suitable for storage or immediate use. The inverters, on the
other hand, convert the DC into alternating current that can be seamlessly integrated into the
existing power grid.
This innovative approach to power generation offers several advantages. Firstly, it taps into
the kinetic energy of moving vehicles, transforming it into a clean and renewable energy
source. Additionally, it has the potential to reduce reliance on traditional fossil fuel-based
power generation methods, leading to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and 27
environmental impact.
Overall, by effectively harnessing the principles of electromagnetic induction, electricity can
be generated from the motion of vehicles passing over a road, contributing to the development
of sustainable and eco-friendly power generation systems.

Q6. Investigating the effect of changing the direction of current or magnetic field on the
direction of force in the motor effect using Fleming's left-hand rule.
A team of engineers working for a transportation company that specializes in developing
innovative solutions for public transportation systems. Your company has been tasked with
creating a new type of magnetic levitation (maglev) train system that utilizes
electromagnetic forces for propulsion.

Your specific role in the project is to design an investigation for the effect of changing the
direction of current or magnetic field on the direction of force in the motor effect using
Fleming's left-hand rule.
In your plan you should include:
• the research question that this investigation will test
• a hypothesis that can be tested by this investigation
• the independent and the dependent variable
• one control variable and why it should be controlled
• how you will collect sufficient relevant data

• Research Question: How does changing the direction of current or magnetic field affect the
direction of force in the motor effect?
• Hypothesis: Changing the direction of current or magnetic field will result in a corresponding
change in the direction of force in the motor effect. According to Fleming's left-hand rule, when
the direction of current or magnetic field changes, the direction of force experienced by the
conductor will also change.
• Independent Variable: The direction of current or magnetic field.
• Dependent Variable: The direction of force experienced by the conductor.
• Control Variable: The strength of the current or magnetic field should be controlled throughout the
investigation. By keeping the strength constant, we can isolate the effect of changing the direction
on the direction of force, ensuring that any observed changes are solely due to the variation in the
direction of current or magnetic field.
• Data Collection:
To collect sufficient relevant data, the following steps will be taken:
• • Set up an experimental apparatus: Create a simple setup with a conductor (such as a wire or a
coil) and a magnet. Ensure that the conductor can move freely in response to the magnetic field.
• Define the initial conditions: Establish a baseline by aligning the conductor and the magnetic
field in a specific direction. Measure the initial force experienced by the conductor using a force
sensor or spring balance.
• Change the direction of the independent variable: Vary either the direction of current flowing
through the conductor or the orientation of the magnet. Each variation should be tested separately.

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 • Measure the force: Record the force experienced by the conductor after changing the direction of
the current or magnetic field. Use the same force sensor or spring balance used in the baseline
measurement.
• Repeat and collect multiple data points: Repeat steps 2-4 for multiple trials, ensuring to vary the
direction of the current or magnetic field each time. This will help establish a pattern and verify the
consistency of the results.

Q7. The data collected by the student is given below:

Trial Current Magnetic field Direction Force Direction

1 Upward North East

2 Upward South West

3 Downward North West

4 Downward South East

5 Eastward North Upward

6 Eastward South Downward

7 Westward North Downward

8 Westward South Upward

Plot the measured forces against the corresponding changes in the direction of the current
or magnetic field.

Q8. Look for patterns or trends to determine the relationship between the
variables. Evaluate the validity of the hypothesis that was tested.

Based on the plotted data, we can observe the following patterns or trends:

• The force direction appears to be consistent with Fleming's left-hand rule, indicating a
relationship between the direction of the current or magnetic field and the resulting force
direction.

• When the direction of the current is changed while keeping the magnetic field direction
constant, the force direction also changes accordingly.
• Similarly, when the direction of the magnetic field is changed while keeping the current
29
direction constant, the force direction exhibits a corresponding change.
• The observed changes in force direction align with the expected outcomes based on
Fleming's left-hand rule.

Based on these observations, we can conclude that the hypothesis is valid and supported by the
data. The investigation confirms that changing the direction of current or magnetic field
indeed results in a corresponding change in the direction of force in the motor effect,
consistent with Fleming's left-hand rule.

NOTE: More reading material has been added on toddle in class assignments as a
“learning experience”

Important youtube links:

1. The generator effect: https://youtu.be/BipPqbLm8M0?t=2

2. Electric motor- https://youtu.be/evWpDrRAyCc
3. Motor effect- https://youtu.be/ltpPhpi-CC4
4. How transformers work- https://youtu.be/7RtBUEZbKmI
5. Transformer calculations- https://youtu.be/IxqUjM8cOcU
6. Efficiency- https://youtu.be/PLW4b0FlfVE
7. Power and work done- https://youtu.be/kCJUzdCBOk0

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