CFD Module

User’s Guide
CFD Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM021301

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the CFD Module 28

Why CFD Is Important for Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling . . . . . . . . . 29
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 30

Overview of the User’s Guide 34

Chapter 2: Quick Start Guide

Modeling and Simulations of Fluid Flow 38

Modeling Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Geometric Complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Meshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 59
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter 3: Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Modeling Single-Phase Flow 62

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large

CONTENTS |3
 Eddy Simulation Interfaces 69
The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 88
The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
The LES RBVM Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The LES RBVMWV Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
The LES Smagorinsky Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Vacuum Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Interior Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Grille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Generate New Turbulence Model Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4 | CONTENTS
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces 136
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . 139
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . 140
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . 141
Stationary Free Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface 146

Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 150

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Non-Newtonian Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Mass Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Screen Boundary Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 187
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . 191
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

CONTENTS |5
 Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . 194

Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces 197

Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
The L-VEL Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
The k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
The Realizable k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
The k-ω Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The SST Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . 223
The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
The v2-f Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity . . 236
Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition . . . 238
Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces . . . . . 238
Solvers for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models . . . . . . . . . 241
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces . . . . 241

Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces 244

References for LES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces 249

About Rotating Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Frozen Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface 254

General Viscoelastic Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . 256
Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models . . . . . . . . 257
References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 257

6 | CONTENTS
Chapter 4: Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
Interfaces

Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module 260

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer,

Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces 264
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 264
The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface . . . . . . . 267
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 267
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Nonisothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Marangoni Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat

Transfer Interfaces 280
The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations . . . 280
Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces. . . . . . . . . 287
The Boussinesq Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition. . . . . . 291
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . 291
References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

CONTENTS |7
 Chapter 5: High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 294

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface . . . . . . . . . . 295
The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 296
The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface . . . . . . 298
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces. . . . . . . . . 300
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 309

Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface . . . 310
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . 312
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

The Compressible Euler Equations Interface 316

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Compressible Euler Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

8 | CONTENTS
 Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces 325
Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Sutherland’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models . . . . . 332
References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . 333

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface 334

The Compressible Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
The Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters . . . . . . . . . 337
References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface . . . . . . 338

Chapter 6: Multiphase Flow Interfaces

Modeling Multiphase Flow 341

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
The Multiphase Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 343
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces 354
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . 354
The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces . . . . . . . . 355
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . 357
The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . 362
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 365
The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 366
The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature. . . . . . . . . 367
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and
Turbulent Flow, Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . 371

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces 372

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 372
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface. . . . . . 373

CONTENTS |9
 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . 374
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface 378

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . 378
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 379
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 382

Select Laminar Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Deforming Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fluid-Fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Free Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

The Bubbly Flow Interfaces 389

The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 403
The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

10 | C O N T E N T S
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Gas Boundary Condition Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

The Mixture Model Interfaces 425

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 425
The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 429
The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 435
The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Mixture Model, SST Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface . . . . . . . . . . 442
The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces . . . . 446
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Mixture Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces 465

The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . 465
The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface. . . . . . . . . . 468
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Euler–Euler Model
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Phase Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

CONTENTS | 11
 Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484

The Phase Transport Interfaces 485

The Phase Transport Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . 488
Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport
and Phase Transport in Porous Media Interfaces . . . . . . . . 489
Phase and Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . 490
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Volume Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Porous Medium Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

The Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces 498

The Phase Transport Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Mixture Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces 507

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 508

12 | C O N T E N T S
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Nonisothermal Mixture Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces 516

Level Set and Phase Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 521
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Numerical Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces . . . . . . . 523

Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field

Interfaces 525
Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations . . . . . . . . . 528
Phase Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
References for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces. . . . . . . 529

Theory for the Three-Phase Flow Interface 530

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . 530
Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface . . . . . . 533

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface 534

Domain Level Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
About the Moving Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 536
Contact Angle Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface . . . . . 541

Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces 543

The Bubbly Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Turbulence Modeling in Bubbly Flow Applications . . . . . . . . . 547
References for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces 550

The Mixture Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations . . . . . . . . . . 554
Turbulence Modeling in Mixture Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556

CONTENTS | 13
 Slip Velocity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
References for the Mixture Model Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 559

Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces 560

The Euler–Euler Model Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Some Notes on Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
References for the Euler–Euler Model Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 575

Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces 577

Phase Transport in Free Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Phase Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models . . . . 579
Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . 582
References for the Phase Transport Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . 583

Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces 584

Mixture Viscosity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Slip Velocity Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Coupled Interfaces: Equations and Coupled Quantities . . . . . . . 589
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Theory for the Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces 591

Mixture Material Properties for Heat Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . 591

Chapter 7: Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Interfaces

Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow 594

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
The Porous Media Flow Interface Options . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

14 | C O N T E N T S
The Darcy’s Law Interface 599
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s
Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Hydraulic Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Atmosphere/Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Pervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Fracture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

The Brinkman Equations Interface 623

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

CONTENTS | 15
 Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 633

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Microfluidic Wall Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 643

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Pressure and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 650

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . 651
Well (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

16 | C O N T E N T S
 Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface 655
About Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
Storage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
Average Linear Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 658

Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 660

About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 662

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 663
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface. . . . . . . 663

Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 664

Capillary Pressure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface . . . . . . . . 666

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 667

Pressure-Saturation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670

Chapter 8: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

Modeling Chemical Species Transport 672

Selecting the Right Physics Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Adding a Chemical Species Transport Interface . . . . . . . . . . 675

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 677

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 681
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682

CONTENTS | 17
 Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Unsaturated Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

18 | C O N T E N T S
The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface 716
The Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media Interface . . . 722
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of
Concentrated Species Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
Porous Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Reaction Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Mass Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Out-of-Plane Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

The Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces 745

The Reacting Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 747
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . 747
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface. . . . . . . . . 748
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Multiphysics Interfaces 755

The Reacting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . . . . 755
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 756
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 756
The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST, Diluted Species Interface . . . . . 757

CONTENTS | 19
 The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε, Diluted Species Interface . . 758
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 759
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interfaces 762

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . 763
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

The Nonisothermal Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces 765

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface . . . . . . 766
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface . . . . . 767
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface . . . . . 768
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface . . 770
The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 773

Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792

20 | C O N T E N T S
 Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
About Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795

Theory for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface 796

Multicomponent Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation . . . . . 797
Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law Approximation . . . . . . . . . 799
Multicomponent Thermal Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
Regularization of Reaction Rate Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
References for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface . . . . 802

Theory for the Reacting Flow Interfaces 803

Pseudo Time Stepping for Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
The Stefan Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
The Chemical Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
Turbulent Mass Transport Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
Mass Transport Wall Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Turbulent Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
The Reaction Source Term for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . 813
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . 813
References for the Reacting Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 814

Chapter 9: Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 816

The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
The Thin-Film Flow, Domain Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
The Thin-Film Flow, Edge Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Fluid-Film Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Border. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Perforations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

CONTENTS | 21
 Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 831

Thin-Film Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
The Reynolds Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
The Modified Reynolds Equation — Gas Flows . . . . . . . . . . 843
Flow Models for Rarefied Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Frequency-Domain Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
References for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Chapter 10: Shallow Water Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface 856

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface . . . . . . . . 856
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow
Water Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Domain Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Domain Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Water Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface 865

The Shallow Water Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
The Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

22 | C O N T E N T S
 Wave Speed and Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Forces on Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces . . . . . . . 870

Chapter 11: Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Level Set Interface 872

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface . . . . 874
Level Set Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877

The Phase Field Interface 878

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface . . . . 879
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883

The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 884

Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Phase Field Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Interior Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888

The Ternary Phase Field Interface 889

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
Mixture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890

CONTENTS | 23
 Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Wetted Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893

Theory for the Level Set Interface 895

The Level Set Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Conservative and Nonconservative Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Initializing the Level Set Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface . . . . . . . . 898
Reference for the Level Set Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

Theory for the Phase Field Interface 900

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
The Equations for the Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
Reference for the Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905

Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces 906

About the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method. . . . . . . . . . . 906
The Equations for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method . . . . . . 907
Conservative and Nonconservative Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Additional Sources of Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Initializing the Phase Field Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Reference for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces . . . . . . . 910

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface 911

About the Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method . . . . . . . . . 911
Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface . . . . . . . . . . 913

24 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 12: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 916

CONTENTS | 25
26 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the CFD Module, an optional add-on package for COMSOL
Multiphysics® that provides you with tools for computational fluid dynamics, CFD.
The modeling of fluid flow is an increasingly important part in development of new
equipment and processes.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of the module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the CFD Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

27
 About the CFD Module
In this section:

• Why CFD Is Important for Modeling

• How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

Why CFD Is Important for Modeling

Computational fluid dynamics, CFD, is an integral part in a constantly growing
number of development processes, and is a well established field within many different
engineering disciplines; mechanical, chemical, civil, aeronautical, and also in more
specialized areas such as biomedical engineering.

Often the flow itself is not the main focus in a simulation. Instead it is how the flow
affects other process and application parameters that is important. The transport of
species through the different parts of a chemical reactor, the effective cooling of a
computer’s hard drive and electronics, the dispersion of energy within the damping
film of an accelerometer, the extent of nuclear waste spreading from a subterranean
repository — all of these are applications for which the flow must be fully understood
and is an integral part of the process’s description and simulation.

In many situations, while the flow can add necessary operational parameters to a
process or application, it is also affected by them. For example, a chemical reactor
creates a pressure which disturbs the flow, the electronic heat affects the fluid’s density
and flow properties, the accelerometer elasticity imposes an oscillation on the flow,
while the subterranean environment’s poroelasticity changes the course of the flow.

A description combining several physics fields is often required to produce accurate

models of real world applications involving fluid flow. Being able to effectively simulate
such models increases the understanding of the studied processes and applications,
which in turn leads to optimization of the flow and other parameters.

Historically, a sophisticated modeling tool was a privilege that only large companies
could afford, for which the savings made in bulk production justified the computer
software costs and need for CFD specialists. Today’s engineers are educated in the use
of software modeling tools, and are often expected to create realistic models of

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
advanced systems on their personal computers. This is where COMSOL Multiphysics
can improve your modeling capabilities.

How the CFD Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

The CFD Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics
modeling environment with customized physics interfaces and functionality optimized
for the analysis of all types of fluid flow. It is developed for a wide variety of users
including researchers, developers, teachers, and students. It is not just a tool for CFD
experts; it can be used by all engineers and scientists who work with systems in which
momentum transport through fluid flow is an important part of a process or
application.

The module uses the latest research possible to simulate fluid flow and it provides the
most user-friendly simulation environment for CFD applications. The solvers and
meshes are optimized for fluid-flow applications and have built-in robust stabilization
methods.

The readily available coupling of heat and mass transport to fluid flow enables
modeling of a wide range of industrial applications such as heat exchangers, turbines,
separation units, and ventilation systems.

Ready-to-use interfaces enable you to model laminar and turbulent single- or

multiphase flow. Functionality to treat coupled free and porous media flow, stirred
vessels, and fluid structure interaction is also included.

Together with COMSOL Multiphysics and its other optional packages, the CFD
Module takes flow simulations to a new level, allowing for arbitrary coupling to physics
interfaces describing other physical phenomena, such as structural mechanics,
electromagnetics, or even user-defined transport equations. This allows for
unparalleled modeling capabilities for multiphysics applications involving fluid flow.

Like all COMSOL modules, the interfaces described in this guide include all the steps
available for the modeling process, which are described in detail in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Definitions of parameters and component variables

• Creating, importing and manipulating the geometry
• Specifying the materials to include in the component
• Defining the physics of the fluid flow in domains and on boundaries, and coupling
it to other physics

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 29

 • Set up an appropriate mesh for the modeling domain with consideration given to the
fluid-flow system’s behavior
• Solving the equations that describe a system for stationary or dynamic behavior, or
as a parametric or optimization study
• Collecting and analyzing results to present for further use in other analyses.

Once a model is defined, you can go back and make changes in all of the branches
listed, while maintaining consistency in the other definitions throughout. You can
restart the solver, for example, using the existing solution as an initial guess or even
alter the geometry, while the equations and boundary conditions are kept consistent
through the associative geometry feature.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of online resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Application Libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions on how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder, click a node

or window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder, click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu, select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 31

 THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH-files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu, select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu,
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and a case number will be sent to you
by email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information,
and other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Application Gallery www.comsol.com/models
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE CFD MODULE | 33

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The CFD Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling CFD systems using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. For theory relating to the physics interfaces, see the
end of each chapter.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS, GLOSSARY, AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

QUICK START GUIDE

The Quick Start Guide includes some basic modeling strategies to get you started
modeling fluid flow in your particular application area. For example, it gives some tips
about how to control your material properties and how to set the optimal mesh to
make solving the model easier and quicker. It also includes a summary of all the physics
interfaces included with the CFD Module.

THE PHYSICS INTERFACES

The CFD Module both extends physics interfaces available with COMSOL
Multiphysics and provides additional physics interfaces. As a result, the module
contains a wide range of physics interfaces for modeling various types of momentum
transport. You can simulate laminar and turbulent flow, Newtonian and
non-Newtonian flow, isothermal and nonisothermal flow, multiphase flow, and flow in
porous media. The CFD Module also provides interfaces for modeling flows that occur
in thin-films or in bounded regions, and in stationary and rotating domains.

On top of this, the CFD Module includes physics interfaces for modeling heat transfer,
and transport and reactions of chemical species. These are typical phenomena that
occur in fluid flow and are strongly coupled to the flow field.

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Single-Phase Flow
The Single-Phase Flow Interfaces chapter describes the many physics interfaces
available for laminar and turbulent flow. Modeling Single-Phase Flow helps you choose
the best Fluid Flow interface for your particular application.

Multiphase Flow
The Multiphase Flow Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces to model flows
with more than one phase, for example flows with two fluids or flows with dispersed
droplets or particles. To help you select which physics interface to use see Modeling
Multiphase Flow.

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow Interfaces chapter describes the Darcy’s Law,
Brinkman Equations, and Free and Porous Media Flow interfaces. To help you select
which physics interface to use see Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow.

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

The CFD Module includes physics interfaces for the simulation of heat transfer in fluid
flow. As with all other physics models simulated in COMSOL Multiphysics, any
description involving heat transfer can be directly coupled to any other physical
process. This is particularly relevant for systems with fluid flow and mass transfer. The
interfaces also allow you to account for heat sources and sinks, such as energy evolving
from chemical reactions.

The Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces chapter describes these physics
interfaces in greater detail. To help you select which physics interface to use see
Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module.

High Mach Number Flow

The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces chapter describes three versions of the same
predefined multiphysics interface used to model laminar and turbulent compressible
flows at high Mach numbers.

Thin-Film Flow
The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces that model flow in
thin regions such as lubrication shells and fluid bearings.

Shallow Water Equations

The Shallow Water Interface chapter describes a depth-averaged formulation for
modeling free-surface flows.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 35

 Chemical Species Transport
The Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes physics interfaces that are
used for the simulation of chemical reactions, and mass or material transport through
diffusion and convection. Modeling Chemical Species Transport helps you select the
best physics interface to use.

The Mathematics Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch describes the Phase Field and Level Set
interfaces found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface branch. In the CFD Module
these physics features are integrated into the relevant physics interfaces.

36 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Quick Start Guide

This chapter has some basic modeling strategies to get you started modeling fluid
flow in your application area.

In this chapter:

• Modeling and Simulations of Fluid Flow

| 37
 Modeling and Simulations of Fluid
Flow
In this section:

• Modeling Strategy
• Geometric Complexities
• Material Properties
• Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features
• Meshing
• The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings
• The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Modeling Strategy
Modeling and simulating fluid flow is a cost-effective way for engineers and scientists
to understand, develop, optimize, and control designs and processes.

One of the most important things to consider before setting up a model is the accuracy
that is required in the simulation results. This determines the level of complexity in the
model.

Since fluid flow simulations are often computationally demanding, a multistage

modeling strategy is usually required. This implies using a simplified model as a
starting point in the project. Complexities can then be introduced gradually so that the
effect of each refinement of the model description is well understood before
introducing new complexities.

Complexities in the modeling process can be introduced at different stages in order to

achieve the desired accuracy. They can be introduced in the description of the

38 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

geometry, the physical properties, and in the governing equations. The Model Builder,
which shows the sequence of operations in the model tree, is designed with this
strategy in mind.

In addition to fluid flow, COMSOL Multiphysics and the CFD Module have
predefined multiphysics couplings for fluid flow and other phenomena. Examples of
these couplings are heat transfer for free convection and transport of chemical species
in simulations of reacting flows. You can also set up your own couplings by defining
mathematical expressions of the dependent variables (velocity, pressure, temperature,
and so forth) in the physics interfaces for arbitrary multiphysics combinations.

Geometric Complexities
A complicated 3D CAD drawing is usually not the best starting point for the modeling
process. A 2D representation of a cross section of the geometry can give valuable initial
estimates of the flow field that can be used when setting up the full 3D model. For
example, you might be able to determine the pressure variations and the nature of the
flow, or whether or not a turbulence model is needed. This provides information about
where in the final geometry the most amount of “change” occurs, if a more advanced
fluid-flow model or better resolution is required, and what parts of the modeling
process are more sensitive than others.

Simplifying the geometry reduces the simulation time. Making use of symmetry planes
can cut down the geometry to one half or even less of the original size. Rounding-off
corners is another way to reduce mesh resolution. Resolving small geometric parts
requires a fine mesh, but the parts themselves can have a negligible effects on the fluid
field as a whole.

Geometry Modeling and CAD Tools in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Material Properties
Depending on the accuracy required in a simulation, the effort put in acquiring data
for the fluid properties can also vary. In many cases, the dependencies of the fluid
properties on pressure and temperature have to be taken into account.

For a pressure-driven flow, it is usually a good approach to first set up a model using
constant density and viscosity, to get a first estimate of the flow and pressure fields.

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 39

 Once the model works with constant properties it can be extended by adding the
accurate expressions for density and viscosity.

For free convection the density variations drive the flow. The fluid properties’
dependencies on the modeled variables, for example temperature, then have to be
accounted for from the beginning. In difficult cases, with large temperature variations,
it can be beneficial to run a time-dependent simulation even if the purpose of the
simulation is to get the results at steady-state.

Defining the Physics Interfaces and Features

The CFD Module has physics interfaces for laminar and turbulent single-phase flow,
multiphase flow, nonisothermal flow, high Mach number flow, thin-film flow, and
porous media flow.

The choice of physics interface and features depends on the accuracy required in a
simulation. A fluid that is weakly compressible could be approximated as
incompressible if the required accuracy allows for it. A complex turbulence model can
be replaced by a much simpler one, again if the resulting accuracy is sufficient. A first
step to set up the physics is to start by making the model as simple as possible. The
results from such a simulation can reveal useful pieces of information that help later
when more complex steps are added to the physics.

The Fluid Flow interfaces can also be coupled to any other physics interface in a
multiphysics model. When setting up such a complex multiphysics component
involving fluid flow and other coupled physics, it is a good strategy to first define and
solve one physics interface at a time. This allows for verification of the model setup, for
example to check if the intended domain and boundary settings are reflected in the
solution of each decoupled physics interface. The alternative, to debug the model
setup with several coupled physics interfaces, can be time-consuming.

In steady-state multiphysics simulations, it can also be a good strategy to start by

solving the model for each physics interface in a decoupled setup. The solutions from
the decoupled models can then be used as initial guesses for the fully coupled model.
This is especially recommended for highly nonlinear models. The Study node is
designed for this modeling strategy.

Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model and Studies and Solvers in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

40 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

Meshing
The mesh used in a fluid-flow simulation depends on the fluid-flow model and on the
accuracy required in the simulation. A fluid-flow model can inherently require a fine
resolution in order to converge, even though the results might not require a
correspondingly high accuracy. In such cases, it can be a good idea to change the fluid
flow model. An example is the low-Reynolds number k-ε model which gives a very
accurate description of the flow near solid walls, but requires a very fine mesh there.
In many cases, the standard k-ε model with wall functions can deliver an accurate
enough result at a much lower computational cost. In other cases, the requirement of
accuracy in the results can limit the maximum element size.

There are a number of different mesh types and meshing strategies for fluid flow
modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics.

UNSTRUCTURED MESHES
Unstructured meshing is the most general way of creating a mesh and can be used for
all types of geometries. The mesh-generating algorithms are highly automated, often
creating a good quality mesh from minimal user input. This mesh type is therefore a
good choice when the geometry of the domain is evident but the behavior of the
mathematical model in it is unknown. Yet, unstructured meshes tend to be isotropic
or homogeneous in nature, so that they fail to take advantage of the different
resolution requirements in the streamwise and cross-stream directions.

STRUCTURED MESHES
In many ways, the properties of structured meshes complement those of the
unstructured type. Structured meshes provide high quality meshes with few elements
for sufficiently simple geometries. The properties of a structured mesh can
furthermore be used to create very efficient numerical methods. Finally, it is often
easier to control the mesh when high anisotropy or large variations in mesh size and
distribution is required, as the size of a structured mesh can be easily increased linearly
or geometrically with the dimensions of the computational domain.

SWEPT MESHES
Swept meshes are a particular form of structured meshes, sometimes denoted
semistructured. These are generated in 3D by creating a mesh at a source face and then
sweeping it along the domain to a destination face, such as from a cut in the cylindrical
part of a polymerization reactor to its outlet face. A swept mesh is structured in the
sweep direction, while the mesh at the source and destination faces can be either

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 41

 structured or unstructured. As is the case for structured meshes, the model geometry
determines if a swept mesh is applicable. Swept meshes are typically ideal when the
cross section in the sweep direction is constant, which is the case for channels and
pipes, for example. Revolving a mesh around a symmetry axis is another useful sweep
operation.

BOUNDARY LAYER MESHES

A boundary layer mesh is a mesh with an element distribution that is stacked or dense
in the direction normal to a boundary. It is created by inserting structured layers of
elements along specific boundaries and merging the outer layer with the surrounding
structured or unstructured mesh. This type of mesh is useful for many fluid flow
applications especially when coupled to mass and energy transfer, where thin boundary
layers need to be resolved. This is also the default physics-induced mesh for fluid flow.

MESH CONVERGENCE
Ideally, a mesh convergence analysis should be performed in order to estimate the
accuracy of a simulation. This means that the mesh should be made twice as fine in each
spatial direction and the simulation carried out once again on the refined mesh. If the
change in critical solution parameters for the original mesh and the finer mesh is within
the required tolerance, the solution can be regarded as being mesh-converged. For
practical reasons, it is seldom possible to make the mesh twice as fine in each direction.
Instead, some critical regions can be identified and the mesh is refined only there.

Meshing in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings

The default solver for the Fluid Flow interfaces is optimized for a large variety of fluid
flow conditions and applications. The suggested solver depends on the physics
interface and the study type.

The default solver settings is a tradeoff between performance and robustness. The
more advanced the model, the more the solver can need tuning to obtain a solution.
This is another reason why it is good to start with a reduced model description rather
than the complete description.

2D models and small 3D models get so-called direct-solver suggestions. Direct solvers
are robust but the memory requirement scales somewhere between N1.5and N2 where

42 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

 N is the number of degrees of freedom in the model. This means that a direct solver
becomes prohibitively expensive for large problems. Large 3D models therefore get
iterative solver suggestions per default. The memory requirement for an iterative solver
optimally scales as N. The drawback with iterative solvers is that they are less robust
than direct solvers. A model can converge with a direct solver but fail with an iterative
solver. Large models therefore require more care when being set up than small models
do.

For well-posed models, there are possibilities to tune the default solvers to gain
performance. This is especially true for time-dependent models with a variety of solver
settings providing options to reduce the computational time.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The CFD Module Physics Interface Guide

The CFD Module extends the functionality of the physics interfaces of the base
package for COMSOL Multiphysics. The details of the physics interfaces and study
types for the CFD Module are listed in the table. The functionality of the COMSOL
Multiphysics base package is listed in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species1

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 43

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species in Porous Media
Transport of tcs all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species
Transport of tcs all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species in
Porous Media
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Species1 axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, k-ε — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, SST — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Diluted Species

Turbulent Flow, k-ε — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

44 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, SST — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Reacting Flow in Porous Media

Transport of Diluted rfds 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species axisymmetric
Transport of rfcs 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Concentrated Species axisymmetric
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Viscoelastic Flow vef 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 45

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Realizable k-ε axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, k-ω spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, SST spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, Low spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, v2-f spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Large Eddy Simulation

LES RBVM spf 3D time dependent

LES RBVMWV spf 3D time dependent

LES Smagorinsky spf 3D time dependent

Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow

Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Laminar Flow dependent
Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor with
Turbulent Flow, initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization

46 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor with

Turbulent Flow, L-VEL initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Rotating Machinery, spf 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time
Turbulent Flow, k-ε dependent
Multiphase Flow

Bubbly Flow

Laminar Bubbly Flow bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow

Bubbly Flow, Algebraic bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, L-VEL bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, k-ε bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, Realizable bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
k-ε axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, k-ω bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Bubbly Flow, SST bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, Low Re bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 47

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Bubbly Flow, bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Bubbly Flow, v2-f bf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Laminar Flow axisymmetric
Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, L-VEL mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, k-ε mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Realizable k-ε axisymmetric
Mixture Model, k-ω mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Mixture Model, SST mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, Low mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization

48 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Mixture Model, mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Mixture Model, v2-f mm 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Euler-Euler Model

Euler-Euler Model, ee 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Laminar Flow axisymmetric
Euler-Euler Model, ee 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Turbulent Flow axisymmetric
Phase Transport Mixture Model

Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Laminar Flow
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ε axisymmetric
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Realizable k-ε
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ω axisymmetric

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 49

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Mixture Model, SST axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, Low axisymmetric initialization; time
Re k-ε dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Spalart-Allmaras dependent with
initialization
Phase Transport, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, v2-f axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal Mixture Model

Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Laminar Flow
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Algebraic yPlus dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ε axisymmetric
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, axisymmetric
Realizable k-ε
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Mixture Model, k-ω axisymmetric

50 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Mixture Model, SST axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, Low axisymmetric initialization; time
Re k-ε dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, axisymmetric initialization; time
Spalart-Allmaras dependent with
initialization
Nonisothermal — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Mixture Model, v2-f axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

Flow, Moving Mesh axisymmetric
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Level Set axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, Realizable k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Set, k-ω axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, SST axisymmetric initialization

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 51

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with

Set, Low Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Level — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Set, v2-f axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar Two-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, L-VEL axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, Realizable k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Field, k-ω axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, SST axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Low Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Flow, Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with
Field, v2-f axisymmetric initialization
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow Phase Flow, Phase Field

Two-Phase Thin-Film — 3D time dependent with phase

Flow, Shell, Phase Field initialization

52 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Two-Phase Thin-Film — 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Edge, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

Laminar, Three-Phase — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent with phase

Flow, Phase Field axisymmetric initialization
Phase Transport

Phase Transport phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Phase Transport in phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Porous Media axisymmetric
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Darcy’s Law dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Multiphase Flow in — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Porous Media axisymmetric
Two-Phase Darcy’s Law tpdl 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow axisymmetric
Nonisothermal Flow

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Brinkman Equations — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axissymmetri stationary, one-way NITF;
c time dependent, one-way
NITF

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 53

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Realizable k-ε (2) axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ω (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, SST(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF

54 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Spalart-Allmaras(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, v2-f (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Large Eddy Simulation

LES RBVM — 3D time dependent

LES RBVMWV — 3D time dependent

LES Smagorinsky — 3D time dependent

High Mach Number Flow

High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Flow, Laminar axisymmetric
High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow, k-ε axisymmetric
High Mach Number hmnf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Flow, Spalart-Allmaras axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Compressible Euler cee 3D, 2D time dependent
Equations
Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow

High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Flow, Laminar dependent

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 55

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor; time

Flow, k-ε dependent
High Mach Number — 3D, 2D frozen rotor with
Flow, Spalart-Allmaras initialization; time
dependent with
initialization
Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid-Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; stationary, one

Fixed Geometry2 axisymmetric way; time dependent; time
dependent, one way
Fluid-Solid Interaction, — 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent; time
Two-Phase Flow, Phase axisymmetric dependent with phase
Field, Fixed Geometry2 initialization
Thin-Film Flow

Thin-Film Flow, Shell tffs 3D stationary; time dependent;

frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Thin-Film Flow, tff 2D stationary; time dependent;
Domain frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Thin-Film Flow, Edge tffs 2D and 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric frequency domain;
eigenfrequency
Shallow Water Equations

Shallow Water swe 1D and 2D time dependent

Equations, Time
Explicit
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Fluids1 ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluids1

56 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Conjugate Heat Transfer

Laminar Flow(1,2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Realizable k-ε (2) axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ω (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric Stationary, one-way NITF;
time dependent, one-way
NITF
Turbulent Flow, SST (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 57

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Re k-ε (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Spalart-Allmaras (2) axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Turbulent Flow, v2-f (2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; time
dependent with
initialization; Stationary,
one-way NITF; time
dependent, one-way NITF
Heat Transfer in Porous ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Media
Mathematics

Moving Interface

Level Set ls all dimensions time dependent with phase

initialization
Phase Field pf all dimensions time dependent; time
dependent with phase
initialization
Phase Field Thin-Film pftffs 3D time dependent with phase
Flow, Shell initialization
Phase Field Thin-Film pftffs 2D, 2D time dependent with phase
Flow, Edge axisymmetric initialization

58 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Ternary Phase Field terpf 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent

axisymmetric
1 This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
2
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The CFD Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database with
temperature-dependent fluid properties.

For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Materials Library, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

MODELING AND SIMULATIONS OF FLUID FLOW | 59

60 | CHAPTER 2: QUICK START GUIDE
 3

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

There are several fluid flow physics interfaces available as listed in The CFD
Module Physics Interface Guide. This chapter describes the physics interfaces
found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ). The section Modeling
Single-Phase Flow helps to choose the best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation
Interfaces
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces
• Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface
• The Wall Distance Interface is also available and described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual including the theory and how it relates to fluid
flow.

61
 Modeling Single-Phase Flow
The descriptions in this section are structured based on the order displayed in the Fluid
Flow branch. All the physics interfaces described in this section are found under the
Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ). Because most of the physics interfaces are
integrated with each other, many physics features described cross reference to other
physics interfaces. For example, nodes are usually available in both the laminar flow
(Creeping Flow and Laminar Flow) and turbulent flow (Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, k-ε,
k-ω, SST, low Reynolds number k-ε, Spalart-Allmaras and v2-f turbulence models)
interfaces.

In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

The Wall Distance Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Single-Phase Flow branch included with the CFD Module has a number of
subbranches with physics interfaces that describe different types of single-phase fluid
flow. One or more of these physics interfaces can be added, either singularly or in
combination with other physics interfaces for mass transport and heat transfer, for
example.

Different types of flow require different equations to describe them. If the type of flow
to model is already known, then select it directly. However, when you are uncertain of
the flow type, or because it is difficult to reach a solution easily, you can start instead
with a simplified model and add complexity as the model is built. Then test your way
forward and compare models and results. For single-phase flow, the Laminar Flow
interface is a good place to start if this is the case.

In other cases, you may know exactly how a fluid behaves and which equations,
models, or physics interfaces best describe it, but because the model is so complex it is
difficult to reach an immediate solution. Simpler assumptions may need to be made to

62 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 solve the problem, and other physics interfaces might be better to fine-tune the
solution process for the more complex problem. The next section gives you an
overview of each of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces to help you choose.

The Single-Phase Flow Interface Options

Several of the physics interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 3-1)
in the Physical Model and Turbulence sections, which are selected either from a check
box or drop-down list. For the Single-Phase Flow branch, all except the Rotating
Machinery interfaces have the same Name (spf). The differences are based on the
default settings required to model that type of flow as described in Table 3-1.
Figure 3-1 shows the Settings window for Laminar Flow where you choose the type of
compressibility (incompressible, weakly compressible or compressible at Mach
numbers below 0.3) and the turbulence type and model (or none for laminar flow),
and a check box to model Stokes flow by neglecting the inertial term.
TABLE 3-1: THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME COMPRESSIBILITY TURBULENT TURBULENCE NEGLECT

LABEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Creeping Flow spf Incompressible None n/a Stokes Flow

flow
Laminar Flow spf Incompressible None n/a None
flow
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS Algebraic None
Algebraic yPlus flow yPlus
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS L-VEL None
L-VEL flow
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf Incompressible RANS k-ε None
flow
Turbulent Flow, spf Incompresible RANS Realizable None
Realizable k-ε flow k-ε
Turbulent Flow, k-ω spf Incompressible RANS k-ω None
flow
Turbulent Flow, SST spf Incompressible RANS SST None
flow
Turbulent Flow, Low spf Incompressible RANS Low None
Re k-ε flow Reynolds
number k-ε

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 63

 TABLE 3-1: THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS.

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME COMPRESSIBILITY TURBULENT TURBULENCE NEGLECT

LABEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Turbulent Flow, spf Incompressible RANS Spalart- None

Spalart-Allmaras flow Allmaras
Turbulent Flow, v2-f spf Incompressible RANS v2-f None
flow
LES RBVM spf Incompressible LES RBVM None
flow
LES RBVMWV spf Incompressible LES RBVMWV None
flow
LES Smagorinsky spf Incompressible LES Smagorinsk None
flow y
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible None None None
Laminar Flow flow
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS Algebraic None
Turbulent Flow, flow yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS L-VEL None
Turbulent Flow, flow
L-VEL
Rotating Machinery, spf Incompressible RANS k-ε None
Turbulent Flow, k-ε flow
Viscoelastic Flow vef Incompressible n/a n/a n/a
flow

CREEPING FLOW
The Creeping Flow Interface ( ) models the Navier–Stokes equations without the
contribution of the inertia term. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is
appropriate for flow at small Reynolds numbers, such as in very small channels or in
microfluidic applications.

The Creeping Flow interface can also be activated by selecting a check box in the
Laminar Flow interface. This physics interface can also model non-Newtonian fluids,
using the predefined non-Newtonian models.

LAMINAR FLOW
The Laminar Flow Interface ( ) is used primarily to model flow at small to
intermediate Reynolds numbers. The physics interface solves the Navier–Stokes

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

equations, and by default assumes the flow to be incompressible; that is, the density is
assumed to be constant.

Compressible flow is possible to model in this physics interface but you have to
maintain control of the density and any of the mass balances that are deployed to
accomplish this.

The Laminar Flow Interface allows you to model porous media flow or even mixed
free- and porous media flow. A volume force due to gravity can optionally be included.

This physics interface also allows you to simulate flows of the inelastic non-Newtonian
fluids. You can model the fluid using the Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou,
Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
for its dependence on fluid composition and pressure (for compressible flow), or
temperature. Many materials in the material libraries use temperature- and
pressure-dependent property values. If the density is affected by temperature, a

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 65

 nonisothermal flow interface may be applicable (see The Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces).

Figure 3-1: The Settings window for the Laminar Flow interface. Model incompressible or
compressible flow, laminar or turbulent flow, Stokes flow and/or porous media flow.
Combinations are also possible.

TURBULENT FLOW
The various forms of the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) model
flow of large Reynolds numbers. The interfaces solve the Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes (RANS) equations for the filtered velocity field and filtered pressure as well as

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

models for the turbulent viscosity. See The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent
Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces for links to the physics interface
information.

There are several turbulence models available: two algebraic turbulence models, the
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL models, and six transport-equation models, including a
standard k-ε model, the Realizable k-ε model, a k-ω model, an SST model, a Low
Reynolds number k-ε model, the Spalart-Allmaras model, and the v2-f model. Each
model has its merits and weaknesses. See the Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces
for more details.

Similarly to the Laminar Flow interface, incompressible flow is selected by default. If

required, this can be changed to compressible flow. Non-Newtonian fluid models are
not available for the Turbulent Flow interfaces

LARGE EDDY SIMULATION

The Single-Phase Flow, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) interfaces ( ) also model flow
at large Reynolds numbers. The LES interfaces are designed for resolving the larger
three-dimensional unsteady eddies whereas the effect of the smaller eddies are
modeled. Hence, simulations with these interfaces must be three-dimensional and
time-dependent.

There are three LES models: the Residual-Based Variational Multiscale (RBVM)
model, the Residual-Based Variational Multiscale with Viscosity (RBVMWV) model,
and the Smagorinsky model. Of these three, the first two use consistent modeling for
the unresolved scales. This means that the modeled stresses in the momentum
equation vanish in the limit when all scales are resolved. They can therefore also be
used to study laminar or transitional flow.

The current formulations are only applicable to incompressible flow of Newtonian

fluids.

ROTATING MACHINERY
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and Turbulent Flow Interfaces ( ) model fluid
flow in geometries with rotating parts. For example, stirred tanks, mixers, propellers
and pumps.

When the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces are added using the Model
Wizard, a Rotating Domain is added under the Definitions node. These interfaces
support compressible, weakly compressible and incompressible flow, the flow of
non-Newtonian fluids, as well as turbulence. They also support creeping flow.

MODELING SINGLE-PHASE FLOW | 67

 THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE
The Viscoelastic Flow Interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows of
viscoelastic fluids. The physics interface is only suitable for incompressible flows.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Often, you may want to simulate applications that couple fluid flow to another type of
phenomenon described in another physics interface. Although this is not often another
type of flow, it can still involve physics interfaces supported in the CFD Module and in
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package. This is often the case for applications that
include chemical reactions and mass transport (see Chemical Species Transport
Interfaces), or energy transport, found in the Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow
Interfaces chapter.

More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, including radiation, can be found in the
Heat Transfer Module, while a wider variety of tools for modeling chemical reactions
and mass transport are found in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module. Fluid
flow is an important component for cooling electromagnetic phenomena, such as heat
created through induction and microwave heating, which are simulated using the
AC/DC Module and RF Module, respectively. Many applications involve the effect of
fluid-imposed loads on structural applications, for example, fluid-structure interaction
(FSI). The Structural Mechanics Module and MEMS Module have physics interfaces
specifically for these multiphysics applications.

You can easily couple a 1D pipe segment modeled with the Pipe Flow interface with a
3D single phase flow using a Pipe Connection multiphysics coupling. This feature is
available with a license for the Pipe Flow Module. For details, see the section Pipe
Connection in the in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide.

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow,
T ur bule nt Flo w , an d Large E d d y
S i m ula t i o n Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface
• The LES RBVM Interface
• The LES RBVMWV Interface
• The LES Smagorinsky Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 69
 The Creeping Flow Interface
The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier–Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
or, if the Turbulence model type is changed to RANS, the inertial terms are included in
the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier–Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

For example, a Laminar Flow interface is added to the Model Tree. If the Low Reynolds
number k-ε turbulence model is selected, the interface Label changes to Turbulent Flow,

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 71
 Low Re k-ε, which is the same Label that displays when the corresponding interface is
added from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier–Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma < 0.3 indicates that the inlet
and outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and
supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit.

Swirl Flow
The velocity component, u ϕ , in the azimuthal direction can be included for 2D
axisymmetric components by selecting the Swirl flow check box. While u ϕ can be
nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Also see General Single-Phase
Flow Theory.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier–Stokes equations may
be neglected.

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Porous Media Domains
With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Navier–Stokes
equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Natural convection is induced by variations in magnitude of the buoyancy

force that is defined from the density. For incompressible flow, the density
is constant; hence the buoyancy force is homogeneous and natural
convection cannot be modeled. Nevertheless, using the Nonisothermal
Flow multiphysics coupling, the buoyancy force is defined using the
thermal expansion coefficient and the temperature. Hence, in this case
natural convection is accounted for, following the Boussinesq
approximation.

Use Shallow Channel Approximation

For 2D components, selecting the Use shallow channel approximation check box enables
modeling of fluid flow in shallow channels in microfluidics applications. Such channels
often have an almost rectangular cross section where the Channel thickness dz is much
smaller than the channel width. Simple 2D components often fail to give correct results
for this type of problems because they exclude the boundaries that have the greatest
effect on the flow. The shallow channel approximation takes the effect of these
boundaries into account by adding a drag term as a volume force to the momentum
equation. The form of this term is

μu
F μ = – 12 --------2 (3-1)
dz

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 73
 where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity, u is the velocity field, and dz is the channel
thickness. This term represents the resistance that the parallel boundaries impose on
the flow; however, it does not account for any changes in velocity due to variations in
the cross-sectional area of the channel.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected and to define
the gravity force.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA=p+pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or to LES (Large Eddy Simulation).

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to approximate the time-scale
tensor in time dependent problems from projections of weak expressions. This check
box is selected by default. When not selected the actual time-step is used.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen
the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter δid as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is
roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 75
 The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features and for turbulent flows. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply
pseudo time stepping also for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time
stepping completely.

When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

The Use Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner in time dependent studies check box under
Linear solvers is available when the Compressibility option is set to Incompressible flow.
When this check box is selected, the default solver for time dependent study steps will
use the Block Navier-Stokes preconditioner in iterative solvers for the velocity and
pressure. Using this preconditioner may result in shorter solution times for large time
dependent problems with high Reynolds numbers.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Block Navier–Stokes in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled wall distance. Turbulence effects are included using an enhanced viscosity model
based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are
also added in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary
condition is No slip), and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation.
Applying the Fluid and Matrix Properties on a subset of the domains enables studies of
coupled porous-media flow and turbulent flow.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 77
 Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters for the Algebraic yPlus model, κa and Ba, have been
optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters. The turbulence model parameters can be
tuned when the Edit turbulence model parameters check box is selected.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach number (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are included

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 using an enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. When this physics interface is
added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder — Fluid
Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip), and Initial Values. Except
where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent Flow, k-ε
Interface for all the other settings.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation.
Applying the Fluid and Matrix Properties on a subset of the domains enables studies of
coupled porous-media flow and turbulent flow.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters, κl and El, have been optimized for internal flow. For
certain cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters.
The turbulence model parameters can be tuned when the Edit turbulence model
parameters check box is selected.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 79
 • Reciprocal wall distance G
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study
previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard
two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The flow near walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS equations and the
transport equations for k and ε, and provides an interface for defining the fluid material
and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are
also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
becomes available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Turbulence variables scale
parameters subsection is available when the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for the Laminar Flow interface, enter a value for
Uscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.

The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units
or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 81
 • Airflow over an Ahmed Body: Application Library path
CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/ahmed_body
• Pipe Erosion due to Contaminant Particles: Application Library path
CFD_Module/Particle_Tracing/pipe_elbow_erosion

Turbulent Flow over a Backward-Facing Step: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/turbulent_backstep

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the realizable two-equation k-ε model. The flow near walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS
equations and the transport equations for k and ε, and provides an interface for
defining the fluid material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, and Initial
Values.

Except where included below, see The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are C2, A0, σk, σe, κv, and B.

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints. The k-ω model is a
so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall.

The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS equations and the
transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy k and the specific dissipation ω,
and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model
Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 83
 Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are α, σk∗, σw, β0, β0∗, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Specific dissipation rate om

• Reciprocal wall distance G

Flow Through a Pipe Elbow: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/pipe_elbow

The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface

The Turbulent Flow, SST (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, SST interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equation for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints. The SST model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The SST model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The Turbulent Flow, SST interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip), and
Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For this physics interface the parameters are a1, β0∗, β1, β2, γ1, γ2, σk1, σk2,
σw1,and σw2.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 85
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Specific dissipation rate om
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study previous
to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase
flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible
flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers
(typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the AKN two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The AKN model
is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all
the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, and κv.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The Low Reynolds number k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 87
 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating
single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for
incompressible flows, weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach
numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equation for conservation of momentum
and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the Spalart–Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart–Allmaras model is a
so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall. The Spalart–Allmaras model depends on the distance to the
closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS
equations and the transport equations for the undamped turbulent kinematic velocity
ν̃ , and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. When
this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model
Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

88 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Wall Treatment
The Spalart–Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Cb1, Cb2, Cv1, σv, Cw2, Cw3, κv, and Crot.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Under the Turbulence variables
scale parameters subsection, the default νscale is of the same order of magnitude as the
kinematic viscosity of air at room temperature.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ

The Spalart–Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 89
 The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface
The Turbulent Flow, v2-f (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows
at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows,
weakly compressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less
than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface are the Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The physics interface includes a wall distance equation.

The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The Turbulent
Flow, k-ε Interface for all the other settings.

TURBULENCE
A different turbulence model can be selected under Turbulence model. Laminar or
creeping flow may simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check
box, and for 2D components also the Shallow Channel Approximation check box.

Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

90 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 For this physics interface the parameters are Cμv2f, Cτ, Cη, CL, C1, C2, Cε1v2f, Cε2v2f,
A1, σkv2f, σεv2f, σζv2f, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha
• Reciprocal wall distance G

The v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the study
previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

The LES RBVM Interface

The LES RBVM (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at high
Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES RBVM interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by additional stress
terms, for conservation of momentum. Consistent modeling is used for the additional
stresses. The interface is thus also applicable to laminar and transitional flows.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 91
 The LES RBVM interface should only be used for three-dimensional, time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–Stokes and
continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its
properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also
added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES RBVM model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which applies a
Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a

blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El. Turbulence
model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some
special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

92 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

The LES RBVMWV Interface

The LES RBVMWV (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at high
Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES RBVMWV interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by additional stress
terms, for conservation of momentum. Similar modeling as for the LES RBVM model
is applied but the effect of the Reynolds stress is enhanced by adding a turbulent
viscosity term. Since the modeling is consistent, the interface is also applicable to
laminar and transitional flows.

The LES RBVMWV interface should only be used for three-dimensional,

time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–
Stokes and continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid
material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default
nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES RBVMWV model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which applies
a Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 93
 Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a
blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El, and the
˜
turbulent viscosity parameter C . Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as
many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

The LES Smagorinsky Interface

The LES Smagorinsky (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows at
high Reynolds numbers by resolving the larger three-dimensional unsteady eddies and
modeling the effect of the smaller eddies. The physics interface is currently only
suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the LES Smagorinsky interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass and the Navier–Stokes equation, augmented by a turbulent
viscosity term. The modeled term is inconsistent, which means that it does not vanish
for a fully resolved flow.

94 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The LES Smagorinsky interface should only be used for three-dimensional,
time-dependent analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–
Stokes and continuity equations, and provides an interface for defining the fluid
material and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default
nodes are also added in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall.

Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the other
settings.

TURBULENCE
A different LES model can be selected under Turbulence model. A RANS turbulence
model can be selected by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS. Laminar or
creeping flow may be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to None.

The Turbulence model property disables the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box
and Enable porous media domains check box.

Wall Treatment
The LES Smagorinsky model employs per default a Low Re wall treatment, which
applies a Dirichlet condition for the velocity field.

Select the Automatic option in order to apply a tangential-stress condition based on a

blending of asymptotic expressions in the viscous wall layer and the log layer. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Edit LES Model Parameters

Select this check box to edit the L-VEL wall-treatment parameters, κl and El, and the
Smagorinsky parameter Cs. Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many
flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained
by tuning the model parameters.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to use the time derivative from the
previous time step to estimate temporal changes in the unresolved scales.

DISCRETIZATION
The discretization for the LES Smagorinsky interface should be set to P2+P2 in order
to include the Smagorinsky model for the Reynolds stresses.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 95
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces

96 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Open Boundary

2
• Free Surface • Outlet
• Fan • Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity • Point Mass Source1
• Fluid-Fluid Interface2 • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Screen
• Generate New Turbulence Model • Stationary Free Surface
Interface • Symmetry
• Grille • Vacuum Pump
• Gravity • Volume Force
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet
• Interior Fan
• Interior Wall
• Line Mass Source1
1
A feature that may require an additional license
2
See documentation for The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 97
 Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force
feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

For the Turbulent Flow interfaces, the Fluid Properties node also adds the equations
for the turbulence transport equations.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the Fluid Properties node also adds the equations
for the components of the elastic stress tensor.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties

98 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and pressure, and these dependencies
are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref and Tref for
incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the physics interface
level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the
computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in the
density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with the
Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Constitutive Relation
For laminar flow, Newtonian and Inelastic non-Newtonian constitutive relations are
available. Newtonian fluids have a linear relationship between the shear stress and the
shear rate.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 99
 Inelastic Non-Newtonian
Non-Newtonian fluids are encountered in everyday life and in a wide range of the
industrial processes. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include yogurt, paper pulp,
and polymer suspensions. Such fluids have a nonlinear relationship between the shear
stress and the share rate. The following inelastic non-Newtonian models are available:
Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and
Casson–Papanastasiou.

The following parameters are required for the Power law:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
·
• Lower shear rate limit γ min
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

For the Carreau model, the following parameters are required:

• Zero shear rate viscosity μ0

• Infinite shear rate viscosity μinf
• Relaxation time λ

• Power index n

For the Bingham–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp
• Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

For the Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Fluid consistency coefficient m

• Flow behavior index n
• Yield stress τy
·
• Reference shear rate γ ref

• Model parameter mp

For the Casson–Papanastasiou model, the following parameters are required:

• Plastic viscosity μp

100 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Yield stress τy
• Model parameter mp

The default values for the parameters are listed in Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-2: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE INELASTIC NON-NEWTONIAN MODELS

NAME UNIT VARIABLE DEFAULT VALUE

Fluid consistency coefficient Pa·s m 0.001

Flow behavior index / Power index Dimensionless n 1
·
Flow shear rate limit s-1 γ min 0.01
·
Reference shear rate s-1 γ ref 1
Zero shear rate viscosity Pa·s μ0 0.001
Infinite shear rate viscosity Pa·s μinf 0
Relaxation time s λ 0
Plastic viscosity Pa·s μp 0.001
Yield stress N/m2 τy 0
Model parameter s mp 10

• Non-Newtonian Flow

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

For the Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Turbulent Flow, k-ω, and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent
Flow k-ε interfaces, an upper limit on the mixing length is required.

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, it is evaluated to the shortest
side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for example, a complicated
system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such cases, it is recommended
that the mixing length limit is defined manually.

DISTANCE EQUATION
For the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε; Turbulent flow, Algebraic yPlus; Turbulent Flow,
L-VEL; Turbulent Flow, SST; Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras; and Turbulent Flow,
v2-f interfaces, a Wall Distance interface is included.

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 When the Reference length scale lref is set to Automatic, it is evaluated to one tenth of
the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled by the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling because small objects would have too large an impact on the
solution if the wall distance were measured exactly. The automatic value is usually a
good choice but the value can become too high if the geometry consists of several slim
entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
∂t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient
compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on
the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p user input.

102 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 In the Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence variables should also
specified. Depending on the turbulent flow interface being used, additional initial
values may be required for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy k

• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Specific dissipation rate om
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless). Under normal circumstances
the default value need not be changed.
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless). Under normal
circumstances the default value need not be changed.
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls. For turbulent flow, the description may
involve wall functions and asymptotic expressions for certain turbulence variables.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Leaking Wall

• Slip • Navier Slip
• Slip Velocity

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

For turbulent flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

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 When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, the Apply wall roughness option becomes
available. When Apply wall roughness is selected, a Sand roughness model, derived from
the experiments by Nikuradse, is applied. Select Generic roughness in order to specify
more general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq should be specified.
• For Generic roughness a Roughness height ks and a dimensionless Roughness parameter
Cs should be specified.

The option for Porous treatment of no slip condition should be decided in Physical Model
when Enable porous media domains is activated. It specifies how Wall boundaries and
Interior Wall boundaries internal to porous domains are treated. When Standard no slip
formulation is chosen, a common no slip condition is applied on all solid walls. When
Porous slip is chosen, a blending analytic expression is instead applied on the
corresponding wall boundaries adjacent to the porous medium domain. It results in a
no slip condition in case the porous length scale is fully resolved by the mesh and a slip
condition in the opposite limit when the mesh is much coarser than the porous scale.
A smooth transition between these limits is ensured. Note that the interpretation and
usage of non-zero slip at the wall is the same as in the Navier Slip boundary condition.
By default, Velocity formulation is on and the treatment is based on an approximate
reconstruction of the far field pressure gradient using the slip velocity at the wall. If the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen, the local pressure gradient at the wall is
employed.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n = 0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Slip Velocity
In the microscale range, the flow condition at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or
slip. Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a Slip
velocity at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: noncontinuum
effects and the flow induced by a thermal gradient along the boundary.

When the Use viscous slip check box is selected, the default Slip length Ls is User defined.
Another value or expression may be entered if the default value is not applicable. For
Maxwell’s model values or expressions for the Tangential momentum accommodation
coefficient av and the Mean free path λ should be specified. Tangential accommodation
coefficients are typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis,

104 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business
Media, 2005.

When the Use thermal creep check box is selected, a thermal creep contribution with
Thermal slip coefficient σT is activated. Thermal slip coefficients are typically between
0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows
and Nanoflows, Springer Science and Business Media, 2005.

Slip velocity is available when Turbulence Model in the Turbulence section of the interface
is set to None.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

Leaking Wall is available when Turbulence Model in the Turbulence section of the
interface is set to None.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is a slip length, and u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n wall )n wall is the velocity tangential to the wall.

The Slip length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side and
f h is a user input. Select User defined from the Slip length selection list in order to
manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, check Account for the translational wall
velocity in the friction force to use ( u – u bnd – ( ( u – u bnd ) ⋅ n wall )n wall ) instead of
u slip in the friction force.

The Navier slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, Kn is the sum of the viscous and the elastic
contributions.

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 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh node needs to be added from
Definitions to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt with the
surface sliding in a tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the
boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.
• For 2D axisymmetric components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface
properties, the Velocity of moving wall, ϕ component vw may also be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Default, Use pointwise constraints, Use DG constraints, or Use weak
constraints. Use mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition
exactly.

106 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Use DG constraints or Use weak constraints.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
Mass flow, and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with
the same or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a
Velocity section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = −nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

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 PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and unselected by default to
prescribe the total pressure pointwise. If it is selected, the averaged total pressure
is imposed in the weak forms instead.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the
interface Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure
approximation (named Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows)
check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic
pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in p0 user input.
• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to reduce the
amount of fluid exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress
backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

MASS FLOW
The mass flow at an inlet can be specified by the Mass flow rate, the Pointwise mass flux,
the Standard flow rate, or the Standard flow rate (SCCM).

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the mass flow condition is applied separately on
each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is applied over the
whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately should
be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on each disjoint
boundary.

108 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Mass Flow Rate
The Mass flow rate option sets the integrated mass flow over the boundary selection,
the Normal mass flow rate to a specific value, m. The mass flow is assumed to be parallel
to the boundary normal, and the tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

Pointwise Mass Flux

The Pointwise mass flux sets the mass flow parallel to the boundary normal. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero. The mass flux is a model input, which means that
COMSOL Multiphysics can take its value from another physics interface when
available. When User defined is selected a value or function Mf should be specified for
the Mass flux.

Standard Flow Rate

The Standard flow rate Qsv sets a standard volumetric flow rate, according to the SEMI
standard E12-0303. The mass flow rate is specified as the volumetric flow rate of a gas
at standard density — the Mean molar mass Mn divided by a Standard molar volume Vm
(that is, the volume of one mole of a perfect gas at standard pressure and standard
temperature). The flow occurs across the whole boundary in the direction of the
boundary normal and is computed by a surface (3D) or line (2D) integral. The
tangential flow velocity is set to zero.

The standard density can be defined directly, or by specifying a standard pressure and
temperature, in which case the ideal gas law is assumed. The options in the
Standard flow rate defined by list are:

• Standard density, for which the Standard molar volume Vm should be specified.
• Standard pressure and temperature, for which the Standard pressure Pst and the
Standard temperature Tst should be defined.

For 2D components, the Channel thickness dbc is used to define the area across which
the mass flow occurs. This setting is not applied to the whole model. Line or surface
integrals of the mass flow over the boundary evaluated during postprocessing or used
in integration coupling operators do not include this scaling automatically. Such results
should be appropriately scaled when comparing them with the specified mass flow.

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 Standard Flow Rate (SCCM)
The Standard flow rate (SCCM) boundary condition is equivalent to the Standard flow
rate boundary condition, except that the flow rate is entered directly in SCCMs
(standard cubic centimeters per minute) without the requirement to specify units.
Here, the dimensionless Number of SCCM units Qsccm should be specified.

TURBULENT FLOW SETTINGS

No additional inlet conditions are required for the algebraic turbulence models:
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL.

For the Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface, a value or expression for the
Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 should be specified.

For transport-equation turbulence models, apart from the Spalart–Allmaras turbulence

model, the following settings are available under the Specify turbulence length scale and
intensity option (see Table 3-3 for the default values):

• Turbulent intensity IT
• Turbulence length scale LT
• Reference velocity scale Uref

For the v2-f turbulence model, the additional choice between Isotropic turbulence and
Specify turbulence anisotropy appears. For Specify turbulence anisotropy, a value for the
turbulent relative fluctuations at the inlet, ζ0, may be specified. When Specify
turbulence variables is selected, values or expressions for the dependent turbulence
variables should be defined. Availability is based on the physics interface and the
boundary condition chosen.

• Turbulent kinetic energy k0

• Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0
• Specific dissipation rate ω0

• Turbulent relative fluctuations ζ0

• Elliptic blending function α0

110 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 TABLE 3-3: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE TURBULENT INTERFACES

NAME AND UNIT VARIABLE INLET OPEN BOUNDARY

BOUNDARY STRESS

Turbulent intensity IT Medium 0.005 0.01

(dimensionless)
Turbulence length scale (m) LT Geometry 0.1 0.1
based
Reference velocity scale (m/s) Uref 1 1 1
Turbulent kinetic energy k0 0.005 2.5·10-3 1·10-2
(m2/s2)
Turbulent dissipation rate ε0 0.005 1.1·10-4 1·10-3
(m2/s3)
Specific dissipation rate (1/s) ω0 20 0.5 0.5
Undamped turbulent υ0 3*spf5.nu
kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

About the Turbulent Intensity and Turbulence Length Scale Parameters

The Turbulent intensity IT and Turbulence length scale LT values are related to the
turbulence variables via the following equations, Equation 3-2 for the Inlet and
Equation 3-3 for the Open Boundary:

3 2 3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
Inlet k = --- ( U I T ) , ε = Cμ ----------- (3-2)
2 LT

3
3⁄4 2 ---
3 2 C μ  3 ( I T U ref )  2
Open Boundary k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ε = ------------  --------------------------- (3-3)
2 LT  2 

For the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress options, and with any Turbulent Flow
interface, inlet conditions for the turbulence variables also need to be specified. These
conditions are used on the parts of the boundary where u·n < 0, that is, where flow
enters the computational domain.

For the k-ω and SST turbulence models the Turbulent intensity IT and Turbulence length
scale LT values are related to the turbulence variables via the following equations,
Equation 3-4 for the Inlet and Equation 3-5 for the Open Boundary:

3 2 k
Inlet k = --- ( U I T ) , ω = -------------------------
- (3-4)
2 ( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T

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 2
3 2 1  3 ( I T U ref ) 
Open Boundary k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ω = --------------------------
/
 --------------------------- (3-5)
2 ( β0 ) LT 
* 1 4 2 

For the inlet, IT and LT can be chosen in the lists. There are:

• Four options for IT: Low (0.01), Medium (0.05), High (0.1), and User defined.
• Two options for LT: Geometry based, and User defined. In the Geometry based
option, it is automatically computed based on 7% of the hydraulic diameter.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the inlet conditions for the elastic stress
components are required. Note, that if several branches are specified in the Fluid
Property node, the initial values entered above are applied to all branches.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Note that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow boundary.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per

112 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 default and should only be deselected if the inlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

Fully developed inflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the inlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed inflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the inlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

For recommendations of physically sound values for the Turbulent

intensity IT and Turbulence length scale LT, see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

Stationary Incompressible Flow over a Backstep (inlet): Application

Library path CFD_Module/Single-Phase_Flow/backstep

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity

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 is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier–Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow
boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero.

• For incompressible flow, the Pressure list has two options, Static and Total. For
weakly compressible and compressible flow, the static pressure should be specified
in the text field.
- If Pressure is Static, and the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the pressure p0, at the boundary, is the
absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.
- If Pressure is Total, the Average check box is available and selected by default to
prescribed the averaged total pressure in the weak forms. If it is unselected, the
total pressure is imposed pointwise.
When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for incompressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

114 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW
This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to
work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The Apply condition on each disjoint selection separately check box is selected per
default. When this setting is selected, the fully developed flow condition is applied
separately on each disjoint selection. If this option is not selected, the condition is
applied over the whole feature selection. The Apply condition on each disjoint selection
separately should be disabled only if the flow conditions are known to be identical on
each disjoint boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. The exception is gravity when the
Include gravity setting is selected in the physics interface settings. Unless Use reduced
pressure is also selected, an option to Compensate for hydrostatic pressure or
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation becomes available. It is selected per
default and should only be deselected if the outlet normal is aligned with the gravity
force and you want to specify an average pressure that includes the hydrostatic
pressure.

Fully developed outflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the outlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the fully developed outflow can be used in
conjunction with the viscoelastic constitutive model. No additional inputs are required
for the elastic stress tensor components. They are instead solved for on the outlet
boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

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 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. It should only be
used when the geometry and expected solution have mirror symmetry. By using
symmetries in a model its size can be reduced by one-half or more, making this an
efficient tool for solving large problems.

The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear

stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u ⋅ n = 0,  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3 

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes
ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

116 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p ≈ f 0 .

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 user input.

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

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 TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
See Turbulent Flow Settings.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = F
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = F

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- – n ⋅ F (3-6)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-6 states that p ≈ −n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
t⋅u = 0
  3 

118 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 T
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 , t⋅u = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-7)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-7 states that p ≈ f0.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in f0 or phydron is added to F depending of the selected option.

Turbulent Boundary Type

The Turbulent boundary type options for this boundary condition are Open boundary,
Inlet, and Outlet.

• For Open boundary parts of the boundary are expected to be outlets and other parts
are expected to be to be inlets.
• The Inlet option should be selected when the whole boundary is expected to be an
inlet.
• The Outlet option should be used when the whole boundary is expected to be an
outflow boundary. In this case, homogeneous Neumann conditions are applied for
the turbulence variables, that is, for k and ε

∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ε ⋅ n = 0

and additionally for the v2-f model

∇α ⋅ n = 0 ∇ζ ⋅ n = 0

for k and ω
∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ω ⋅ n = 0

or for the Spalart–Allmaras model

∇ν̃ ⋅ n = 0

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 TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
See Turbulent Flow Settings.

VISCOELASTIC STRESS
For Viscoelastic Flow interface, Viscoelastic Stress section is available. See Viscoelastic
Stress.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be
selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Screen
The Screen condition models interior wire gauzes, grilles, or perforated plates as thin
permeable barriers. Common correlations are included for resistance and refraction
coefficients. The Screen boundary condition can only be applied on interior
boundaries.

SCREEN TYPE
The available options for the Screen type are Wire gauze, Square mesh, Perforated plate,
and User defined. The settings are defined by the equations shown based on the
selection (excluding User defined) which in turn adjusts what is available in the
Parameters section.

PARAMETERS
If Wire gauze, Square mesh, or Perforated plate is selected as the Screen type, values or
expressions for the Solidity σs (ratio of blocked area to total area of the screen) should
be specified.

• For Wire gauze a value or expression for the Wire diameter d should also be specified.
• The User defined options requires the dimensionless Resistance coefficient K.
• For all screen types, the Refraction defaults to Wire gauze. With the User defined
option, a different Refraction coefficient η (dimensionless) can be specified.

120 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition

Vacuum Pump
The Vacuum Pump node models the effective outlet pressure created by a vacuum pump
device that is attached to the outlet.

PARAMETERS
The Flow conditionoption defines a lumped curve — linear, static pressure curve data,
or user defined.

Static pressure curve, Linear

For the Static pressure curve, linear option, values or expressions should be specified
for the Static pressure at no flow pnf and the Free delivery flux V0,fd.

The static pressure curve value is equal to the static pressure at no flow when V0 < 0
and equal to 0 when the flux is larger than the free delivery flux.

Static pressure curve, data

The Static pressure curve, data option can be used to enter or load data under the Static
Pressure Curve Data section below. The interpolation between points given in the Static
Pressure Curve Data table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static
Pressure Curve Interpolation section.

Static pressure curve, user defined

The User defined option can be used to enter a different value or expression. The flux
across the selection where this boundary condition is applied is defined by phys_id.V0
where phys_id is the name (for example, phys_id is spf by default for this physics
interface). In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the fan curve
is the maximum of the user-defined function and 0.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA

This section displays when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow condition.
In the table, values or expressions for the Flux and Static pressure curve should be
specified. Alternatively, a text file can be imported by clicking the Load from file button
( ) under the table.

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 UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. Units can be specified here for the Flux and Static pressure curve.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE INTERPOLATION

This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. The available options for the Interpolation function type are Linear, Piecewise
cubic, and Cubic spline.

The extrapolation method always returns a constant value. In order to avoid problems
with undefined data, the function used for the boundary condition is the maximum of
the interpolated function and 0.

Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition

The Vacuum Pump feature computes the flux across the boundary
selection. This feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If
the model includes several pumps on boundaries that are not connected,
it is good practice to use different Vacuum Pump features with connected
boundaries.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

122 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 FLOW CONDITION
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

The Flow Condition at the boundary is specified through a value or expression for either
·
the Pressure difference, p src – p dst , or the Mass flow, m . The mass flow option ensures
a pressure difference is achieved across the source and destination boundaries. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fan
The Fan condition is used to define the flow direction (inlet or outlet) and the fan
parameters on exterior boundaries. The Interior Fan condition is available on interior
boundaries.

FLOW DIRECTION
The Flow direction can be set to Inlet or Outlet. When a boundary has been selected, an
arrow displays in the Graphics window to indicate the selected flow direction. The
arrow can be updated if the selection changes by clicking any node in the Model Builder
and then clicking the Fan node again to update the Graphics window.

The Inlet Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.

• For Normal flow it sets the tangential velocity component to zero.

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 • For User defined an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be specified.
The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.
• For Swirl flow (which is available for 3D or 2D axisymmetric when the Swirl flow
check box in the Physical Model section is checked) it specifies a swirl flow on the
downstream side of the fan based on the Rotation axis base point rbp, Revolutions per
time f, Rotational direction and Swirl ratio csf.

PARAMETERS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Input pressure pinput defines the
pressure at the fan inlet.

When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Exit pressure pexit defines the pressure
at the fan outlet.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure is not selected in the
interface’s Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation for weakly compressible or
compressible flow) check box is available and selected by default. When it is selected,
the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added to the pressure entered in pinput or
pexit user input.

For either flow direction, Flow condition specifies a static pressure curve — linear, data,
or user defined.

Static pressure curve, linear

For both Inlet and Outlet flow directions, if Linear is selected, values or expressions for
the Static pressure at no flow pnf and the Free delivery flux V0,fd should be specified.
The static pressure curve is equal to the static pressure at no flow when V0 < 0 and
equal to 0 when the fluxis larger than the free delivery flux.

Static pressure curve, data

The Static pressure curve data can be entered or loaded under the Static Pressure Curve
Data section that displays for this option. The interpolation between points given in the
table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static Pressure Curve
Interpolation section.

Static pressure curve, user defined

With the Static pressure curve, user defined option, a different value or expression for
the Fan flux interpolation function can be specified. The flux across the selection where
this boundary condition is applied is defined by phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the

124 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 name (for example, phys_id is spf by default for laminar single-phase flow). In order
to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the fan curve returns the
maximum of the user-defined function and 0.

UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. Units can be specified for the Flux and Static pressure.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA

When Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow condition, a table appears, where
values or expressions the Flux and Static pressure can be specified or imported from a
text file by clicking the Load from file button ( ) under the table. Units can be
specified for the Flux and the Static pressure curve.

STATIC PRESSURE CURVE INTERPOLATION

This section is available when Static pressure curve, data is selected as the Flow
condition. The available options for the Interpolation function type are Linear, Piecewise
cubic, and Cubic spline.

The extrapolation method always returns a constant value. In order to avoid problems
with undefined data, the function used for the boundary condition returns the
maximum of the interpolated function and 0.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET

When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific
dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, the values of the Turbulent
kinetic energy, Turbulent relative fluctuations (for the v2-f turbulence model) and the
Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific dissipation rate on the downstream side of the fan
should be specified. Alternatively, the Reference velocity scale can be used to specify
default values.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

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 The Fan feature uses the flux across the boundary selection. This feature
is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model includes
several fans on boundaries that are not connected, it is good practice to
use different Fan or Interior Fan features with connected boundaries.

Interior Fan
The Interior Fan condition represents interior boundaries where a fan condition is set
using a fan pressure curve to avoid an explicit representation of the fan. The Interior
Fan defines a boundary condition on a slit for laminar flow. That means that the
pressure and the velocity can be discontinuous across this boundary.

One side represents a flow inlet; the other side represents the fan outlet. The fan
boundary condition ensures that the mass flow rate is conserved between its inlet and
outlet:

 ρu ⋅ n +  ρu ⋅ n = 0
inlet outlet

This boundary condition acts like a Pressure Conditions boundary condition on each
side of the fan. When a pressure curve is used, the pressure at the fan outlet is fixed so
that the mass flow rate is conserved. On the fan inlet the pressure is set to the pressure
at the fan outlet minus the pressure drop induced by the fan. The pressure drop is
defined from the static pressure curve, and is usually a function of the flux. When the
flux is prescribed the pressure at the inlet and at the outlet are set so that the flux
obtains the desired value.

To define a fan boundary condition on an exterior boundary, the Fan condition should
be used instead.

FLOW DIRECTION
The Flow direction can be defined by selecting Along normal vector or Opposite to
normal vector. This defines which side of the boundary is the fan’s inlet and which side
is the fan’s outlet.

Select Prescribe flow direction, to enforce the flow direction of the fluid when it enters
the domain located at the fan outlet.

• For Normal flow it sets the tangential velocity component to zero.

126 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 • For Swirl flow (which is available for 3D or 2D axisymmetric when the Swirl flow
check box in the Physical Model section is checked) it specifies a swirl flow on the
downstream side of the fan based on the Rotation axis base point rbp, Revolutions per
time f, Rotational direction and Swirl ratio csf.
• For User defined an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be specified.
The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.

PARAMETERS
All the settings for this section except Prescribe flux are the same as for the Fan node.
See Static pressure curve, linear and Static pressure curve, data for details.

When Prescribe flux is selected, define the Prescribed flux V0,pf (SI unit m3/s, default
value 0.01 m3/s).

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET

When the Turbulence model has transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k,
and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative
fluctuations, ζ, the values of the Turbulent kinetic energy, Turbulent relative fluctuations
(for the v2-f turbulence model) and the Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific dissipation
rate on the downstream side of the fan should be specified. Alternatively, the Reference
velocity scale can be used to specify default values.

After a boundary has been selected, an arrow displays in the Graphics window to
indicate the selected flow direction. If the selection changes, the arrow can be updated
by clicking any node in the Model Builder and then clicking the Interior fan node again
to update the Graphics window.

Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary

The Interior Fan feature uses the flux across the boundary selection. This
feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model
includes several fans on boundaries that are not connected, it is good
practice to use different Fan or Interior Fan features with connected
boundaries.

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 Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except

that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure, and turbulence variables) across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary
condition can be used to avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions
on interior curves and surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving
wall can also be prescribed. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flow.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The following Boundary condition options are available.

No Slip
The No slip condition models solid walls. No slip walls are walls where the fluid velocity
relative to the wall is zero. For a interior stationary wall this means that u = 0 on both
sides of the wall.

For turbulent flows, the no slip conditions may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, the Apply wall roughness option becomes
available. When Apply wall roughness is selected, a Sand roughness model, derived from
the experiments by Nikuradse, is applied. Select Generic roughness in order to specify
more general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq should be specified.
• For Generic roughness a Roughness height ks and a dimensionless Roughness parameter
Cs should be specified.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n=0. It implicitly assumes
that there are no viscous effects on either side of the slip wall and hence, no boundary
layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation
if the important effect is to prevent the exchange of fluid between the regions separated
by the interior wall.

Navier Slip
The Navier slip condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress on each side of the wall

128 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

where β is a slip length. For more information, see the Navier Slip option in the Wall
feature.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options. The Constraints settings can be set to Default, Use pointwise constraints,
or Use DG constraints. Use mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip
condition exactly.

• Wall
• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Grille
The Grille boundary condition models the pressure drop caused by having a grille that
covers the inlet or outlet.

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 PARAMETERS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Input pressure pinput defines the
pressure at the fan inlet.

When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, the Exit pressure pexit defines the pressure
at the fan outlet.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in pinput or pexit user input.

When Quadratic loss is selected for the Static pressure curve, the Quadratic loss
coefficient qlc should be specified. qlc defines the static pressure curve which is a
piecewise quadratic function equal to 0 when the flow rate is < 0, equal to V02⋅qlc
when the flow rate is > 0. Alternately, when Loss coefficient K is specified for the Static
2
pressure curve, a pressure drop equal to 0.5Kρ ( u ⋅ n ) is prescribed. See Fan for other
settings for the Laminar Flow interface. Note that for the Turbulent Flow interfaces,
Quadratic loss and Loss coefficient are the only available options for Static pressure curve.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, ε, specific
dissipation rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, the Specify turbulent length scale
and intensity and Specify turbulence variables options are available for the turbulence
conditions on the downstream side of the grille. Alternatively, the Reference velocity
scale can be used to specify default values.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

The Grille feature uses the flow rate across the boundary selection. This
feature is not designed to be used on disjoint selections. If the model
includes several grilles on boundaries that are not connected, it is good
practice to use different Grille features with connected boundaries.

130 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure
level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. If the reference pressure
pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the absolute
pressure.

When Include gravity is selected and Use reduced pressure not selected in the interface
Physical model section, the Compensate for hydrostatic pressure approximation (named
Compensate for hydrostatic pressure for compressible flows) check box is available and
selected by default. When it is selected, the hydrostatic pressure is automatically added
to the pressure entered in p0 user input.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 131
 Point Mass Source
This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for
the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Battery Design Module,
CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Battery Design
Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the
species (Species Line Source).

132 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Generate New Turbulence Model Interface

This global feature requires a CFD Module license. It can be used to create a new
turbulent flow interface based on the current laminar or turbulent flow interface. The
new interface inherits the property values from the original interface except for the
turbulence related ones. All the features in the original interface are also inherited by
the newly created interface except for the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface
feature itself and the Initial Values feature. The initial values of the new interface are
either default values or estimates from the solution of the original interface depending
on the settings in the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface feature. Note that the
parameters and expressions in text fields in all the features, except for Initial Values and
the Name column in Global Equation, get exactly the same expressions as in the original
model. Therefore, any dependencies on expressions or dependent variables from the
physics interface must be reviewed and updated manually if necessary.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 133
 MODEL GENERATION
This section contains a Boolean input, Copy only active settings, which is selected by
default. When selected, the disabled features and settings in the original model are not
transferred to the new interface.

The Create button generates the new interface.

TURBULENCE MODEL INTERFACE

All available turbulence models can be selected from the list:

• Turbulent Flow, k-ε

• Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus
• Turbulent Flow, L-VEL
• Turbulent Flow, k-ω
• Turbulent Flow, SST
• Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds number k-ε
• Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
• Turbulent Flow, v2-f

STUDY
The Study section contains two lists: Study type and Initial value from study. When
Turbulent Flow, k-ε or Turbulent Flow, k-ω is selected as the Turbulence Model
Interface, the Study type contains the following two options:

• Stationary
• Time-dependent

The default value is Stationary. For all other turbulence models, the available Study type
options are:

• Stationary with initialization

• Time dependent with initialization

with default value Stationary with initialization. Note that the created new study only
solves for the new turbulence interface.

Initial value from study contains a list of the studies that are currently in the model. It
can also be set to None. If there is no study available, the default option is None. If there
are available studies, the first study is the default option.

134 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

THE CREEPING FLOW, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW, AND LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 135
 The Rotating Machinery, Laminar and
Turbulent Flow Interfaces
The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow (spf)
interfaces, found under the Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, are used for modeling flow where one or more of the
boundaries rotate in a periodic fashion. This is used for mixers and propellers.

The physics interfaces support compressible, weakly compressible and incompressible

flow, the flow of non-Newtonian fluids described by the Power Law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou
models, as well as turbulent flow. In addition, the physics interfaces support creeping
flow, although the shallow channel approximation is redundant.

In this section:

• Moving Mesh
• The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces

Moving Mesh
The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces rely on ALE (arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian) moving mesh functionality for their rotating domain and free
surface implementation.

ROTATING DOMAINS
When a Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface is added using the Model Wizard, a
Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder under the
Definitions>Moving Mesh node. It contains settings for specifying the rotation of one or
several domains. By default, All domains are selected. Under the Rotating Domain, you
can exclude any non-rotating fluid domains. For both 3D and 2D components, the
Rotation type should be set to Specified rotational velocity.

136 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select a Rotational velocity expression — General revolutions per time (the default),
Constant revolutions per time, General angular velocity, or Constant angular velocity.

• For Constant revolutions per time, or General revolutions per time, enter a value or
expression respectively in the Revolutions per time input field and optionally an Initial
angle. The angular velocity in this case is defined as the input multiplied by 2π.
• For Constant angular velocity, or General angular velocity enter a value or an
expression respectively in the Angular velocity input field and optionally an Initial
angle.

3D Components
For 3D components, select the Rotation axis base point, rax. The default is the origin.
Select the Rotation axis, urot, the z-axis is the default. If the x-axis is selected, it
corresponds to a rotational axis (1, 0, 0) with the origin as the base point, and
correspondingly for the y-axis and z-axis.

2D Components
For 2D components, enter coordinates for the Rotation axis base point, rax. The
default is the origin (0, 0).

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ), is used to simulate flow at low to
moderate Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more rotating parts. The
physics interface supports incompressible, weakly compressible and compressible flows
at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports modeling of
non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface is available for 3D and 2D components.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the momentum balance is governed by the Navier-Stokes
equations, and the mass conservation is governed by the continuity equation. See
Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under Laminar Flow — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 137

 that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Laminar Flow to select physics features from the context menu. See Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

Laminar Flow in a Baffled Stirred Mixer: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Fluid-Structure_Interaction/baffled_mixer

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

In addition to the settings described below, see The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow,
Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces for all the other settings
available. See Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery
Interfaces for links to all the physics nodes.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Pseudo Time Stepping

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Frozen Rotor equation form is used.
(Frozen rotor is a pseudo stationary formulation.) When selected, also choose a CFL
number expression — Automatic (the default) or Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL
number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) to the built-in variable
CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for the CFL number. For Manual enter
a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

138 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus (spf) interface ( ), found
under the Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or
more rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly
compressible and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled wall distance. Turbulence effects are included using an enhanced viscosity model
based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.

Two study types are available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent with
Initialization study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality,
also known as sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor with Initialization study type, the
rotating parts are kept frozen in position, and the rotation is accounted for by the
inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Both study types includes an initial Wall
Distance Initialization step in order to compute the wall distance. See Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial
Values. A Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in
the Model Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can
also right-click Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus to select physics features from the
context menu. For information about the available physics features, see Domain,
Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

A part for the settings below, see the advanced settings for The Rotating Machinery,
Laminar Flow Interface, and The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and
Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

The turbulence model parameters for the Algebraic yPlus model, κa and Ba, have been
optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases, better performance can be
obtained by tuning the model parameters.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 139

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, L-VEL (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more
rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly compressible
and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface are the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations for conservation of momentum,
the continuity equation for conservation of mass, and an algebraic equation for the
scaled fluid flow velocity tangential to the nearest wall. Turbulence effects are included
using an enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

Two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent with
Initialization study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality,
also known as sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor with Initialization study type, the
rotating parts are kept frozen in position, and the rotation is accounted for by the
inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis forces. Both study types includes an initial Wall
Distance Initialization step in order to compute the wall distance. See Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, L-VEL — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes
that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Turbulent Flow, L-VEL to select physics features from the context menu. For
information about the available physics features, see Domain, Boundary, Point, and
Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

140 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

A part for the interface settings defined below, see the advanced settings for The
Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface, and the settings in The Creeping Flow,
Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

The turbulence model parameters for the L-VEL model, κl and El, have been
optimized for internal flow. For certain cases, better performance can be obtained by
tuning the model parameters.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u
• Pressure p
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow, k-ε (spf) interface ( ), found under the
Single-Phase Flow>Rotating Machinery branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to simulate flow at high Reynolds numbers in geometries with one or more
rotating parts. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible, weakly compressible
and compressible flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).

The momentum balance is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, and the mass
conservation is governed by the continuity equation. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the standard two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to
walls is modeled using wall functions.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, the rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and the rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. See Theory for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces .

When this physics interface is added, the following physics nodes are also added in the
Model Builder under Turbulent Flow, k-ε — Fluid Properties, Wall and Initial Values. A
Moving Mesh interface with a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model
Builder under the Definitions node. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 141

 that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also
right-click Turbulent Flow, k-ε to select physics features from the context menu. For
information about the available physics features, see Domain, Boundary, Point, and
Pair Nodes for the Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

A part for the defined settings below, see the advanced settings for The Rotating
Machinery, Laminar Flow Interface, and the settings in The Creeping Flow, Laminar
Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TURBULENCE MODEL PARAMETERS

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.

For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, Cμ, σk, σe, κv, and B.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy k
• Turbulent dissipation rate ep

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Rotating

Machinery Interfaces
All versions of the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces use the following
domain, boundary, point, and pair physics nodes.

• Contact Angle
• Stationary Free Surface

The nodes are available under the option Rotating Machinery from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

142 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The following nodes, available in the Fluid Flow interfaces, are described for the
Laminar Flow interface:

• Boundary Stress • Outlet

• Initial Values • Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall • Point Mass Source
• Flow Continuity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Fluid Properties • Screen
• Inlet • Symmetry
• Line Mass Source • Volume Force
• Open Boundary • Wall

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

Stationary Free Surface

This postprocessing feature is used to estimate the deformation of a free surface from
the pressure distribution on the boundary when using the Frozen Rotor or Frozen Rotor
with Initialization study types. When computing the flow field, a slip condition together
with a constant pressure level pext is applied on the boundary. The free surface
deformation ηFS is evaluated from the linearized free surface condition in a separate
study step, Stationary Free Surface, using the pressure from the Frozen Rotor study
step.

p ( x 0 ) – p ext + n̂ ⋅ ∇p η FS = – σ ∇ S2 η FS (3-8)
x = x0

σ is the surface tension coefficient, x = x0 represents the position of the undisturbed

surface - the feature selection, and n̂ is its unit normal. The correct study sequence
can be triggered by toggling the study window once a selection for the Stationary Free
Surface feature has been made.

The Stationary Free Surface feature is supported by laminar and turbulent flow, and is
applicable for small surface deformations (ηFS and its gradient should be small

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 143

 compared to the dimensions of the computational domain). If the surface deformation
is large, a time-dependent study with a Deforming Domain and a Free Surface feature
should be used instead.

Iterative solvers are necessary to reduce the cost of models with large number of
degrees of freedom. The fluid flow interfaces use a Smoothed aggregation AMG solver
per default. When the Stationary Free Surface feature is active and has a nonempty
selection in a frozen rotor or stationary study step, a Geometric multigrid solver is used
instead to ensure robustness of the model.

The Choice of Solver and Solver Settings in the CFD Module User’s
Guide and Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

STATIONARY FREE SURFACE

Enter an External pressure pext corresponding to the average pressure level on the free
surface.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be specified from predefined
libraries, by selecting Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (the default) or Library
coefficient, liquid/liquid interface, or be set to User defined.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(the default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol
vapor, Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.
• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

Only one Stationary Free Surface feature can be applied in a Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interface, and it requires the study to be stationary (Frozen Rotor).

144 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Contact Angle
This feature specifies the contact angle between the free surface and a solid wall.The
Contact Angle feature is a subfeature to, and added under a Stationary Free Surface
feature. See the Contact Angle feature under Multiphase Flow Interface.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 145

 T he V i s c o e la s ti c Fl ow In t erface
The Viscoelastic Flow (vef) interface ( ) is used for simulating single-phase flows of
viscoelastic fluids. The physics interface is only suitable for incompressible flows.

The equations solved by the Viscoelastic Flow interface are the continuity equation for
conservation of mass, the Navier–Stokes equations, augmented by an elastic stress
tensor term, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress
contribution.

The Viscoelastic Flow interface is available for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the Navier–Stokes equations,
continuity equations, and the constitutive relations between the extra elastic stress
term and the velocity gradient. The Fluid Properties feature provides an interface for
defining the fluid material and its properties. Viscoelastic, Newtonian, and Inelastic
non-Newtonian constitutive relations are available. The boundary conditions are
essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface. When this physics interface is
added, the following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder:

• Fluid Properties
• Initial Values
• Wall

Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Viscoelastic Flow to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is vef.

146 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Viscoelastic Flow interface, which describe the
overall type of fluid flow model.

Include Gravity
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. For more information, see Gravity

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:

• Velocity field u and its components

• Pressure p

If the Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also adds as
variables the components of the elastic stress tensor.

For all other settings, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
• Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow Interface

Flow of Viscoelastic Fluid Past a Cylinder: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Single-Phase_Flow/cylinder_flow_viscoelastic

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Viscoelastic

Interface
For the Viscoelastic Flow interface the Fluid Properties node is described in this
section.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 147

 The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in Domain, Boundary,
Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow:

• Boundary Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Outlet
• Free Surface • Periodic Flow Condition
• Fluid-Fluid Interface • Point Mass Source
• Gravity • Pressure Point Constraint
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Interior Wall • Wall

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface. For the viscoelastic fluids, the constitutive relations for the extra
elastic stress tensor are also added. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

Except where included below, see Fluid Properties for all the other settings.

Constitutive Relation
Viscoelastic, Newtonian and Inelastic non-Newtonian constitutive relations are
available. If Viscoelastic constitutive relation is selected, the Fluid Properties node also
adds the variables and equations for the components of the elastic stress tensor.

For Viscoelastic constitutive relation, specify Solvent viscosity μs and select a Material
model — Oldroyd-B, Giesekus, or FENE-P. Viscoelastic material can be described as
consisting of one or more branches. For each viscoelastic branch, enter parameters in
the table. See the setting for each viscoelastic model that follows.

Oldroyd-B
For Oldroyd-B enter the model parameters in the table. In each Branch raw enter the
polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity column, and the relaxation time λ em in the
Relaxation time column.

148 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Giesekus
For Giesekus, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity
column, the relaxation time λ em in the Relaxation time column, and the mobility
factor α em in the Mobility column.

FENE-P
For FENE-P, in each Branch raw enter the polymer viscosity μ em in the Viscosity column,
the relaxation time λ em in the Relaxation time column, and the extensibility parameter
L em in the Extensibility column.

• Use the Add button ( ) to add a row to the table and the Delete button ( ) to
delete a row in the table.
• Use the Load from file button ( ) and the Save to file button ( ) to load and
store data for the branches in a text file with three space-separated columns.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Select shape function type for the
components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The default setting is Linear.

INITIAL VALUES
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Enter initial values or expressions
for the components of the auxiliary viscoelastic tensor. The initial values can serve as
an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
The default values are 0 N/m2. Note, that if several branches are specified, the initial
values entered above are applied to all branches.

Note: The Interior Walls boundary condition and Pair conditions are not applicable
on the boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid properties nodes with different
number of branches.

THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 149

 Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
Also see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces and Theory for the
Rotating Machinery Interfaces.

The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Non-Newtonian Flow
• Gravity
• The Boussinesq Approximation
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Mass Flow
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• No Viscous Stress
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition
• Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary
• Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions
• Screen Boundary Condition
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

150 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation
• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier–Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-9)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + K ] + F (3-10)
∂t

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + K:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (3-11)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• I is the identity matrix (unitless)
• K is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 151

 1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

a:b =   anm bnm (3-12)

n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-9 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-10 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 3-11 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-9 through Equation 3-11, constitutive
relations are needed.

For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between stress and strain, Stokes
(Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
K = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (3-13)
3

The dynamic viscosity, μ (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian.

For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and an apparent viscosity is introduced instead of the dynamic viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood, liquid metals, and most
polymer solutions.

With the CFD Module, you can model flows of non-Newtonian fluids using the
predefined constitutive models. The following models which describe the stress-strain
relationship for non-Newtonian fluids are available: Power law, Carreau, Bingham–
Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

152 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier–Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-11 is decoupled
from Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10. Nonisothermal flow and the temperature
equation are described in the Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces
chapter.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10 requires ∂ ⁄ ∂φ to
be zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that u φ = 0 . In such cases, the φ -equation can be
removed from Equation 3-10. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the φ -equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-10
therefore assumes that

∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0
uφ = 0

You can activate the Swirl Flow property which reduces the above assumptions to
∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0 and reintroduces the φ -equation into Equation 3-10.

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-14)
∂t

and the momentum equation:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
(3-15)
∂t 3

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 153

 These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

Weakly Compressible Flow

The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u
Ma = ------
a

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is

theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier–Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

The momentum equation, Equation 3-15, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic
for steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-14, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-15 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed

154 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number
larger than or equal to one. Yet, the practical Mach number limit is lower than one.
The main reason is that the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions)
of the Laminar Flow interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure
waves. The fully compressible Navier–Stokes equations do, for example, start to display
very sharp gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the
single-phase flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible
to give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate
Mach number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start
to appear at Ma = 0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics. To model high Mach
number flows, use one of The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is, ρ is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ρ,
Equation 3-14 reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-16)

and Equation 3-15 becomes

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-17)
∂t

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified

through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 155

 ρUL
Re = ------------
μ

where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Note that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the length
scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they must be
based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = ρ|u|h/(2μ) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: spf.cellRe).

Non-Newtonian Flow
For an inelastic non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between stress and strain rate is
nonlinear, and we may express the constitutive relation in terms of an apparent
viscosity. For the incompressible flow, it is:

·
K = 2μ app ( γ ) S

·
where γ is the shear rate,

·
γ = 2S:S

and the contraction operator “:” is defined by

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

156 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Laminar Flow interfaces provide various predefined inelastic non-Newtonian
constitutive models including Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou,
Herschel–Bukley–Papanastasiou and Casson–Papanastasiou.

POWER LAW
The Power law model is an example of a generalized Newtonian model. It prescribes

 γ·  n–1
μ app = m  -------
·  (3-18)
 γ ref

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values and γ ref denotes a reference
shear rate for which the default value is 1 s−1. For n > 1, the power law describes a shear
thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n < 1, it describes a shear thinning (pseudoplastic)
fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian fluid.

Equation 3-18 predicts an infinite viscosity at zero shear rate for n < 1. This is however
never the case physically. Instead, most fluids have a constant viscosity for shear rates
smaller than 10−2 s−1 (Ref. 21). Since infinite viscosity also makes models using
Equation 3-18 difficult to solve, COMSOL Multiphysics implements the Power law
model as

 max ( γ· , γ· min )
n–1
μ app = m  ------------------------------
· - (3-19)
 γ ref 

·
where γ min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
·
value for γ min is 10−2 s−1, but can be given an arbitrary value or expression using the
corresponding text field.

CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau model defines the viscosity in terms of the following four-parameter
expression

n–1
· ------------
μ app = μ ∞ + ( μ 0 – μ ∞ ) [ 1 + ( λγ ) 2 ] 2 (3-20)

where λ is a parameter with the unit of time, μ0 is the zero shear rate viscosity, μ ∞ is
the infinite shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is
able to describe the viscosity for most stationary polymer flows.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 157

 BINGHAM-PAPANASTASIOU
Viscoplastic fluid behavior is characterized by existence of the yield stress τy — a limit
which must be exceeded before significant deformation can occur. To model the
stress-deformation behavior of viscoplastic materials, different constitutive equations
have been propose. The Bingham plastic model is written as

τy
μ app = μ p + ----
·- , K > τ y
γ

where μp is the plastic viscosity.

To allow computation in both yielded and unyielded region, the Papanastasiou

continuous regularization for the viscosity function is used:

τy ·
μ app = μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-21)
γ

where mp is a scale that controls the exponential growth of stress.

HERSCHEL-BULKLEY-PAPANASTASIOU
The Herschel-Bulkley -Papanastasiou model combines the effects of the Power law the
Papanastasiou continuous regularization:

 γ·  n–1
τy ·
μ app = m  -------
·  + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-22)
 γ ref γ

·
where m, n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values, and γ ref is the reference shear
rate. In case n equals one, the Bingham-Papanastasiou model is recovered. This
equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions. The exponent mp controls the
smoothness of the viscosity function.

CASSON-PAPANASTASIOU
The Casson-Papanastasiou model combines Casson equation with the Papanastasiou
regularization:

2
 τy · 
μ app =  μ p + ----
·- [ 1 – exp ( – m p γ ) ] (3-23)
 γ 

The equation is valid in both yielded and unyielded regions.

158 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Gravity

DEFINITION
The gravity force is defined from the acceleration of gravity vector, g, and the density,
ρ. Under usual conditions and in Cartesian coordinates with the z-axis in the vertical
direction,

 0 
 
g =  0 .
 
 – g const 

When gravity is considered, a volume force equal to ρg is included in the momentum

equation. For example, for laminar weakly compressible flow, it reads:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
(3-24)
∂t 3

Introducing a constant reference density ρref, and assuming that g is homogeneous,

this equation is equivalently written:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u=
∂t
(3-25)
∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
3

where r is the position vector and rref is an arbitrary reference position vector.

From this equation, it is convenient to define the reduced pressure which accounts for
the hydrostatic pressure, p˜ = p – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref )

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I +
2
∂t  3  (3-26)
F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g

In Equation 3-26, the gravity force is written ( ρ – ρ ref )g .

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For incompressible flow the fluid density is assumed to be constant. Hence it is natural
to define the reference density, ρref, such that ρ = ρref = ρ (Τref,pref ) which makes it
possible to simplify equation Equation 3-26:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 159

 ∂u
ρ ref ------ + ρ ref u ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ) + F
∂t

In some cases, even when the flow is modeled as incompressible, buoyancy should be
accounted for. Using the approximation of the gravity force based on the thermal
expansion coefficient (which is relevant in this case: since the density changes are small,
the first order approximation is reasonably accurate), it is possible to rewrite the
momentum equation with constant density and a buoyancy force:

∂u
ρ ref ------ + ρ ref u ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I + μ ref ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ) + F
∂t
– ρ ref α p ( T ref ) ( T – T ref )g

WEAKLY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For weakly compressible flow the assumption is that the density depends only on the
temperature. In particular, the pressure dependency of the density is neglected, and the
density is evaluated at the reference pressure: ρ = ρ(Τ, pref). With the relative pressure
as dependent variable, Equation 3-24 is used

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ρg
2
∂t  3 

With the reduced pressure as dependent variable, Equation 3-26 is used:

∂u
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇u = ∇ ⋅  – p˜ I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g
2
∂t 3

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
For compressible flow the density may depend on any other variable, in particular on
the temperature and the pressure. Similar equations are used as for the Weakly
Compressible Flow case except that the density is not evaluated at the reference
pressure.

NONISOTHERMAL FLOW COUPLING

For consistency, when the Nonisothermal Flow coupling is active, the assumptions made
for the single phase flow interface are also made in the heat transfer interface:

• Incompressible flow: the Boussinesq approximation implies that the thermal

conductivity and heat capacity are also constant.

160 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Weakly Compressible flow: the density is evaluated at pref in the heat interface too.
• Compressible flow: no change.

PRESSURE FORMULATION
When the relative pressure is used (default option) the interface dependent variable
represents the relative pressure and the absolute pressure is defined as p A = p ref + p .
When the pressure is used to define a boundary condition (for example when p0
defines the pressure condition at an outlet), it represents the relative pressure. Hence
defining the outlet pressure as p hydro, approx = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) compensates for the
gravity force for an ambient reference pressure of 0 Pa when the density is constant,
there is no external force, and provided pref, g and r0 are defined consistently.

When the reduced pressure is used, the interface dependent variable (named p by
default) represents the reduced pressure. The absolute pressure is then defined as
p A = p ref – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + p . In this case when the pressure is used to define a
boundary condition (for example to define a pressure condition at an outlet), its value
corresponds to the reduced pressure. Hence, the prescribed pressure compensates for
an approximate hydrostatic pressure, p hydro, approx = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) which is exact
only when the density is constant and there is no external force.

PRESSURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

For an immobile fluid the momentum equation simplifies to ∇ ⋅ ( pI ) = F + ρg or

∇ ⋅ ( – p˜ I ) = F + ( ρ – ρ ref )g depending on the pressure formulation.

For incompressible flow, assuming there are no external forces, this leads respectively
to p = – ρ ref g ⋅ ( r – r ref ) + p 0 or p˜ = p 0 .

For weakly compressible flow and compressible flow, since the density varies, there is
no corresponding explicit expression. We have

r r
p = r ρg ⋅ dr + p 0 and p˜ = r ( ρ – ρ ref )g ⋅ dr + p 0 .
ref ref

In practice, these integrals can be problematic to evaluate. Hence, whenever possible,

it is recommended to locate the pressure boundary in a region where the approximate
definition of the hydrostatic pressure is applicable, or to define a boundary that is
perpendicular to the gravity vector.

If it is not possible and if the pressure conditions cannot be determined, you can use a
no viscous stress condition (available in the Open Boundary feature).

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 161

 Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
See Wall for the node settings.

SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = 0
K n = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel = u−utr.

For turbulent flow, turbulence variables are in general subject to homogeneous

Neumann conditions. For example

∇k ⋅ n = 0 ∇ε ⋅ n = 0

for the k-ε model.

POROUS SLIP
The Porous slip option, which can be chosen in the Porous treatment of no slip condition
list when Enable porous media domains is activated, results in special treatment of Wall
boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries adjacent to porous domains (Porous Medium
feature). Namely, similar to the Navier slip boundary condition, no penetration and
tangential stress conditions are applied at the wall:

μ u slip
u ⋅ n = 0, K n – ( K n ⋅ n )n = – ----- ---------- ,
ε p y ps
μ T
u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n )n , K n = ----- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) )n
εp

162 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Here, K n is the viscous wall traction, n is the wall normal, u slip is the tangential
velocity at the wall while the real no slip is assumed to be at a distance d w (half-height
of the first cell adjacent to the wall) outside the wall, and y ps is the porous slip length.
An analytical derivation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer where the pressure
gradient is balanced by the sum of the Darcy term, Forchheimer drag, and a viscous
term (neglecting convective terms) leads to the following expression for y ps :

 1 + X e – ξp  1 + X e –ξ p 2 d l pore
ξ
= l̃  --------------------------  -------------------------- e p – 1 ,
p p w
y ps ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
–ξp  1 + X p  l̃ 1 + 2c β
 1 – Xp e 

1 + 2c β – 1 + 4 --- c β 1 + 4c D – 1 β ND κ 2
3 -
--------------------------------------------------
Xp = , c β = -------------------------------- , c D = ----------- ------ ∇p - ρg
2 μ μ
1 + 2c β + 1 + 4--- c β
3

where l pore = κ ⁄ ε p is the porous length scale, β ND = ρc F ⁄ κ is the non-Darcian

coefficient ( c F is the Forchheimer coefficient), g is the gravity vector, and
ξ p ,˜l ,X p ,c β ,c D are intermediate variables. This formula is used when the
Pressure-gradient formulation is chosen and it reads pressure-gradient at the wall. By
default, the Velocity formulation is activated and the corresponding formula is:

ξ wd l pore
y ps = l̃ ( e p – 1 ) , ξ p = ------ , l̃ = ------------------------,
l̃ 1 + 2c β
β ND κ u slip l pore 2 1⁄3
c β =  ---------------------------- ----------  ⁄ 2
 μ dw 

Although this formulation is an approximation, since it uses slip velocity at the wall to
reconstruct the pressure gradient, it is rather accurate. Moreover, the influence of
convective terms is partially accounted for in this formulation.

SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 163

 • For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ t = Uw

where t = (ny , −nx) for 2D and t = (nz, −nr) for axial symmetry.
• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n
u = ---------------------------------------- u w
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

SLIP VELOCITY
In the microscale range, the flow at a boundary is seldom strictly no slip or slip.
Instead, the boundary condition is something in between, and there is a slip velocity
at the boundary. Two phenomena account for this velocity: violation of the continuum
hypothesis for the viscosity and flow induced by a thermal gradient along the
boundary.

The following equation relates the viscosity-induced jump in tangential velocity to the
tangential shear stress along the boundary:

1
Δu = --- τ n, t
β

For gaseous fluids, the coefficient β is given by

μ
β = -------------------------
2 – α v
 -------------- - λ
 αv 

where μ is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s), αv represents the tangential
momentum accommodation coefficient (TMAC) (dimensionless), and λ is the
molecules’ mean free path (SI unit: m). The tangential accommodation coefficients are
typically in the range of 0.85 to 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

A simpler expression for β is

μ
β = ------
Ls

164 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where Ls, the slip length (SI unit: m), is a straight channel measure of the distance
from the boundary to the virtual point outside the flow domain where the flow profile
extrapolates to zero. This equation holds for both liquids and gases.

Thermal creep results from a temperature gradient along the boundary. The following
equation relates the thermally-induced jump in tangential velocity to the tangential
gradient of the natural logarithm of the temperature along the boundary:

μ
Δu = σ T --- ∇ t log T
ρ

where σT is the thermal slip coefficient (dimensionless) and ρ is the density of the fluid.
The thermal slip coefficients range between 0.3 and 1.0 and can be found in Ref. 17.

Combining the previous relationships results in the following equation:

Ls μ
u – u w, t = ------ τ n, t + σ T ------- ∇ t T
μ ρT

Relate the tangential shear stress to the viscous boundary force by

τ n, t = K n – ( n ⋅ K n )n

where the components of K are the Lagrange multipliers that are used to implement
the boundary condition. Similarly, the tangential temperature gradient results from the
difference of the gradient and its normal projection:

∇ t T = ∇T – ( n ⋅ ∇T )n

Use Viscous Slip

When viscous slip is used, select Maxwell’s model to calculate Ls using:

2 – αv
L s =  --------------- λ
 αv 

Also see Wall for the node settings.

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, u ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a tangential stress

μ
K nt = – --- u slip
β

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 165

 where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.
β is a slip length, and u slip = u – ( u ⋅ n wall )n wall is the velocity tangential to the wall.
The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity component to zero;
however, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at a distance β outside
the wall.

The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input.

In cases where the wall movement is nonzero, Account for the translational wall velocity
in the friction force may be selected to use ( u – u bnd – ( ( u – u bnd ) ⋅ n wall )n wall )
instead of u slip in the friction force. Then, the extrapolated tangential velocity
component is u bnd at a distance β outside of the wall. Note that the Velocity of sliding
wall uw is always accounted for in the friction force.

The Navier Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a fluid-fluid
interface or a free surface when solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary
condition, the contact line (fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall.
Note that in problems with contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically
represents the movement of the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In
such cases, Account for the translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be
checked.

The Navier Slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model. For
turbulent flow, a Wall feature using wall functions or automatic wall treatment is
required for the contact line to be free to move along the wall.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity

166 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is
that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no-penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n = 0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.
• Using Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists
on enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers.
Their main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Discontinuous Galerkin (DG) constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the
velocity at the wall. They impose the constraint in a integral sense rather than
pointwise, and do not suffer from the locking effects introduced by pointwise
constraints when trying to prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity.
They are also better behaved when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main
disadvantage is that the constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce
small leaks. For more information, see Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation.

The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint

Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Use default settings. The default settings use different constraint methods
depending on whether only the normal component of the velocity is prescribed,
such as in the no penetration condition, u · n = 0, imposed for example in Slip walls
or No Slip walls using Wall Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both
tangential and normal components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in
laminar flow.
DG constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls. When
a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for moving
walls where DG constraints are used.
• Use Pointwise constraints.
• Use DG constraints.
• Use Weak constraints. Weak constraints are not available on Interior Walls.
• Use Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and
normal components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall
normal direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the
tangential directions is relaxed, and DG constraints are used instead. This provides

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 167

 improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 22.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

The Navier–Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

∂u n
– p + 2μ --------- = F n (3-27)
∂n

where ∂un/∂n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-27 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-27 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-27, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

168 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

where ∂ut/∂n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier-Stokes equations mathematically permit specifying

a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply in
practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide
detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure, but calculate the prescribed values
using for example ODEs.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Mass Flow
The Mass flow boundary condition constrains the mass flowing into the domain across
an inlet boundary. The mass flow can be specified in a number of ways.

POINTWISE MASS FLUX

The pointwise mass flux sets the velocity at the boundary to:

mf
u = – ------- n
ρ

where mf is the normal mass flux and ρ is the density.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 169

 MASS FLOW RATE
The mass flow rate boundary condition sets the total mass flow through the boundary
according to:

–  dbc ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = m
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D Cartesian axis system) is the boundary thickness
normal to the fluid-flow domain and m is the total mass flow rate.

In addition to the constraint on the total flow across the boundary, the tangential
velocity components are set to zero on the boundary

u×n = 0 (3-28)

STANDARD FLOW RATE

The standard flow rate boundary condition specifies the mass flow as a standard
volumetric flow rate. The mass flow through the boundary is set by the equation:

ρ
–  dbc ρ------st- ( u ⋅ n ) dS = Qsv
∂Ω

where dbc (only present in the 2D component Cartesian axis system) is the boundary
thickness normal to the fluid-flow domain, ρst is the standard density, and Qsv is the
standard flow rate. The standard density is defined by one of the following equations:

Mn
ρ st = --------
Vn

p st M n
ρ st = ----------------
RT st

where Mn is the mean molar mass of the fluid, Vn is the standard molar volume, pst is
the standard pressure, R is the universal molar gas constant, and Tst is the standard
temperature.

Equation 3-28 or Equation 3-29 is also enforced for compressible and incompressible
flow, respectively, ensuring that the normal component of the viscous stress and the
tangential component of the velocity are zero at the boundary.

170 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl Ω

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + ( p + P inl ) ⁄ 2 ) ∇tûL – P inl ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can for
example be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in
these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 171

 (  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ inl

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka pre-smoother and post-smoother if iterative solvers
are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of Ω is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary becomes a symmetry boundary.

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

For the Viscoelastic Flow interface, the equations for the elastic stress tensor
components in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto the inlet of the
computational domain.

Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

Ω pexit

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

172 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + ( p + P exit ) ⁄ 2 ) ∇tûL – P exit ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlett
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ exit

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier–Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka
pre-smoother and post-smoother if iterative solvers are used.

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

( μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 173

 using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,
respectively.

The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.

This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-29)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-29 states that p ≈ f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p 0 n (3-30)
 3 

174 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p 0 n (3-31)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

μ > 0, Equation 3-30 or Equation 3-31 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u⋅t = 0 (3-32)

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-30 or

Equation 3-31 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier–Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier–Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3 
, (3-33)
( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0 n
pˆ ≤ p
0 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

u⋅n≥0 (3-34)

Equation 3-33 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u⋅n ≥ 0, but
smaller at locations where u⋅n < 0. This means that Equation 3-33 does not completely
prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is suppressed
also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude of these
forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 175

 n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
 3 
(3-35)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0
T

pˆ ≥ p
0 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-32, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 ( r ⋅ n )
T  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
ru
 3  u
ˆ (r ⋅ n)
T ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p
ru 0 u
(3-36)
ˆp ≥ p
0 0
du
u – ( u ⋅ r u )r u = 0, r u = -----------
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u ⋅ n ≤ 0 or u ⋅ r u ≥ 0 .

For incompressible single-phase flow, it is also allowed to specify the total pressure,
ptot, instead of the static pressure, pstat, on inlet and outlet boundaries. It is more
useful, for example, in pump applications. The pressure is then prescribed at the
boundaries using Bernoulli’s principle,

1 2
p = p stat = p tot – --- ρ u (3-37)
2

The equation is imposed with two options: Average and Pointwise.

In the first option, pstat is prescribed by:

T T (3-38)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = n ( – p stat I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n

where ptot and |u|2 are averaged over the boundaries using the aveop operator:

1 2
p stat = aveop ( p tot ) – --- ρ ⋅ aveop ( u )
2

For the second option, Equation 3-37 is prescribed pointwise.

176 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition

Vacuum pumps (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented as
boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In particular,
it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet. Such a
boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets nor switch between them during a
simulation.

Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a vacuum pump. Also see Vacuum Pump for the node settings.

DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET

In this case (see Figure 3-2), the device’s inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domains while its outlet is an external boundary, here
the circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a
function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-39)
pˆ 0 ≤ p vacuum pump ( V 0 ) – p ref

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary and pvacuum pump(V0) is the static
pressure function of flow rate for the vacuum pump. pref is the reference pressure that
ensure that the absolute pressure is set to pvacuum pump. In vacuum pump models the
reference pressure is usually set to 0 Pa since the absolute pressure is close to 0 Pa by
opposition to ambient conditions where pref is often set to 1 atm. Equation 3-39
corresponds to the compressible formulation. For incompressible flows, the term
−(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u) vanishes. In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define
the flow rate. Vacuum pumps are modeled as rectangles in this case.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 177

 Figure 3-2: A vacuum pump at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the
green circle represents the vacuum pump (that should not be part of the model), and the
blue cube represents the modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by
a lumped curve for the attached vacuum pump.

Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary

In this case, the inlet and outlet of the device are both interior boundaries (see
Figure 3-3). The boundaries are called dev_in and dev_out. The boundary
conditions are described as follows:

• The inlet of the device is an outlet boundary condition for the modeled domain. For
this outlet side, on dev_in, a pressure condition is set. The value of the pressure is
set to the sum of the mean value of the pressure on dev_out and the pressure drop
across the device. The pressure drop is calculated from a lumped curve using the
flow rate evaluated on dev_in.
• For the inlet side, on dev_out, a pressure boundary condition is defined. The
pressure value is set so that the flow rate is equal on dev_in and dev_out. An ODE
is added to compute the pressure value.
• When a turbulence model with transport equations for the turbulence quantities is
applied, the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and dissipation rate, ε, specific dissipation
rate, ω, or turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ, must be specified on the downstream
side of the fan. The turbulence conditions are specific to the design and operating
conditions of the fan. A reference velocity scale Uref is available in order to set
default values.

178 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 C μ3/4 k 0init 3/2
2 ,
k 0init = 0.015U ref ε 0init = -------------------------- (3-40)
l ref

In both cases, the boundary condition implementation follows the

Pressure Boundary Condition for outlet or inlet with the Suppress
backflow option.

See Interior Fan for node settings.

Figure 3-3: A device between two boundaries. The red arrows represent the flow direction,
the cylindrical part represents the device (that should be not be part of the model), and the
two cubes are the domain that are modeled with a particular inlet boundary condition to
account for the device.

Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions

Fans, pumps, or grilles (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented
as boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In
particular, it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet.
Such a boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets, nor switch between them
during a simulation.

Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a fan. See Fan and Grille for the node settings.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 179

 DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN INLET
In this case, the device’s inlet is an external boundary, represented by the external
circular boundary of the green domain on Figure 3-4. The device’s outlet is an interior
face situated between the green and blue domains in Figure 3-4. The lumped curve
gives the flow rate as a function of the pressure difference between the external
boundary and the interior face. This boundary condition implementation follows the
Pressure Boundary Condition for inlets with the Suppress backflow option:

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
3 (3-41)
pˆ 0 ≥ p input + Δp fan ( V 0 )

The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
3 (3-42)
pˆ 0 ≥ p input + Δp grille ( V 0 )

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pinput is the pressure at the device’s inlet,
and Δpfan(V0) and Δpgrille(V0) are the static pressure functions of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 3-41 and Equation 3-42 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term −(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u) vanishes. When a
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is applied,
the term −(2/3)ρk appears on the left sides of Equation 3-41 and Equation 3-42. In
such cases the turbulent kinetic energy, k, the turbulent relative fluctuations, ζ (for the
v2-f turbulence model), and dissipation rate, ε, or specific dissipation rate, ω, must be
specified on the downstream side. The turbulence conditions are specific to the design
and operating conditions of the fan or grille. For the Fan condition, a reference velocity
scale Uref is available in order to set default values according to Equation 3-40. For the
Grille boundary condition the turbulence quantities on the downstream side are
specified by defining a loss coefficient K = 2Δp grille ⁄ ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 , from which a
refraction coefficient is derived using Equation 3-55. Equation 3-48 through
Equation 3-50 are then used to relate upstream and downstream turbulence
quantities.

When an algebraic turbulence model, such as the Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL model, is
used, the turbulence is only implicitly affected by the device through the change in the
local Reynolds number.

180 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The flow direction is enforced to be normal to the boundary by default. However, it
is possible to define an arbitrary inflow velocity direction. In such case, Equation 3-41
and Equation 3-42 are modified similarly to Equation 3-36. In 2D, the thickness in
the third direction, Dz, is used to define the flow rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles
in this case.

For 3D and 2D axisymmetry when the swirl flow is included, it is possible to define a
swirl on the downstream side of the fan. It sets the following boundary conditions:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3 
u ⋅ t = u swirl = c sf 2πfn × ( r – r bp )
pˆ ≥ p
0 input+ Δp fan

Here, the swirl ratio csf is a positive number less than 1, defining the ratio of the
rotation transferred from the fan to the flow, f is the number of revolutions per time
for the fan, and rbp is the rotation axis base point. The swirl velocity is defined on the
maximum inscribed circular region on the fan inlet boundary. Hence, it is only
applicable on simply connected flat boundaries. For more complicated inlet
topologies, a swirl velocity can be defined by specifying the inlet velocity vector.

Figure 3-4: A device at the inlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the device (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an inlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached device.

DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET

In this case (see Figure 3-14), the fan’s inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domain while its outlet is an external boundary, here the
circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 181

 function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-43)
pˆ 0 ≤ p exit – Δp fan ( V 0 )

The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3  (3-44)
pˆ 0 ≤ p exit – Δp grille ( V 0 )

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pexit is the pressure at the device outlet,
and Δpfan(V0) and Δpgrille(V0) are the static pressure function of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 3-43 and Equation 3-44 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term −(2/3)μ(∇ ⋅ u)n vanishes. When a
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy is
applied, the term −(2/3)ρkn appears on the left sides of Equation 3-43 and
Equation 3-44. In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define the
flow rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.

Figure 3-5: A fan at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the fan (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached fan.

182 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Screen Boundary Condition
The word “screen” refers to a barrier with distributed perforations such as a wire
gauze, grille, or perforated plate. The screen is assumed to have a width, which is small
compared to the resolved length-scales of the flow field and can thus be modeled as an
edge (in 2D) or surface (in 3D). This idea permits an economic implementation of the
screen, where the details of the barrier need not be resolved. A limitation to this type
of modeling may be observed when there is an appreciable velocity component parallel
to the screen. In such cases the pressure may become discontinuous across streamlines,
which may lead to convergence problems. If this occurs, a better approach is to model
the screen as a thin domain with distributed momentum-loss terms.

The general influence of a screen on the flow field is a loss in the normal momentum
component, a change in direction (related to a suppression of the tangential velocity
component), attenuation of the turbulence kinetic energy and preservation of the
turbulence length scale (Ref. 18). The conditions across the screen are expressed as,

[ ρu ⋅ n ] -+ = 0 (3-45)

+
 
ρ ( u ⋅ n ) 2 + p – n T  ( μ + μ T )  ∇u + ( ∇u ) T – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u )I – --- ρkI n
2 2
 3  3
  - (3-46)
K
= – ---- ρ - ( u - ⋅ n ) 2
2

n × u+ = η ( n × u- ) (3-47)

k+ = η2 k- (3-48)

and, depending on the turbulence model in use, either,

ε+ = η3 ε- (3-49)

or,

ω + = ηω - (3-50)

− and + refer to the upstream and downstream side of the screen, respectively. K is the
dimensionless resistance coefficient, which parameterizes the magnitude of the drag
exerted by the screen on the flow. η is the dimensionless refraction coefficient, which
parameterizes the extent to which the screen causes the flow to change direction to

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 183

 align parallel to the normal downstream direction from the plane of the screen. The
refraction coefficient should be between 0 and 1. Isotropic turbulence is expected on
the downstream side of the screen, hence,

2
ζ + = --- (3-51)
3

is enforced when the v2-f turbulence model is used.

The attenuation of the turbulence kinetic energy (Equation 3-48) is based on the
suppression of the tangential velocity (Equation 3-47) and the changes in ε and ω are
determined by the assumption of preservation of the turbulence length-scale across the
screen.

When an algebraic turbulence model, such as the Algebraic yPlus or L-VEL model, is
used, the turbulence is only implicitly affected by the device through the change in the
local Reynolds number.

The Screen feature provides three commonly used correlations for K (Ref. 19). The
following correlation is valid for wire gauzes

K = ( 0.52 + 0.66/Re d4 / 3 ) ( ( 1 – σ s ) –2 – 1 ), Re d = u d ⁄ ν (3-52)

Here σs is the solidity (ratio of blocked area to total area of the screen) and d is the
diameter of the wires. For a square mesh, the following correlation is applied,

K = 0.98 ( ( 1 – σ s ) – 2 – 1 ) 1.09 (3-53)

and for a perforated plate,

K = 0.94 ( ( 1 – σ s ) – 2 – 1 ) 1.28 (3-54)

These correlations are based on common shapes for meshes and perforated plates
encountered in engineering contexts, and it is assumed that the wire gauze, square
mesh or perforated plate is thin compared to the mixing length scale up- and
downstream of the screen. The following correlation for wire gauzes (Ref. 20) gives
reasonable values for η for a wide range of applications and has been included in the
implementation,

184 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 K2 K
η = ------- + 1 – ---- (3-55)
16 4

See Screen for the node settings. Also see Theory for the Nonisothermal
Screen Boundary Condition for the nonisothermal version of these
physics interfaces.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow

There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Battery

Design Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition
Module, Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, Polymer Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim Q = q· p (3-56)
δV → 0
δV

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface
area tend to zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source.
For this alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such
as drag and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p test ( p )

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 185

 ·
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-56, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-56 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.
The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area δS and then letting δS tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

· ·
lim
δS → 0  Q = ql (3-57)
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume
are neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l test ( p )

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

186 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-15 or Equation 3-17) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier–Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline
diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 187

 were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier–Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports. The time-scale
tensor is the diagonal tensor presented in Ref. 10.

The time-scale tensors for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a

time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, Δt
(see for example Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach does not, however,
necessarily reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting
flows where the time step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops
relatively slowly. The COMSOL Multiphysics software can therefore replace Δt2 in the
time-scale tensor with measures of type ( 1 ⁄ ( Δt̃ ) 2 ) –1 , which are calculated from
projections of weak expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures
of the time scale are used when Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box is selected.
Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is
dominating the flow.

The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška–Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible Navier–
Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use equal-order
interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using first-order elements
for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is solved using geometric
multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least one multigrid hierarchy
level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier–Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes–Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

188 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier–Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier–Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time step.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 189

 It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier–Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the smoothed aggregation

algebraic multigrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, the
geometric multigrid (GMG) method requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of
multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared-memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers
perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the

190 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions, for example, Fully Developed
Flow (Inlet), can add equations with such variables. These variables must be treated
with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an option to invoke Vanka. Models with
higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use the Vanka smoother. The latter is the
default suggestion for higher-order elements, but it does not work optimally for
anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier–Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier–Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-α
method instead. Generalized-α is a solver which has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

Both BDF and generalized-α are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-17
reduces to:

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 191

 T
ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-58)

Solving Equation 3-58 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-58:

u – nojac ( u ) T
ρ ------------------------------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
Δt̃

where Δt̃ is a pseudo time step. Since u−nojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size Δt̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step Δt̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
Δt̃ = CFL loc ------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default
solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 20, 9 ), 0 ) + (3-59)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 40, 9 ), 0)

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.3 9 ≈ 10.6 . It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40

192 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-59 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Some boundary conditions are implemented using a discontinuous Galerkin
formulation. These boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero
translational velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics is the
Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG method can be
regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter in COMSOL Multiphysics is implemented
according to Ref. 16.

Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow

The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
d x
= F  t, x, 
dx
m
dt2 dt

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 193

 where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2rρ
Re p = ----------------------------
μ

where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, ρ the
fluid density, and μ the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = πr ρ u – u p ( u – u p ) [ 1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 ]

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan-Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, pp. 287–305, 1845

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

194 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZβ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery”, Int.J.Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird,W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley&Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 190, pp. 6881–
6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes”, Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 195, pp. 6011–6045,
2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods”, J. Computational and Applied Mathematics,
vol. 206, pp. 843–872, 2007.

17. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

18. G.B. Schubauer, W.G. Spangenberg, and P.S. Klebanoff, “Aerodynamic

Characteristics of Damping Screens”, NACA Technical note 2001, Jan. 1950.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 195

 19. P.E. Roach, “The Generation of Nearly Isotropic Turbulence by Means of Grids”,
Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 8, pp. 82–92, 1986.

20. J.C. Gibbings, “The Pyramid Gauze Diffuser”, Ing. Arch., vol. 42, pp. 225–233,
1973.

21. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

22. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics”, Computers and Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

23. G. Kariadakis, A. Beskok, and N. Aluru, Microflows and Nanoflows, Springer

Science and Business Media, 2005.

196 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Turbulent Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces is described in this
section:

• Turbulence Modeling
• The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model
• The L-VEL Turbulence Model
• The k-ε Turbulence Model
• The k-ω Turbulence Model
• The SST Turbulence Model
• The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model
• The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model
• The v2-f Turbulence Model
• Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
• Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
• Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces
• Solvers for Turbulent Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence is a property of the flow field and it is characterized by a wide range of flow
scales: the largest occurring scales, which depend on the geometry, the smallest,
quickly fluctuating scales, and all the scales in between. The propensity for an
isothermal flow to become turbulent is measured by the Reynolds number

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 197

 ρUL
Re = ------------ (3-60)
μ

where μ is the dynamic viscosity, ρ the density, and U and L are velocity and length
scales of the flow, respectively. Flows with high Reynolds numbers tend to become
turbulent. Most engineering applications belong to this category of flows.

The Navier-Stokes equations can be used for turbulent flow simulations, although this
would require a large number of elements in order to capture the wide range of scales
in the flow. An alternative approach is to divide the flow quantities into mean values
and fluctuations. When solving for the mean-flow quantities, the effect of the
fluctuations is modeled using a turbulence closure. The idea behind this approach is
that solving the model for the turbulence closure is numerically less expensive than
resolving all the turbulence scales. Different turbulence closures invoke different
assumptions on the modeled fluctuations, resulting in various degrees of accuracy for
different flow cases.

This module includes turbulence models based on the Reynolds-averaged

Navier-Stokes (RANS) model, which is the model type most commonly used in
industrial flow applications.

REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES (RANS) EQUATIONS

The following assumes that the fluid is incompressible and Newtonian in which case
the Navier-Stokes equations take the form:

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
∂t (3-61)
ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0

Once the flow has become turbulent, all quantities fluctuate in time and space. It is
seldom worth the extreme computational cost to obtain detailed information about
the fluctuations. An averaged representation often provides sufficient information
about the flow.

The Reynolds-averaged representation of turbulent flows divides the flow quantities

into an averaged value and a fluctuating part,

φ = φ + φ′

where φ can represent any scalar quantity of the flow. In general, the mean value can
vary in space and time. This is exemplified in Figure 3-6, which shows time averaging
of one component of the velocity vector for nonstationary turbulence. The unfiltered

198 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

flow has a time scale Δt1. After a time filter with width Δt2 >> Δt1 has been applied,
there is a fluctuating part, u′i, and an average part, Ui. Because the flow field also varies
on a time scale longer than Δt2, Ui is still time-dependent but is much smoother than
the unfiltered velocity ui.

Figure 3-6: The unfiltered velocity component ui, with a time scale Δt1, and the averaged
velocity component, Ui, with time scale Δt2.

Decomposition of the flow field into an averaged part and a fluctuating part, followed
by insertion into the Navier-Stokes equation, and averaging, gives the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations:

∂U T
ρ + ρU ⋅ ∇ U + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu' ⊗ u' ) = – ∇P + ∇ ⋅ μ ( ∇U + ( ∇U ) ) + F
∂t (3-62)
ρ∇ ⋅ U = 0

where U is the averaged velocity field and ⊗ is the outer vector product. A comparison
with Equation 3-61 indicates that the only difference is the appearance of the last term
on the left-hand side of Equation 3-62. This term represents the interaction between
the fluctuating parts of the velocity field and is called the Reynolds stress tensor. This
means that to obtain the mean flow characteristics, information about the small-scale
structure of the flow is needed. In this case, that information is the correlation between
fluctuations in all three directions.

EDDY VISCOSITY
The most common way to model turbulence is to assume that the turbulence is of a
purely diffusive nature. The deviating part of the Reynolds stress is then expressed as

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 199

 ρ T
ρ ( u' ⊗ u' ) – --- trace ( u' ⊗ u' )I = – μ T ( ∇U + ( ∇U ) )
3

where μT is the eddy viscosity, also known as the turbulent viscosity. The spherical part
can be written

ρ 2
--- trace ( u' ⊗ u' )I = --- ρk
3 3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. In simulations of incompressible flows, this

term is included in the pressure, but when the absolute pressure level is of importance
(in compressible flows, for example) this term must be explicitly included.

TURBULENT COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

If the Reynolds average is applied to the compressible form of the Navier-Stokes
equations, terms of the form

ρ′u′

appear and need to be modeled. To avoid this, a density-based average, known as the
Favre average, is introduced:

t+T

u˜i = --- lim ----

1 1
ρ T → ∞T  ρ (x,τ)u i (x,τ) dτ (3-63)
t

It follows from Equation 3-63 that

ρũ i = ρu i (3-64)

and a variable, ui, is decomposed into a mass-averaged component, ũ i , and a

fluctuating component, ui″, according to

u i = u˜ i + u i ″ (3-65)

Using Equation 3-64 and Equation 3-65 along with some modeling assumptions for
compressible flows (Ref. 7), Equation 3-14 and Equation 3-15 can be written on the
form

200 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂ρ ∂
------ + ------- ( ρũ i ) = 0
∂t ∂x i
(3-66)
∂ũ i ∂u˜ i ∂p
˜
∂   ∂u i ∂u j 2 ∂u k
˜ ˜ 
ρ -------- + ρũ j -------- = – ------- + -------  μ  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij – ρu j ″u i ″ + F i
∂t ∂x j ∂x i ∂x j   ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k 

The Favre-averaged Reynolds stress tensor is modeled using the same argument as for
incompressible flows:

 ∂u˜ i ∂u˜ j 2  ∂u˜ k 

– ρu j ″u i ″ = μ T  -------- + -------- – ---  μ T --------- + ρk δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i  3  ∂x k 

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. Comparing Equation 3-66 to its

incompressible counterpart (Equation 3-62), it can be seen that except for the term

– ( 2 ⁄ 3 )ρkδ ij

the compressible and incompressible formulations are exactly the same, except that the
free variables are u˜ i instead of

Ui = ui

More information about modeling turbulent compressible flows can be found in

Ref. 1 and Ref. 7.

The turbulent transport equations are used in their fully compressible formulations
(Ref. 8).

The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model

The algebraic yPlus turbulence model is an algebraic turbulence model based on the
distance to the nearest wall. The model is based on Prandtl’s mixing-length theory and
is suitable for internal flows. It is less mesh sensitive than transport-equation models
like Spalart–Allmaras or the k-ε model. In what follows, let y be the coordinate normal
to the wall, and U the velocity parallel to the wall. Using a mixing length formulation,
the balance for the shear stress in the wall layer may be approximated as

∂U-  ∂U
 μ + ρl 2 ------- -------- = ρu τ2
 mix
∂y  ∂y

which, expressed on dimensionless form, reduces to

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 201

  +  ∂u +
 1 + l mix ∂u
+2
---------  ---------+ = 1 (3-67)
 ∂y  ∂y
+

where y+ = yuτ/ν, u+ = U/uτ and u τ = τ w ⁄ ρ is the friction velocity. Close to the

wall, the mixing length must be zero such that u+ = y+, and far away from the wall,
+ +
l mix ≈ κy such that u+ = (1/κ)log(y+) + B. To obtain the correct behavior, the mixing
length is chosen to be


 +
y ≤ y*
l mix =  0
+
(3-68)
 κ ( y+ – y * ) y+ > y *


where y* is to be determined. Inserting Equation 3-68 into Equation 3-67


+
 1 +
y ≤ y*
∂u 
--------- =  + 2 (3-69)
∂y
+ 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) – 1 +
 ---------------------------------------------------------- y > y*
 2κ 2 ( y+ – y * ) 2


Integrating Equation 3-69

 + +
y y ≤ y*


+  * 1 – 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * )
+ 2
u =  y + ---------------------------------------------------------- (3-70)
+
 2κ 2 ( y – y * )

 1 +
+ --- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) + 2κ ( y – y * ) )
2 + +
y > y*
 κ


For large values of y+, Equation 3-70 reduces to

+ 1 + 1
u = --- log ( y ) + --- ( log ( 4κ ) – 1 ) + y *
κ κ

Comparing the above expression with the logarithmic law of the wall

+ 1 +
u = --- log ( y ) + B
κ

the value of the constant y* is obtained as

202 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1
y * = B – --- ( log ( 4κ ) – 1 )
κ

The dimensionless effective viscosity can be evaluated from

 +
 1 y ≤ y*
+ 
ν =  + 2 (3-71)
 1 + κ 2 ( y + – y * ) 2 ∂u
+ 1 + 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) +
--------- = ----------------------------------------------------------- y > y*
 ∂y
+ 2


This requires the local value of y+, which is obtained from the Reynolds number

Uy U yu τ + +
Re = -------- = ----- --------- = u y =
ν uτ ν

 y +2 +
y ≤ y*

 (3-72)
 
 y  y * + ---------------------------------------------------------- + --- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( y – y * ) + 2κ ( y – y * ) )
+ 1 – 1 + 4κ 2 ( y+ – y* )2 1 + 2 +
  + κ 
 2κ 2 ( y – y * )
 +
 y > y*

The nonlinear algebraic Equation 3-72 has to be solved at each node point to evaluate
the effective viscosity from Equation 3-71. The local Reynolds number Re = Uy/ν is
formed with the local absolute value of the velocity and the distance to the nearest wall.
This implicitly assumes that the main flow direction is parallel to the wall.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance, y is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface that is
included when using the Algebraic yPlus model. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref
is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 203

 WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The Algebraic yPlus turbulence model is consistent with a no slip boundary condition,
that is u = 0. Since the turbulence model is algebraic, no additional boundary
condition is needed. This boundary conditions is applied for Wall Treatment equal to
Low Re.

The low-Reynolds-number formulation of the Algebraic yPlus model can be

considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of order unity. l c+ is the distance,
measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall adjacent cell and can
be evaluated as the boundary variable: lplus_cc.

Automatic Wall Treatment

The default boundary treatment for Algebraic yPlus is the Automatic wall treatment.
The automatic wall treatment assumes that there is a small gap, δw = hw/2, between
the computational domain and the physical wall. Here, hw is the height of the mesh
cell adjacent to the wall. wall (see Figure 3-7).

Mesh cells
hw

δw

Solid wall

Figure 3-7: The computational domain is located a distance δw from the wall.

The boundary conditions for the velocity is a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and

a shear stress condition

2 u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -------
u

where

K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )

and

204 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u
u τ = -----+-
u

The automatic wall treatment tends to the low-Reynolds-number formulation when

hw tends to zero, and it becomes a wall function formulation when the resolution in
viscous units, Δw+ increases. The resolution in viscous units is available as a
postprocessing variable, Delta_wPlus.

See also Wall for boundary condition details.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The L-VEL Turbulence Model

The L-VEL (Length-VELocity) turbulence model is an algebraic turbulence model
often used in electronic cooling applications. It is less mesh sensitive than
transport-equation models like Spalart–Allmaras or the k-ε model. It was developed by
Agonafer et al. (Ref. 23) for internal flows and uses an extension of the logarithmic law
of the wall which applies all the way down to the wall

+ 2 + 3 + 4
+ ( κu ) ( κu ) ( κu )
y = u + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – ----------------- – -----------------
+ + 1 κu +
E 2 6 24  (3-73)
+ +
where y = yu τ ⁄ ν , u = U ⁄ u τ , U is the local flow speed, y is the distance to the
nearest wall, ν is the kinematic viscosity and u τ is the friction velocity. κ is the von
Kàrman constant and E=8.6 is another constant needed to fit the logarithmic law of
the wall. The shear stress in the wall layer is given by

∂U ν T u τ2 1 1
ρ ( ν + ν T ) -------- = ρu τ2  1 + ------ = ------ ------------------ = --------------------------------------------------- 
∂y ν ν ∂U ⁄ ∂y ∂ ( U ⁄ u τ ) ⁄ ∂ ( yu τ ⁄ ν )
+ 1 -
ν = ----------------------
+ +
∂u ⁄ ∂y

Differentiating Equation 3-73 with respect to y+, the dimensionless effective viscosity
is obtained as

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 205

 + 2 + 3
κ κu+ + ( κu ) ( κu )
ν = 1 + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – -----------------
+
E 2 6  (3-74)

If the local value of u+ is known, the effective viscosity can be evaluated from
Equation 3-74. The value of u+ is obtained by forming a local Reynolds number

Uy U yu τ + +
Re = -------- = ----- --------- = u y =
ν uτ ν
+ 2 + 3 + 4
(3-75)
+ ( κu ) ( κu ) ( κu )
= u  u + ----  e – 1 – κu – ----------------- – ----------------- – ----------------- 
+ + 1 κu+
 E 2 6 24

where the last expression follows from Equation 3-73. Hence, the nonlinear algebraic
Equation 3-75 has to be solved at each node point to evaluate the effective viscosity.
The local Reynolds number Re = Uy/ν is formed with the local absolute value of the
velocity and the distance to the nearest wall. This implicitly assumes that the main flow
direction is parallel to the wall.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance, y is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface that is
included when using the L-VEL model. The solution to the wall distance equation is
controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The L-VEL turbulence model is consistent with a no slip boundary condition; that is,
u = 0. Since the turbulence model is algebraic, no additional boundary condition is
needed. This boundary conditions is applied for Wall Treatment equal to Low Re.

206 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The L-VEL model can be considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of order unity.
l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell and can be evaluated as the boundary variable: lplus_cc.

Automatic Wall Treatment

The default boundary treatment for Algebraic yPlus is the Automatic wall treatment.
The details are described in Wall Boundary Condition for The Algebraic yPlus
Turbulence Model.

See also Wall for boundary condition details.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The k-ε Turbulence Model

The k-ε model is one of the most used turbulence models for industrial applications.
This module includes the standard k-ε model (Ref. 1). The model introduces two
additional transport equations and two dependent variables: the turbulent kinetic
energy, k, and the turbulent dissipation rate, ε. The turbulent viscosity is modeled as

k2
μ T = ρC μ ------ (3-76)
ε

where Cμ is a model constant.

The transport equation for k reads:

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇k + P k – ρε (3-77)
∂t   σk 

where the production term is

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
(3-78)
3 3

The transport equation for ε reads:

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 207

 ∂ε μT ε ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C ε1 --- P – C ε2 ρ ----- (3-79)
∂t   σε   k k k

The model constants in Equation 3-76, Equation 3-77, and Equation 3-79 are
determined from experimental data (Ref. 1) and the values are listed in Table 3-4.
TABLE 3-4: MODEL CONSTANTS

CONSTANT VALUE

Cμ 0.09
Cε1 1.44
Cε2 1.92
σk 1.0
σε 1.3

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

Equation 3-77 and Equation 3-79 cannot be implemented directly as written. There
is, for example, nothing that prevents division by zero. The equations are instead
implemented as suggested in Ref. 10. The implementation includes an upper limit on
lim :
the mixing length, l mix

3/2
l mix = max  C μ -----------, l mix
lim 
k
 (3-80)
ε

lim should not be

The mixing length is used to calculated the turbulent viscosity. l mix
active in a converged solution but is merely a tool to obtain convergence.

REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS
The eddy-viscosity model of the Reynolds stress tensor can be written

2
ρu i u j = – 2μ T S ij + --- ρkδ ij
3

where δij is the Kronecker delta and Sij is the strain-rate tensor. The diagonal elements
of the Reynolds stress tensor must be nonnegative, but calculating μT from
Equation 3-76 does not guarantee this. To assert that

ρu i u i ≥ 0 ∀i

the turbulent viscosity is subjected to a realizability constraint. The constraint for 2D

and 2D axisymmetry without swirl is:

208 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρk 2
μ T ≤ ----------------------- (3-81)
3 S ij S ij

and for 3D and 2D axisymmetry with swirl flow it reads:

ρk
μ T ≤ --------------------------- (3-82)
6 S ij S ij

Combining equation Equation 3-81 with Equation 3-76 and the definition of the
mixing length gives a limit on the mixing length scale:

k
l mix ≤ 2
--- ------------------- (3-83)
3 S ij S ij

Equivalently, combining Equation 3-82 with Equation 3-76 and Equation 3-80 gives:

1 k
l mix ≤ ------- ------------------- (3-84)
6 S ij S ij

This means there are two limitations on lmix: the realizability constraint and the
imposed limit via Equation 3-80.

The effect of not applying a realizability constraint is typically excessive turbulence

production. The effect is most clearly visible at stagnation points. To avoid such
artifacts, the realizability constraint is always applied for the RANS models. More
details can be found in Ref. 4, Ref. 5, and Ref. 6.

MODEL LIMITATIONS
The k-ε turbulence model relies on several assumptions, the most important of which
is that the Reynolds number is high enough. It is also important that the turbulence is
in equilibrium in boundary layers, which means that production equals dissipation.
These assumptions limit the accuracy of the model because they are not always true. It
does not, for example, respond correctly to flows with adverse pressure gradients and
can result in under-prediction of the spatial extent of recirculation zones (Ref. 1).
Furthermore, in simulations of rotating flows, the model often shows poor agreement
with experimental data (Ref. 2). In most cases, the limited accuracy is a fair tradeoff for
the amount of computational resources saved compared to using more complicated
turbulence models.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 209

 WALL FUNCTIONS
The flow close to a solid wall is for a turbulent flow very different from the free stream.
This means that the assumptions used to derive the k-ε model are not valid close to
walls. While it is possible to modify the k-ε model so that it describes the flow in wall
regions (see The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model), this is not always
desirable because of the very high resolution requirements that follow. Instead,
analytical expressions are used to describe the flow near the walls. These expressions
are known as wall functions.

When using wall functions in COMSOL Multiphysics, a theoretical lift-off from the
physical wall is assumed as shown in Figure 3-7. Expressed in viscous units, the wall
lift-off is defined as

ρC μ1 / 4 k
+ = max  h
δw --- ----------------------- , 11.06
2 μ 

The first argument is derived from the law of the wall. The second argument is the
distance from the wall, in viscous units, where the logarithmic layer meets the viscous
sublayer (or rather would meet it if there were no buffer layer in between). This lower
limit ensures that the wall functions remain non-singular for all Reynolds numbers.

The wall lift-off, δw, is defined as

δw +μ
δ w = ----------
ρu τ

where the friction velocity, uτ, is defined by

u τ = max  C μ1 / 4 k, --------
u
 u+ 
1
u + = ----- log ( δ w
+)+B
κv

where in turn, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41) and B is a constant
that by default is set to 5.2. The two arguments for uτ are under some addition
assumptions theoretically identical in the logarithmic layer (Ref. 1), but deviate in
stagnation points and when the local Reynolds number becomes low. The definition
of δw is such that it becomes h/2 when δ w + > 11.06 , but it can become larger when the

lower limit for δ w , 11.06, takes effect.

+

210 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall functions give reasonable predictions as long as δ w
+ is lower than some upper limit

that depends on the turbulent Reynolds number (Ref. 28). The upper limit is hardly
ever lower than 50, and in many practical applications as high as a few hundred.
Highest accuracy is obtained if δ w
+ is also everywhere larger than 25, which

approximately corresponds to the beginning of the logarithmic layer. It can also be

worthwhile to check that δw is small compared to the dimensions of the geometry,
especially if δ w
+ = 11.06 for a significant fraction of the wall area.

The boundary conditions for the velocity is a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and

a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -----+-
u

where

K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )

is the viscous stress tensor.

The turbulent kinetic energy is subject to a homogeneous Neumann condition

n ⋅ ∇k = 0 and the boundary condition for ε reads:

C μ3 / 4 k 3 / 2
ε = -----------------------
κv δw

See Ref. 10 and Ref. 11 for further details.

WALL FUNCTIONS FOR ROUGH WALLS

The physics interfaces Wall and Interior Wall have an option to apply wall roughness
by modifying the wall functions. Cebeci (Ref. 21) suggested a model which adjusts the
friction velocity for surface roughness,

u
u τ = ------------------------------------------- (3-85)
1
----- ln δ w + B – ΔB
+
κv

where

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 211

  0 k s+ ≤ 2.25

 k s+ – 2.25
 1-
---- ln ------------------------ + C s k s+ sin [ 0.4258 ( ln k s+ – 0.811 ) ] 2.25 ≤ k s+ ≤ 90
ΔB =  κv 87.75

 1
 ----- ln ( 1 + C s k + ) k s+ ≥ 90
 κv s

k s+ is the roughness height in viscous units,

ρC μ1 / 4 k
k s+ = ----------------------- k s
μ

The roughness height, ks, is the peak-to-peak value of the surface variations and the
wall is relocated to their mean level.

Figure 3-8: Definitions of the roughness height and the modified wall location.

Hence, when Equation 3-85 is used the lift-off is modified according to,

+
δw
+ = max { 11.06, k + ⁄ 2, h ⁄ 2 }
s

where h+ is the height of the boundary mesh cell in viscous units. Cs is a parameter
that depends on the shape and distribution of the roughness elements. When the
turbulence parameters κν and B have the values 0.41 and 5.2, respectively, and
Cs = 0.26, ks corresponds to the equivalent sand roughness height, kseq, as
introduced by Nikuradse (Ref. 22). A few characteristic values of the equivalent sand
roughness height are given in Table 3-5 below,
TABLE 3-5: EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHTS kseq
SURFACE TYPE EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHT

Steel, new 50 μm
Galvanized steel 0.13 mm
Riveted steel 0.9-9 mm
Cast iron, new 0.25 mm
Galvanized iron 0.15-0.30 mm

212 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 3-5: EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHTS kseq
SURFACE TYPE EQUIVALENT SAND ROUGHNESS HEIGHT

Cast iron, rusted 1.0-1.5 mm

Bituminized steel or iron, new 30-50 μm
Glass 0.3 μm
Drawn tubing 1.5 μm
Wood, new 0.5 mm
Concrete, new 0.3-3 mm
Use other values of the roughness parameter Cs and roughness height ks to specify
generic surface roughnesses.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values for a stationary simulation are (Ref. 10),

u=0
p=0
 10 ⋅ μ  2
k =  -------------------------------
lim )
ρ ( 0.1 ⋅ l mix
C μ k init 3/2
ε = ----------------------
-
0.1 ⋅ l mix lim

lim is the mixing length limit. For time-dependent simulations, the initial value
where l mix
for k is instead

μ
k =  -------------------------------2
 ρ ( 0.1 ⋅ l lim )
mix

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The k-ε equations are derived under the assumption that the flow has a high enough
Reynolds number. If this assumption is not fulfilled, both k and ε have very small
magnitudes and behave chaotically in the manner that the relative values of k and ε can
change by large amounts due to small changes in the flow field.

A time-dependent simulation of a turbulent flow can include a period when the flow
is not fully turbulent. A typical example is the startup phase when for example an inlet
velocity or a pressure difference is gradually increased. To sort out numerical

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 213

 fluctuations in k and ε during such periods, the default time-dependent solver for the
k-ε model employs unscaled absolute tolerances for k and ε. The tolerances are set to

k scale = ( 0.01U scale ) 2

(3-86)
3/2 ⁄ (L
ε scale = 0.09k sclae fact ⋅ l bb, min )

where Uscale and Lfact are input parameters available in the Advanced Settings section
of the physics interface node. Their default values are 1 m/s and 0.035 respectively.
lbb,min is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. Equation 3-86 is closely
related to the expressions for k and ε on inlet boundaries (see Equation 3-149).

The practical implication of Equation 3-86 is that variations in k and ε smaller than
kscale and εscale respectively, are regarded as numerical noise.

The Realizable k-ε Turbulence Model

The Realizable k-ε turbulence model (Ref. 14) is an extension to the standard k-ε
model with built-in realizability conditions,

2
ui ≥ 0
2 (3-87)
ui uj
-------------
-≤1
2 2
ui uj

The transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is the same as for the standard
k-ε model, Equation 3-77, while Equation 3-88 is solved for the turbulent dissipation
rate,

∂ε μT ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C 1 ρSε – C ε2 ρ -------------------- (3-88)
∂t  σε   k + νε

where,

 η  Sk 1  ∂u i ∂u j
C 1 = max  0.43, ------------- , η = -------, S= 2S ij S ij, S ij = ---  -------- + -------- (3-89)
 5 + η ε 2  ∂x j ∂x i 

The turbulent viscosity is given by Equation 3-76, but Cμ is not constant for the
realizable k-ε model,

214 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1
C μ = ----------------------------------- (3-90)
(*) k
A 0 + A s U ---
ε

with,

2 2S ij S jk S ki
6 cos  --- acos ( 6W ) ,
1 (3-91)
As = W = ------------------------------------
-
3  3
S

and,

(*) 1  ∂u i ∂u j (3-92)
U = S ij S ij + Ω ij Ω ij, Ω ij = ---  -------- – --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

Sij and Ωij are the mean strain- and rotation-rate tensors respectively. The default
constants for the Realizable k-ε model are,

C ε2 = 1.9 A 0 = 4 σ k = 1 σ ε = 1.2 (3-93)

MODEL PROPERTIES
Compared to the standard k-ε model, the realizable k-ε model yields better predictions
for certain flows. One example is the round jet, for which the standard k-ε model
overestimates the spreading rate. In general, since the realizability conditions in
Equation 3-87 are approached asymptotically, the turbulence characteristics are more
consistent than for the standard k-ε model. The realizable k-ε model uses wall
functions and has the same default initial conditions and scalings as the standard k-ε
model (see Wall Functions, Initial Values and Scaling for Time-Dependent
Simulations).

The k-ω Turbulence Model

The k-ω model solves for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and for the dissipation per
unit turbulent kinetic energy, ω. ω is also commonly know as the specific dissipation
rate. The CFD Module has the Wilcox revised k-ω model (Ref. 1)

∂k
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇k = P k – ρβ * kω + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ * μ T ) ∇k )
∂t (3-94)
∂ω ω
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇ω = α ---- P k – ρβω 2 + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σμ T ) ∇ω )
∂t k

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 215

 where

k
μ T = ρ ---- (3-95)
ω

13 1 1
α = ------ β = β 0 f β β * = β 0* f β σ = --- σ * = ---
25 2 2

13 1 + 70χ ω Ω ij Ω jk S ki
β 0 = ---------- f β = ----------------------- χ ω = --------------------------
125 1 + 80χ ω ( β 0* ω ) 3

 1 χk ≤ 0

β 0* = ---------- f β * =  1 + 680χ 2
9 1
χ k = ------3- ( ∇k ⋅ ∇ω ) (3-96)
100  -------------------------k- ω
 1 + 400χ 2 χ k > 0
 k

where in turn Ωij is the mean rotation-rate tensor

1  ∂u i ∂u j
Ω ij = ---  -------- – --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

and Sij is the mean strain-rate tensor

1  ∂u i ∂u j
S ij = ---  -------- + --------
2  ∂x j ∂x i 

Pk is given by Equation 3-78. The following auxiliary relations for the dissipation, ε,
and the turbulent mixing length, l∗, are also used:

k (3-97)
ε = β * ωk l mix = -------
ω

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT AND REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS

The implementation of the k-ω model relies on the same concepts as the k-ε model
(Ref. 10). This means that the following approximations have been used:

216 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ω ρ
---- ≈ ---------------------------------
k max ( μ T, eps )
l mix ρl mix 2 ρ
l mix
1- -----------
--- =
k - --------
= - = l mix  ------------
- ≈ ---------------------------------
ω ω k k  μ T  max ( μ T, eps )

l mix = min  -------, l mix

k lim 
, l r
ω

where lr is the limit given by the realizability constraints (Equation 3-83 and
Equation 3-84).

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. For the specific dissipation, these solutions read

6ν uτ
ω visc = ------------2- ω log = ----------------------- (3-98)
β0 δw β0 κv δw
*

The corresponding expressions for the velocity is

νU || U ||
u τvisc = ----------- u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-99)
δw 1-
---- log ( δ w +)+B
κv

where δw is the distance to the nearest wall, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default
value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to the wall and B is a constant that by default is
set to 5.2. Menter and others (Ref. 9) suggested the following smooth blending
expressions for ω and uτ:

ω = ω visc
2 + ω2
log (3-100)

and

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-101)

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 217

 These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The wall condition for ω is given by Equation 3-100 and the
conditions for the momentum equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and
a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu τ -----+- (3-102)
u

The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in the log-layer, so
this condition is applied for all δw+.

The system given byEquation 3-85 through Equation 3-102 are, however, nonlinear
in uτ and not very stable. To circumvent this, a variable u∗, log is introduced (see
Ref. 10 and Ref. 11) such that

u *, log = 4 β 0* k (3-103)

This is then used in an alternative expression for the friction velocity:

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-104)

Equation 3-104 is in turn is used to calculate an alternative dimensionless wall distance

u * δw
* = ------------
δw - (3-105)
ν

Equation 3-104 is used instead of uτ in the expression for ωlog and Equation 3-105 is
used instead of δw+ in the expression for uτlog. The traction condition in
Equation 3-102 is replaced by

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-106)
u

Observe that the variable u+ is calculated using equation Equation 3-101.

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable

Delta_wPlus.

Wall Functions
When Wall Treatment is set to Wall functions, wall boundaries are treated with the same
type of boundary conditions as for the k-ε model (see Wall Functions) with Cμ replaced
by β 0* and the boundary condition for ω given by

218 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρk -
ω w = ------------- (3-107)
κδ w +μ

Low Reynolds Number

The k-ω turbulence model can be integrated all the way down to the wall and is
consistent with the no-slip condition u = 0. Since all velocities must disappear on the
wall, so must k. Hence, k=0 on the wall.

The corresponding boundary condition for ω is

6μ
lim ω = ---------------
- (3-108)
lw → 0 ρβ 0 l w 2

To avoid the singularity at the wall, ω is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid
wall. Instead, its value is prescribed by Equation 3-108 (using the variable ωw, which
only exists in those cells). Accurate solutions in the near-wall region require that,

+ = ρu l ⁄ μ ∼ 1
lw (3-109)
τ w

where uτ is the friction velocity which is calculated from the wall shear-stress τw,

uτ = τw ⁄ ρ (3-110)

The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc, is available to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough. According to Equation 3-109, l c+ should be
about 0.5. Observe that very small values of l c+ can reduce the convergence rate.

Since the ωw requires the wall distance, a wall distance equation must be solved prior
to solving a k-ω model with low-Reynolds-number wall treatment.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values are the same as for the k-ε model (see Initial Values) but with
the initial value of ω given by

k init
ω init = ----------------------
-
0.1 ⋅ l mix lim

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The k-ω model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations) except that the scale for ω is given by

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 219

 k scale
ω scale = ---------------------------------
L fact ⋅ l bb, min

MODEL PROPERTIES
The k-ω model can in many cases give results that are superior to those obtained with
the k-ε model (Ref. 1). It behaves, for example, much better for flat plate flows with
adverse or favorable pressure gradients. However, there are two main drawbacks. The
first is that the k-ω model can display a relatively strong sensitivity to free stream inlet
values of ω. The other is that the k-ω model is numerically less robust than the k-ε
model.

The SST Turbulence Model

To combine the superior behavior of the k-ω model in the near-wall region with the
robustness of the k-ε model, Menter (Ref. 18) introduced the SST (Shear Stress
Transport) model which interpolates between the two. The version of the SST model
in the CFD Module includes a few well-tested (Ref. 17, Ref. 19) modifications, such
as production limiters for both k and ω, the use of S instead of Ω in the limiter for μT
and a sharper cutoff for the cross-diffusion term.

It is also a low Reynolds number model, that is, it does not apply wall functions. A “low
Reynolds number” refers to the region close to the wall where viscous effects
dominate. The model equations are formulated in terms k and ω,

∂k
ρ ------ + ρu ⋅ ∇k = P – ρβ 0* kω + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ k μ T ) ∇k )
∂t
(3-111)
∂ω ργ ρσ ω2
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇ω = ------ P – ρβω 2 + ∇ ⋅ ( ( μ + σ ω μ T ) ∇ω ) + 2 ( 1 – f v1 ) ------------- ∇ω ⋅ ∇k
∂t μT ω

where,

P = min ( P k, 10ρβ 0* kω ) (3-112)

and Pk is given in Equation 3-78. The turbulent viscosity is given by,

ρa 1 k
μ T = ---------------------------------------- (3-113)
max ( a 1 ω, Sf v2 )

where S is the characteristic magnitude of the mean velocity gradients,

220 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 S = 2S ij S ij (3-114)

The model constants are defined through interpolation of appropriate inner and outer
values,

φ = f v1 φ 1 + ( 1 – f v1 )φ 2 for φ = β, γ, σ k, σ ω (3-115)

The interpolation functions fv1 and fv2 are defined as,

f v1 = tanh ( θ 14 )
 k 500μ 4ρσ ω2 k
θ 1 = min max  ---------------- , -------------- , --------------------- (3-116)
β
 0 w * ωl ρωl 2 CD l 2
w kω w

2ρσ ω2
CD kω = max  ----------------- ∇ω ⋅ ∇k, 10 -10
 ω 

and,

f v2 = tanh ( θ 22 )
 2 k 500μ (3-117)
θ 2 = max  ---------------- , -------------
-
 β 0* ωl w ρωl w 2


where lw is the distance to the closest wall.

Realizability Constraints are applied to the SST model.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the SST model. The solution to the wall distance equation
is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 221

 The default model constants are given by,

β 1 = 0.075, γ 1 = 5 ⁄ 9, σ k1 = 0.85, σ ω1 = 0.5

β 2 = 0.0828, γ 2 = 0.44, σ k2 = 1.0, σ ω2 = 0.856 (3-118)
β 0* = 0.09, a 1 = 0.31

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

When Wall Treatment is set to Automatic the same type of formulation described for the
k-ω model is applied at the boundary but with β1 instead of β0. See Automatic Wall
Treatment for more details.

Low Reynolds Number

The SST model is low-Reynolds-number model, so the equations can be integrated all
the way through the boundary layer to the wall, which allows for a no slip condition
to be applied to the velocity, that is u = 0.

Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k = 0 on the wall.

The corresponding boundary condition for ω is

6μ
lim ω = ---------------
- (3-119)
lw → 0 ρβ 1 l w 2

To avoid the singularity at the wall, ω is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid
wall. Instead, its value is prescribed by Equation 3-108 (using the variable ωw, which
only exists in those cells). Accurate solutions in the near-wall region require that,

+ = ρu l ⁄ μ ∼ 1
lw (3-120)
τ w

where uτ is the friction velocity which is calculated from the wall shear-stress τw,

uτ = τw ⁄ ρ (3-121)

The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc, is available to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough. According to Equation 3-109, l c+ should be
about 0.5. Observe that very small values of l c+ can reduce the convergence rate.

222 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY
The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the SST model.

FAR-FIELD BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The SST model was originally developed for exterior aerodynamic simulations. The
recommended far-field boundary conditions (Ref. 18) can be expressed as,

10 -5 U ∞ 2 0.1U ∞2
-------------------- < k ∞ < -----------------
Re L Re L
(3-122)
U U
-------∞- < ω ∞ < 10 -------∞-
L L

where L is the approximate length of the computational domain.

INITIAL VALUES
The SST model has the same default initial guess as the standard k-ω model (see Initial
lim replaced by l .
Values) but with l mix ref

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The SST model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ω model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The Low Reynolds Number k-ε Turbulence Model

When the accuracy provided by wall functions in the k-ε model is not enough, a so
called low Reynolds number model can be used. “Low Reynolds number” refers to the
region close to the wall where viscous effects dominate.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 223

 Most low Reynolds number k-ε models adapt the turbulence transport equations by
introducing damping functions. This module includes the AKN model (after the
inventors Abe, Kondoh, and Nagano; Ref. 12). The AKN k-ε model for compressible
flows reads (Ref. 8 and Ref. 12):

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇k + P k – ρε
∂t   σ k 
(3-123)
∂ε μT ε ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------ ∇ε + C ε1 --- P – f ε C ε2 ρ -----
∂t   σε   k k k

where

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
 3  3
k2
μ T = ρf μ C μ ------
ε
(3-124)
f μ = ( 1 – e – l ⁄ 14 ) ⋅  1 + -----------
* 2 5 - – ( R t ⁄ 200 ) 2
e
R t3 / 4 
2
fε = ( 1 – e –l ⁄ 3.1 ) 2 ⋅ ( 1 – 0.3e – ( R t ⁄ 6.5 ) )
*

l * = ( ρu ε l w ) ⁄ μ R t = ρk 2 ⁄ ( με ) u ε = ( με ⁄ ρ ) 1 / 4

and

C ε1 = 1.5 C ε2 = 1.9 C μ = 0.09 σ k = 1.4 σ ε = 1.4 (3-125)

lw is the distance to the closest wall.

Realizability Constraints are applied to the low Reynolds number k-ε model.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the low Reynolds number k-ε model. The solution to the
wall distance equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects
larger than lref is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively
diminished by appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable
feature in turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on
the solution if the wall distance were measured exactly.

224 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. A formulation for ω-based methods was
described by Menter et al. in Ref. 9. The Low-Reynolds number model uses a similar
formulation and defines

νU ||
u τvisc = ----------- u *, log = 4 Cμ k (3-126)
δw

and

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-127)

δw is the distance to the closest wall. The boundary conditions for the momentum
equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-128)
u

In Equation 3-128, u+ = U||/uτ with

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-129)

where in turn

U ||
u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-130)
1-
---- log ( δ w +) +B
κv

Here, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to
the wall and B is a constant that by default is set to 5.2.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 225

 These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in
the log-layer, so this condition is applied for all δw+.

The conditions for the turbulent dissipation, ε, is given by the Wolfshtein model, which
is commonly employed in two-layer k-ε implementations (Ref. 13):

k3 / 2
ε = -----------
lε
– Re δw ⁄ A ε
lε = Cl δw ( 1 – e ) C l = κ v C μ–3 ⁄ 4 (3-131)

δw k
A ε = 2C l Re y = --------------
ν

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The damping terms in the equations for k and ε allow for a no slip condition to be
applied to the velocity, that is u=0 which is the case when Wall Treatment is set to Low
Re.

Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k=0 on the wall.

The correct wall boundary condition for ε is

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

where n is the wall normal direction. This condition is however numerically very
unstable. Therefore, ε is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and instead
the analytical relation

μk
ε = 2 --- ----- (3-132)
ρ lw 2

is prescribed in those cells (using the variable εw, which only exists in those cells).
Equation 3-132 can be derived as the first term in a series expansion of

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

For the expansion to be valid, it is required that

l c+ < 0.5

226 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc,
is available to ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe that it is unlikely that a
solution is obtained at all if

l c+ » 0.5

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY

The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the low-Reynolds number k-ε model.

INITIAL VALUES
The low-Reynolds number k-ε model has the same default initial guess as the standard
lim replaced by l .
k-ε model (see Initial Values) but with l mix ref

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

In some cases, especially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using the ordinary k-ε model and then to use that solution as an initial
guess for the low-Reynolds number k-ε model. The procedure is then as follows:

1 Solve the model using the k-ε model.

2 Switch to the low-Reynolds number k-ε model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
down to the second step in the new study.
5 Solve the new study.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 227

 SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
The low-Reynolds number k-ε model applies absolute scales of the same type as the
k-ε model (see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model

The Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model is a one-equation turbulence model
designed mainly for aerodynamic applications. It is a low Reynolds number model, that
is, it does not utilize wall functions. “Low Reynolds number” refers to the region close
to the wall where viscous effects dominate.

The model gives satisfactory results for many engineering applications, in particular for
airfoil and turbine blade applications for which it is calibrated. It is however not
appropriate for applications involving jet-like free shear regions. It also has some
nonphysical properties. For example, it predicts zero decay rate for the eddy viscosity
in a uniform free-stream (Ref. 1).

Compared to the low Reynolds number k-ε model, the Spalart–Allmaras model is
generally considered more robust and is often used as a way to obtain an initial solution
for more advanced models. It can give reasonable results on relatively coarse meshes
for which the low Reynolds number k-ε model does not converge or even diverges.

This module includes the standard version of the Spalart–Allmaras model without the
trip term (see Ref. 1 and Ref. 15). The model solves for the undamped turbulent
kinematic viscosity, ν̃ :

∂-----
ν̃- ν̃ 2 1 c b2
+ u ⋅ ∇ν̃ = c b1 S̃ν˜ – c w1 f w  ----- + --- ∇ ⋅ ( ( ν + ν̃ ) ∇ν̃ ) + -------- ∇ν̃ ⋅ ∇ν̃ (3-133)
∂t lw σ σ

The model includes the following auxiliary variables

c b1 1 + c b2 ν̃ χ3 -
- + -----------------,
c w1 = ------- χ = ---, f v1 = -------------------
κ v2 σ ν χ 3 + c v1 3

228 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 1/6
χ  1 + c w3 6 
f v2 = 1 – --------------------, f w = g  --------------------
- , g = r + c w2 ( r 6 – r )
1 + χf v1 6
 g + c w3 6


ν̃ ν̃ -
r = min  -----------------, 10 , ˜ = max  Ω + C min ( 0, S – Ω ) + -----------
S f , 0.3Ω
S˜ κ 2l 2  Rot
κ 2 l 2 v2 
v w v w

S= 2S ij S ij Ω= 2Ω ij Ω ij

where

S ij = 0.5 ( ∇u + ∇u T ) Ω ij = 0.5 ( ∇u – ∇u T )

are the mean strain rate and mean rotation rate tensors, lw, is the distance to the closest
wall and ν = μ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity. The turbulent viscosity is calculated by

μ T = ρν̃f v1

The default values for the modeling parameters are:

c b1 = 0.1355 c b2 = 0.622 c v1 = 7.1 σ = 2⁄3

c w2 = 0.3 c w3 = 2 κ v = 0.41 C Rot = 2.0

The implementation of the production term S ˜ includes the rotation correction

˜ are furthermore regularized
suggested in Ref. 15. See also Ref. 16. The terms r and S
according to Ref. 15.

Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models is by default applied to the
stationary form of the Spalart–Allmaras model.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

For the Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model, the following relation is valid from the
wall all the way through the log layer (Ref. 25):

+ ν̃ κ v δ w u τ + (3-134)
ν̃ = κ v δ w u τ ⇔ ν̃ = --- = ------------------ = κ v δ w
ν ν

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 229

 δw+ from Equation 3-134 can be used in Equation 3-99 to calculate uτlog which in
turn gives uτ through Equation 3-101. With uτ, the boundary condition for ν̃ is given
by ν̃ = κ δ u .
v w τ

These relations are applied to the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7, which gives
δw = hw/2. The boundary conditions for the momentum equations are a
no-penetration condition, u·n = 0 and the traction condition given by
Equation 3-102.

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The Spalart–Allmaras model is consistent with a no-slip boundary condition; that is,
u=0. Since there can be no fluctuations on the wall, the boundary condition for ν̃ is
ν̃ = 0 .

The Spalart–Allmaras model can be considered to be well resolved at a wall if l c+ is of

order unity. l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center
of the wall adjacent cell and can be evaluated as the boundary variable:
Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc. See also Wall for boundary condition
details.

INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values for the Spalart–Allmaras version of the physics interface are:

u=0
p=0
μ
ν̃ = ---
ρ

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The Spalart–Allmaras model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model
(see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations) except that the scale for ν̃ is given
directly by the νscale parameter available in the advanced section of the physics
interface node. The default value for νscale is 5·10−6 m2/s.

The v2-f Turbulence Model

2
For the v2-f model, the turbulent viscosity is based on the velocity fluctuations, v ,
normal to the streamlines. This makes it possible to model turbulence anisotropy, and

230 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

to separate between low-Reynolds number effects and wall blockage. Nonlocal effects
of the pressure fluctuations on the turbulent fields are included by applying elliptic
relaxation to the pressure strain term (Ref. 26, Ref. 27). The formulation
implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics, solves for the normalized velocity
fluctuations,

2
v
ζ = ----- (3-135)
k

and an elliptic blending function, α, which is used to combine near-wall effects with
those in the far-field. The complete model for compressible flow reads,

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇k + P k – ρε
∂t  σ kv2f 
∂ε μT
ρ ----- + ρ u ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇ε + --- ( C' ε1 P k – C' ε2 ρε )
1
∂t   σ εv2f  τ
∂ζ μT μT
ρ ----- + ρu ⋅ ∇ζ = ∇ ⋅   μ + ------------ ∇ζ + ---  α μ + ------------ ∇k ⋅ ∇ζ
2 3 (3-136)
∂t   σ ζv2f   k  σ kv2f
ζ 3 3
– --- P k + α f h + ( 1 – α )f w
k
2 α–1
∇ α = ------------
2
-
L

where

P k = μ T  ∇u: ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u

2 2
3 3
μ T = ρC μv2f kζτ
ρ Pk
f h = – ---  C 1 – 1 + C 2 ------  ζ – ---
2
τ ρε   3 (3-137)
ζ
f w = – ρ --- ε
k
3/2 3 1/4
ν ν
L = C L max -----------, C η  -----
k k
τ = max ---, C τ ---
ε  ε ε ε

where ν = μ ⁄ ρ . The modified coefficients in the ε-equation are given by

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 231

 C' ε1 = C ε1v2f  1 + A 1 ( 1 – α ) -------
3 1
ζ
(3-138)
3  μ T ∇ 2 k 3/2
C' ε2 = C ε2v2f + α ( 1 – C ε2v2f ) tanh  -----------------
- 
 ρε 

with the default turbulence parameters

C ε1v2f = 1.44 C ε2v2f = 1.83 C μv2f = 0.22 σ kv2f = σ ζv2f = 1

σ ε = 1.22 C 1 = 1.7 C 2 = 1.2 C η = 86 (3-139)
Cτ = 6 A 1 = 0.04

Realizability Constraints are applied to the turbulent viscosity.

WALL DISTANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the v2-f model. The solution to the wall distance equation
is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on the solution
if the wall distance were measured exactly.

The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Time Dependent study
step.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Automatic Wall Treatment

The automatic wall treatment is a way to obtain an accurate low-Reynolds-number
formulation when the mesh allows it, and to fall back on a wall function formulation
when the mesh is coarse. It is a blending between the solutions in the linear sublayer
and the logarithmic layer respectively. A formulation for ω-based methods was
described by Menter et al. in Ref. 9. The v2-f model uses a similar formulation and
defines

232 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 νU ||
u τvisc = ----------- u *, log = 4 C μv2f ζ k (3-140)
δw

and

u* = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u *, log ) 4 (3-141)

δw is the distance to the closest wall. The boundary conditions for the momentum
equations are a no-penetration condition u ⋅ n = 0 and a shear stress condition

u
n ⋅ K – ( n ⋅ K ⋅ n )n = – ρu * -----+- (3-142)
u

In Equation 3-142, u+ = U||/uτ with

uτ = 4 ( u τvisc ) 4 + ( u τlog ) 4 (3-143)

where in turn

U ||
u τlog = ------------------------------------- (3-144)
1-
---- log ( δ w +) +B
κv

Here, κv, is the von Kárman constant (default value 0.41), U|| is the velocity parallel to
the wall and B is a constant that by default is set to 5.2.

These expression can be combined with the lift-off concept shown in Figure 3-7 which
gives δw = hw/2. The k-equation formally fulfills ∇k ⋅ n = 0 both at the wall and in
the log-layer, so this condition is applied for all δw+.

The conditions for the turbulent dissipation rate, ε, is similar to that in the Wolfshtein
model which is commonly employed in two-layer k-ε implementations (Ref. 13):

3/4 3 / 2
( C μv2f ζ 0 ) k
ε = --------------------------------------------
lε
2 (3-145)
lε = L ( 1 – e– Re L ( δ w ⁄ L ) )

3/4
( C μv2f ζ 0 ) kL
Re y = ---------------------------------------------
2ν

where

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 233

 ζ 0 = ---  1 – --------------------
2 1
(3-146)
3 C 1 + C 2

The boundary conditions applied on ζ and α are given by

2
δw –δw ⁄ L
ζ = ζ 0 -------------------
2 2
α = 1–e (3-147)
δw + L

The resulting wall resolution, δw+, is available as the postprocessing variable.

Delta_wPlus.

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

The no slip condition, that is u=0 is applied when Wall Treatment is set to Low Re.
2
Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k and ζ (since k ∼ y and
2 4
v ∼ y ). Hence, k=0 and ζ=0 on the wall. By definition, α=0 on the wall.

The correct wall boundary condition for ε is

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

where n is the wall normal direction. This condition is however numerically very
unstable. Therefore, ε is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and instead
the analytical relation

μk
ε = 2 --- ----- (3-148)
ρ lw 2

is prescribed in those cells (using the variable εw, which only exists in those cells).
Equation 3-132 can be derived as the first term in a series expansion of

2 ( μ ⁄ ρ ) ( ∂ k ⁄ ∂n ) 2

For the expansion to be valid, it is required that

l c+ < 0.5

l c+ is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Distance to cell center in viscous units, lplus_cc,
is available to ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe that it is unlikely that a
solution is obtained at all if

234 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 l c+ » 0.5

INLET VALUES FOR THE TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALE AND INTENSITY

The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the v2-f model.

INITIAL VALUES
The v2-f model has the same default initial guess as the standard k-ε model (see Initial
lim replaced by l . The default initial values for ζ and α are 2/3 and
Values) but with l mix ref
1 respectively.

The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.

In some cases, especially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using the ordinary k-ε model and then to use that solution as an initial
guess for the v2-f model. The procedure is then as follows:

1 Solve the model using the k-ε model.

2 Switch to the v2-f model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
down to the second step in the new study.
5 Solve the new study.

SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

The v2-f model applies absolute scales of the same type as the k-ε model (see Scaling
for Time-Dependent Simulations).

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• The Wall Distance Interface

• Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with Initialization, and
Wall Distance Initialization

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 235

 Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
If inlet data for the turbulence variables are not available, crude approximations for k,
ε, ω and ζ can be obtained from the following formulas:

3 2
k = --- ( U I T )
2
3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
ε = Cμ -----------
LT
(3-149)
k
ω = --------------------------
( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T
2
ζ = ---
3

where IT is the turbulent intensity and LT is the turbulence length scale.

A value of 10−3 (0.1%) is a low turbulent intensity IT. Good wind tunnels can produce
values as low as 5·10−4 (0.05%). Fully turbulent flows usually have intensities between
0.05 (5%) and 0.1 (10%).

The turbulence length scale LT is a measure of the size of the eddies that are not
resolved. For free-stream flows these are typically very small (on the order of
centimeters). The length scale cannot be zero, however, because that would imply
infinite dissipation. Use Table 3-6 as a guideline when specifying LT (Ref. 3) where lw
is the wall distance, and

+
lw = lw ⁄ l*

TABLE 3-6: TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

FLOW CASE LT L
Mixing layer 0.07L Layer width
Plane jet 0.09L Jet half width
Wake 0.08L Wake width
Axisymmetric jet 0.075L Jet half width
Boundary layer (∂p/∂x = 0) +
κl w ( 1 – exp ( – l w ⁄ 26 ) )
– Viscous sublayer and log-layer Boundary layer
– Outer layer 0.09L thickness

Pipes and channels 0.07L Pipe diameter or

(fully developed flows) hydraulic diameter
or channel width

236 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence
When the flow is compressible or weakly compressible, an additional contribution to
the production of turbulent kinetic energy may be added. This contribution can be
expressed in terms of Favre averaged fluctuations or conventional time-filtered
fluctuations according to,

∂p ρ′u i ′ ∂p
P kb = – u i ″ ------- = ------------ ------- ≈ ρ′u i ′g i (3-150)
∂x i ρ ∂x i

where gi is the gravitational acceleration and the last approximation is applicable for
small Froude numbers. Applying a gradient-diffusion modeling approach,
Equation 3-150 can be recast into,

μ T g i ∂ρ
P kb = – ------- ----- -------- (3-151)
σ T ρ ∂x i

where σT is the turbulent Schmidt number. The production term in the ε equation is
derived from the production term in the k equation. Hence, the corresponding term
in the ε equation becomes,

ε
P εb = C ε1 --- max ( P kb, 0 ) sin θ (3-152)
k

where θ is the angle between u and g, accounting for the difference between buoyant
vertical shear layers and buoyant horizontal shear layers. Using the relation between k,
ε, and ω, the buoyancy production term in the w equation can be derived as,

ω
P ωb = ---- [ ( α + 1 )max ( P kb, 0 ) sin θ – P kb ] (3-153)
k

The expressions for the various ε based and ω based turbulence models differ only in
terms of constants and damping functions. Note that the v2-f turbulence model uses
the wall distance to determine the relation between the wall-normal turbulent
fluctuations and the acceleration of gravity. When the buoyancy contribution is
determined from a multiphysics node, density variations with respect to the variable in
the coupled physics interface are considered. For example, in nonisothermal flow the
coupled interface is a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface, and, Equation 3-151 is
replaced by,

μ T ∂T ˜
P kb = α p ---------- g i -------- (3-154)
Pr T ∂x i

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 237

 Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
For this module, the turbulent intensity IT, turbulence length scale LT, and reference
velocity scale Uref values are related to the turbulence variables via

3
3⁄4 2 ---
3 2 C μ  3 ( I T U ref )  2 3 I T U ref 2
k = --- ( I T U ref ) , ε = ------------  ---------------------------- , ω= --- -------------------------- , ζ = ---
2 LT  2  2 ( β 0* ) 1 / 4 L T 3

For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Also see Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

Initial Values for Generate New Turbulence Model Interfaces

A major advantage with the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface feature is that it
can express initial values for the new turbulence model in terms of the original model.
This makes it possible to first solve a problem using a simple, but robust, turbulence
model, such as the k-ε model, and then switch to a more advanced model.

Unless the Initial value from study is None, the Generate New Turbulence Model Interface
initial values for velocity and pressure are taken directly from the solution of the parent
model. The initial values of turbulent dependent variables are estimated using the
solution from the selected study:

• When the parent model is a Laminar Flow model, or when Initial value from study
is None, turbulent dependent variables get their default initial values.
• Initial values of dependent variables that exist in both the parent model and the
generated model are taken directly from the selected study.
• When the parent model is Turbulent Flow, k-ε or Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds
k-ε or v2-f and the generated model is Turbulent Flow, k-ω or SST, the initial value
of ω is
ω init = ρk ⁄ μ T

• When the parent model is k-ω or SST, and the generated model is k-ε or Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial value of ε is
2
ε init = C μ ρk ⁄ μ T

238 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• When the parent model is Algebraic yPlus, and the generated model is k-ε, Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial values of k
and ε are:

2 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( C μ L T )

3/4 3⁄2
ε init = ( C μ ⁄ L T )k init

y∗ υ
where L T = max  κ a y ,--------- and u τ = u ⁄ u .
+
 uτ 
• When the parent model is Algebraic yPlus and the generated model is k-ω or SST,
the initial values of k and ω are

2 * 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( β 0 L T )

*1 ⁄ 4
ω init = k init ⁄ ( β 0 LT )

• When the parent model is L-VEL, and the generated model is k-ε, Low Reynolds
k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial values of k and ε are

2 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( C μ L T )

3/4 3⁄2
ε init = ( C μ ⁄ L T )k init

where L T = max ( κ l y ,( κ l υE l ) ⁄ u τ ) .
• When the parent model is L-VEL, and the generated model is k-ω and SST, the
initial values of k and omega are

2 * 2
k init = υ T ⁄ ( β 0 L T )

*1 ⁄ 4
ω init = k init ⁄ ( β 0 LT )

• When the parent model is Spalart–Allmaras and the generated model is k-ε, Low
Reynolds k-ε or v2-f (for v2-f C μ is replaced by 2 ⁄ 3 C μ-v2f ), the initial value of k
and ε are:

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 239

 2
f ν1 ν̃ 2
k init = ----------- ⋅ min   --------- ,ν Ω 
Cμ κν y

8
χ 1 ν̃ 4
ε init = ---------------------------3- ⋅ min  ---  --------- ,ν Ω 
2
3 3 ν κν y
( χ + c ν1 )

• When the parent model is Spalart–Allmaras and the generated model is k-ω or SST
the initial values of k and ω are

2
f ν1 ν̃ 2
k init = ---------- ⋅ min   --------- ,ν Ω 
* κν y
β0

2
χ 1 ν̃ 2
⋅ min  ---  --------- , Ω 
1
ω init = ---------- --------------------
3 3  ν  κ ν y 
β 0 χ + c ν1
*

• When the generated model is Spalart–Allmaras turbulent mode, and the parent
model any turbulence model but Spalart–Allmaras, the initial value of the dependent
variable is ν̃ init = μ T ⁄ ρ .

Solvers for Turbulent Flow

The nonlinear system that the Navier-Stokes (RANS) and turbulence transport
equations constitute can become ill-conditioned if solved using a fully coupled solver.
Turbulent flows are therefore solved using a segregated approach (Ref. 20):
Navier-Stokes in one group and the turbulence transport equations in another.

For each iteration in the Navier-Stokes group, two or three iterations are performed
for the turbulence transport equations. This is necessary to make sure that the very
nonlinear source terms in the turbulence transport equations are in balance before
performing another iteration for the Navier-Stokes group.

The default iterative solver for the turbulence transport equations is a damped Newton
method with constant damping factor. In each iteration, a linearized version of the
nonlinear system is solved using GMRES accelerated by Smoothed Aggregated
Algebraic Multigrid (SAAMG). The default smoother is SOR Line.

240 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the application
requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast, Geometric
Multigrid (GMG) requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of multigrid levels can
be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also superior for cluster
computations and for shared memory computations with many cores. When the
default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear solver node is
available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models

• Multigrid, Stationary Solver, Iterative, and SOR Line in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual

Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models

The default stationary solver applies pseudo time stepping for both 2D and 3D models.
This improves the robustness of the nonlinear iterations as well as the condition
number for the linear equation system. The latter is especially important for large 3D
models where iterative solvers must be applied. The turbulence equations use the same
Δt̃ as the momentum equations.

The default manual expression for CFLloc is, for 2D models:

1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 25, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 25, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 50, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 50, 9 ), 0 )

and for 3D models:

1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 30, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 30, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 60, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 60, 9 ), 0 )

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.

2. D.M. Driver and H.L. Seegmiller, “Features of a Reattaching Turbulent Shear Layer
in Diverging Channel Flow”, AIAA Journal, vol. 23, pp. 163–171, 1985.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 241

 3. H.K. Versteeg and W. Malalasekera, An Introduction to Computational Fluid
Dynamics, Prentice Hall, 1995.

4. A. Durbin, “On the k-ε Stagnation Point Anomality”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow,
vol. 17, pp. 89–90, 1986.

5. A, Svenningsson, Turbulence Transport Modeling in Gas Turbine Related

Applications”, doctoral dissertation, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers
University of Technology, 2006.

6. C.H. Park and S.O. Park, “On the Limiters of Two-equation Turbulence Models”,
Int. J. Computational Fluid Dynamics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 79–86, 2005.

7. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat

Transfer, doctoral dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.

8. L. Ignat, D. Pelletier, and F. Ilinca, “A Universal Formulation of Two-equation

Models for Adaptive Computation of Turbulent Flows”, Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 189, pp. 1119–1139, 2000.

9. F. Menter, J.C. Ferreira, T. Esch, and B. Konno, “The SST Turbulence Model with
Improved Wall Treatment for Heat Transfer Predictions in Gas Turbines”, Proceedings
of the International Gas Turbine Congress, IGTC2003-TS-059, Nov. 2–7, 2003.

10. D. Kuzmin, O. Mierka, and S. Turek, “On the Implementation of the k-ε
Turbulence Model in Incompressible Flow Solvers Based on a Finite Element
Discretization”, Int.J. Computing Science and Mathematics, vol. 1, no. 2–4,
pp. 193–206, 2007.

11. H. Grotjans and F.R. Menter, “Wall Functions for General Application CFD
Codes”, ECCOMAS 98, Proceedings of the Fourth European Computational Fluid
Dynamics Conference, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 1112–1117, 1998.

12. K. Abe, T. Kondoh, and Y. Nagano, “A New Turbulence Model for Predicting
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Separating and Reattaching Flows — I. Flow Field
Calculations”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 139–151, 1994.

13. H.C. Chen and V.C. Patel, “Near-Wall Turbulence Models for Complex Flows
Including Separation”, AIAA Journal, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 641–648, 1988.

14. T.H. Shih, W.W. Liou, A. Shabir, Z. Yang and J. Zhu, “A New k-e Eddy Viscosity
Model for High Reynolds Number Turbulent Flows-Model Development and
Validation”, NASA Technical Memorandum 106721, ICOMP-94-21,
CMOTT-94-6, 1994

242 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

15. “The Spalart–Allmaras Turbulence Model”,
http://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/spalart.html.

16. J. Dacles-Mariani, G.G. Zilliac and J.S. Chow, “Numerical/Experimental Study of

a Wingtip Vortex in the Near Field”, AIAA Journal, vol. 33, no. 9, 1995.

17. “The Menter Shear Stress Transport Turbulence Model”,

http://turbmodels.larc.nasa.gov/sst.html.

18. F.R. Menter, “Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity Turbulence Models for Engineering

Applications”, AIAA Journal, vol. 32, no. 8, 1994.

19. F.R. Menter, M. Kuntz, and R. Langtry, “Ten Years of Industrial Experience with
the SST Turbulence Model”, Turbulence Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 4, 2003.

20. M. Vázquez, M. Ravachol, F. Chalot, and M. Mallet, “The Robustness Issue on

Multigrid Schemes Applied to the Navier-Stokes Equations for Laminar and
Turbulent, Incompressible and Compressible Flows”, Int. J.for Numerical Methods
in Fluids, vol. 45, pp. 555–579, 2004.

21. T. Cebeci, Analysis of Turbulent Flows, 2nd ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004.

22. J. Nikuradse, “Strömungsgesetze in rauhen Rohren”, Forschg. Arb. Ing.-Wes., no.

361, 1933 (in German).

23. D. Agonafer, L. Gan-Li, and D.B. Spalding, “LVEL turbulence model for
conjugate heat transfer at low Reynolds numbers”, EEP 6, ASME International
Mechanical Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, 1996.

24. L. Prandtl, “Über die ausgebildete Turbulenz”, ZAMM 5, 1925 (in German).

25. P.R. Spalart and S.R. Allmaras, “A one-equation turbulence model for
aerodynamic flows”, La Aerospatiale, no. 1, pp. 5–21, 1994.

26. P.A. Durbin, “Application of a near-wall turbulence model to boundary layers and
heat transfer”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 14, no. 4, 1993.

27. K. Hanjalic, M. Popovac, and M. Hadziabdic, “A robust near-wall

elliptic-relaxation eddy-viscosity turbulence model for CFD”, Int. J. Heat and Fluid
Flow, vol. 25, no. 6, 2004.

28. S.B. Pope, Turbulent Flow, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

THEORY FOR THE TURBULENT FLOW INTERFACES | 243

 Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation
Interfaces
Large Eddy Simulations offer an alternative approach to turbulent flow simulations as
compared to the RANS approach (see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces). In
LES, the larger three-dimensional, unsteady eddies are resolved, whereas the effect of
the smaller eddies is modeled. This requires the simulations to be three-dimensional
and time dependent. The current implementation of the LES interfaces is suitable for
incompressible flow only. The velocity and pressure fields are divided into resolved and
unresolved scales. Denoting the fields containing all scales with capital letters, the
decomposition can be expressed as

U = u + u' (3-155)
P = p + p'

Inserting Equation 3-155 into the incompressible form of the Navier–Stokes equation
and the continuity equation yields

∂u
ρ  ------ + ( u + u' ) ⋅ ∇u + ∇p – ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ] = (3-156)
∂t
∂u'
– ρ  ------- + ( u + u' ) ⋅ ∇u' – ∇p' + ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u' + ( ∇u' ) T ) ]
 ∂t 

∇ ⋅ u = – ∇ ⋅ u'

Next, Equation 3-156 is projected onto the finite element sub-spaces of the resolved
velocity and pressure scales. Denoting the test functions for these scales by v and q,
respectively, the projection can be expressed as

∂u
(v, ρ ------ ) – (∇ ⋅ v, p) Ω + (∇v, μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )) Ω + (q, ∇ ⋅ u) Ω – (v, f) ∂Ω = (3-157)
∂t Ω
( ∇ ⋅ v, p' ) Ω + (∇q, u') Ω + (∇v, ρ ( u ⊗ u + u ⊗ u' + u' ⊗ u + u' ⊗ u' ) ) Ω

In Equation 3-157, f is the applied traction force on the boundary ∂Ω of the spatial
domain Ω, and the stresses in the last term on the right-hand side are the resolved
nonlinear advection term, the two cross-stresses, and the Reynolds stress. By assuming
that the unresolved scales are orthogonal to the inner-product space of the resolved
scales, the unresolved time derivative and viscous terms vanish. Another assumption

244 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

made in the derivation of Equation 3-157 is that u' vanishes on ∂Ω (see Ref. 1 for
further details).

In the Residual Based Variational Multiscale (RBVM) method, the unresolved velocity
and pressure scales are modeled in terms of the equation residuals for the resolved
scales

u' = – τ m res m
(3-158)
p' = – τ c res c

where the momentum and continuity equation residuals are given by

∂u
res m = ρ  ------- + u ⋅ ∇u + ∇p – ∇ ⋅ [ μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) ] (3-159)
 ∂t 

res c = ρ∇ ⋅ u

and the intrinsic time-scales are given by

1
τ m = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-160)
C ρ
 ----------
1 
2
2 2
+ 4ρ u ⋅ Gu + C 2 μ G:G
 Δt 
–1
τ c = C 3 ( ρτ m trace ( G ) )

Here, C1 is a constant depending on the temporal scheme, C2 a constant depending

on the shape of the element, and C3 a constant depending on both the order of the
shape functions and the shape of the element. G is the covariant metric tensor. When
the Use dynamic subgrid time scale option is selected, the first term under the
square-root in Equation 3-160 is replaced by an estimate of the time-derivative based
on the resolved scales.

In certain cases, the residual-based Reynolds-stress contribution has been found to be

too small (see Ref. 2). For this reason, the Residual Based Variational Multiscale with
Viscosity (RBVMWV) method adds a residual based viscosity term to the right-hand
side of Equation 3-157,

˜
– (∇v, ρC u' h ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )) Ω (3-161)
˜
where C is a model constant, and h is a measure of the element size.

For the Smagorinsky model, the Reynolds stress term is replaced by,

THEORY FOR THE LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 245

 – (∇v, ρC s S ⁄ trace ( G ) ( S – S )) Ω (3-162)

where,

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) (3-163)
2

and S is the projection of S onto the space of constant shape functions. This
corresponds to a further decomposition of the resolved scales into large resolved scales
and small resolved scales, in which only the latter are affected by the Reynolds stress
(see Ref. 3). Since the term, Equation 3-162, identically vanishes for linear shape
functions, the Dicretization must be set to at least P2-P2 in order to include the
Reynolds stress contribution in the Smagorinsky model (see Discretization).

Note that all three models require equal-order interpolation for velocity and pressure.

Furthermore, adequate resolution of wall-layers, u τ h w ⁄ ν < 1 , and convective time

scales, UΔt ⁄ h U < 0.5 , is essential in order to obtain accurate results in LES. Here, uτ
is the friction velocity, hw the thickness of the first mesh-cell next to the wall, and hU
the mesh size in the streamline direction.

WALL BOUNDARY CONDITION

Low Reynolds Number Wall Treatment

When Wall treatment is set to Low Re, a Dirichlet condition is imposed on the velocity
field at the walls. Adequate resolution of the wall layers requires that h w ∼ ν ⁄ u τ ,
where hw is the thickness of the mesh cells next to the wall and u τ = τ w ⁄ ρ is the
friction velocity based on the tangential stress τw at the wall.

Automatic Wall Treatment

When Wall treatment is set to Automatic, a Dirichlet condition is imposed on the
wall-normal velocity component and a traction force is applied in the tangential
direction opposite to the local velocity vector. To evaluate the magnitude, ρu τ2 , of the
traction force, the Reynolds number based on the magnitude of the tangential velocity
and the normal distance, y, to the wall,

u tang y u tang u τ y + +
Re = ---------------- = ------------ ⋅ --------- = u y
ν uτ ν

is evaluated halfway between the wall and the first vertexes inside the domain, at y = δw.
Asymptotic solutions to the L-VEL equation (Equation 3-75) can be found for low

246 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

and high values of the Reynolds number. For low values of the Reynolds number
(inside the viscous wall layer),

+
u lin = Re

and for large values of the Reynolds number (inside the logarithmic layer),

log ( log ( κERe ) )

u log = ---  1 – ------------------------------------------ log ( κERe )
+ 1
κ 1 + log ( κERe ) 

The two expressions are blended according to

+ + -7 + -7 -1/7
u = ( ( u lin ) + ( u log ) )

and the friction velocity is finally obtained from

u tang
u τ = -----------
+
-
u

The Automatic option should be used with caution since boundary layers, especially on
smooth surfaces, in many cases need to be resolved down to the top of the viscous wall
+
layer ( y ∼ 5 ). When the point of boundary-layer separation is known, such as for the
flow around bodies with sharp edges, the Automatic option may be used to reduce the
number of DOFs in the model.

TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
Adequate resolution of the convective time scale requires that

Δt < 0.5h U ⁄ U

where hU is the mesh size in the streamline direction. Larger values of Δt may lead to
damping of turbulence and in some cases even convergence issues. The built-in
variable spf.dt_CFL may be used to limit the maximum time step.

References for LES

1. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, J.A. Cottrell, T.J.R. Hughes, A. Reali, and G. Scovazzi,
“Variational multiscale residual-based turbulence modeling for large eddy simulation
of incompressible flows,” Comput. Methods Appl Mech. Engrg., 197 (2007),
173-201.

THEORY FOR THE LARGE EDDY SIMULATION INTERFACES | 247

 2. J. Liu. “Residual-based variational multiscale models for large eddy simulations of
compressible and incompressible flows,” Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Ph.D.
Thesis, 2012.

3. J. Volker and K. Songul, “A finite element variational multiscale method for the
Navier–Stokes equations,” SIAM J. Sci. Comput., vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 1485–1503,
2005.

248 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Rotating Machinery
Interfaces
The theory for the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery,
Turbulent Flow interfaces is described in this section:

• About Rotating Machinery

• Frozen Rotor
• Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model
• References

About Rotating Machinery

Both the Rotating Machinery, Laminar Flow and Rotating Machinery, Turbulent Flow
interfaces model flow in geometries with rotating parts. For example, stirred tanks,
mixers, and pumps.

The Navier–Stokes equations formulated in a rotating coordinate system read (Ref. 1

and Ref. 2)

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0 (3-164)
∂t

∂v
ρ ------ + ρ ( v ⋅ ∇ )v + 2ρΩ × v =
∂t
(3-165)
∂Ω
∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F – ρ  ------- × r + Ω × ( Ω × r )
∂t

where v is the velocity vector in the rotating coordinate system, r is the position vector,
and Ω is the angular velocity vector. The relation between v and the velocity vector in
the stationary coordinate system is

∂r
u = v + ------
∂t

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces solve Equation 3-164 and
Equation 3-165, but reformulated in terms of a nonrotating coordinate system; that
is, they solve for u. This is achieved by invoking the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 249

 Formulation (ALE) machinery. In rotating domains, x = x(Ω, t) as prescribed in the
Rotating Domain under Definitions. The Navier–Stokes equations on rotating
domains then read

∂ρ- ------
∂x
------ – - ⋅ ∇ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-166)
∂T ∂T

∂u ∂x
ρ  ------- – ------- ⋅ ∇u + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (3-167)
∂T ∂T

The derivative operator ∂ρ/∂T is the mesh time derivative of the density and appears in
the equation view as d(rmspf.rho,TIME). Analogously, ∂U/∂T is the mesh time
derivative of the velocity. The variable TIME replaces t as the variable for time.

The user input for a rotating domain prescribes the angular frequency, w. To calculate
Ω, the physics interfaces set up an ODE variable for the angular displacement ω. The
equation for ω is

dω-
------- = w (3-168)
dt

Ω, is defined as w times the normalized axis of rotation. In 2D, the axis of rotation is
the z direction while it in 3D is specified in the Rotating Domain features. If the model
contains several rotating domains, each domain has its own angular displacement ODE
variable.

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary Navier–Stokes equations are solved. The

rotating and fixed parts need to be coupled together by an identity pair, where a
continuity boundary condition is applied.

Wall and Interior Wall boundary conditions apply in the rotating domain provided that
the Translational velocity under Wall Movement uses the default Automatic from
frame option.

Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian Formulation (ALE) in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Frozen Rotor
Equation 3-166 through Equation 3-168 must be solved using a Time Dependent
study. This can be computationally expensive. The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow

250 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

interfaces therefore support the so-called frozen rotor approach. The frozen rotor
approach assumes that the flow in the rotating domain, expressed in the rotating
coordinate system, is fully developed. Equation 3-164 then reduces to

∇ ⋅ ( ρv ) = 0 (3-169)

and Equation 3-165 to

ρ ( v ⋅ ∇ )v + 2ρΩ × v = (3-170)
∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F – ρΩ × ( Ω × r )

Frozen rotor is both a study type and an equation form. When solving a rotating
machinery model using a Frozen Rotor study step, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid
Flow interfaces effectively solve Equation 3-170 and Equation 3-170 in a “rotating”
domain, but “rotating” domains do not rotate at all. Boundary conditions remain
transformed as if the domains were rotating, but the domains remain fixed, or frozen,
in position. As in the time-dependent case, the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow
interfaces solve for the velocity vector in the stationary coordinate system, u, rather
than for v.

To make Equation 3-166 and Equation 3-167 equivalent to Equation 3-169 and
Equation 3-170, the Frozen Rotor study step defines a parameter TIME, which by
default is set to zero (TIME appears in the Parameters node under Global Definitions).
Equation 3-168 is replaced by

ω = wTIME

Since TIME is a parameter and x is a function of TIME, ∂x/∂T evaluates to its correct
value. Finally, ∂ρ/∂T = 0 and the mesh time derivative of the velocity is replaced by

∂u
------- = Ω × u
∂T

In nonrotating domains, the ordinary, stationary Navier–Stokes equations are solved.

The Frozen Rotor study step invokes a stationary solver to solve the resulting equation
system.

The frozen rotor approach can in special cases give the same solution as solving
Equation 3-166 through Equation 3-168 to steady state. This is the case if, for
example, the whole geometry is rotating, or if the model is invariant with respect to
the position of the rotating domain relative to the nonrotating domain. The latter is
the case for a fan placed in the middle of a straight, cylindrical duct.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 251

 In most cases, however, there is no steady-state solution to the rotating machinery
problem. Only a pseudo-steady state where the solution varies periodically around
some average solution. In those cases, the frozen rotor approach gives an approximate
solution to the pseudo-steady state. The approximation depends on the position in
which the rotor is frozen, and the method cannot capture transient effects (see Ref. 3
and Ref. 4). An estimate of the effect of the rotor position can be obtained by making
a parametric sweep over TIME.

The frozen rotor approach is very useful for attaining initial values for time-dependent
simulations. Starting from a frozen rotor solution, the pseudo-steady state can be
reached within a few revolutions, while starting from u = 0 can require tens of
revolutions. See, for example, Ref. 5.

Only interfaces that explicitly support frozen rotors are included in a Frozen Rotor
study step.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Setting Up a Rotating Machinery Model

The Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interfaces primarily handle two types of
geometries with rotating parts.

The first type is where the whole geometry rotates. Typical examples are individual
parts in turbomachinery and lab-on-a-chip devices. For such cases, the selection for the
Rotating Domain under the Definitions node should be all domains in the geometry.

The other type is geometries where it is possible to divide the modeled device into
rotationally invariant geometries. The operation can be, for example, to rotate an
impeller in a baffled tank, as in Figure 3-9 where the impeller rotates from position 1
to 2.

The first step to set up these type of models is to divide the geometry into two parts,
as shown in Step 1a. Draw the geometry using separate domains for fixed and rotating
parts. If you intend to do a time-dependent simulation, activate the assembly (using an
assembly instead of a union, see Geometry Modeling and CAD Tools in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual) and create identity pairs, which makes it possible to
treat the domains as separate parts in an assembly.

252 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The second step is to remove the non rotating domains from the Rotating Domain
selection (Step 1b).

Once this is done, proceed to the usual steps of setting the fluid properties, boundary
conditions. Apply a Flow Continuity to assembly pairs (Step 2a). Then mesh and solve
the problem.

1 2

1a 1b 2a

Figure 3-9: The modeling procedure in the Rotating Machinery, Fluid Flow interface.

References
1. H.P. Greenspan, The Theory of Rotating Fluids, Breukelen Press, 1990.

2. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

2000.

3. CFD Online, Best practice guidelines for turbomachinery CFD,

https://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Best_practice_guidelines_for_turbomachinery_
CFD.

4. A. Brucato, M. Ciofalo, F. Grisafi, and G. Micale, “Numerical Prediction of Flow

Fields in Baffled Stirred Vessels: A Comparison of Alternative Modelling Approaches”,
Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 53, no. 21, pp. 3653–3684, 1998.

5. J.-P. Torré, D.F. Fletcher, T. Lasuye, and C. Xuereb, “Single and Multiphase CFD
Approaches for Modelling Partially Baffled Stirred Vessels: Comparison of
Experimental Data with Numerical Predictions”, Chemical Engineering Science,
vol. 62, no. 22, pp. 6246–6262, 2007.

THEORY FOR THE ROTATING MACHINERY INTERFACES | 253

 Theory for the Viscoelastic Flow
Interface
The theory for the Viscoelastic Flow interface is described in this section:

• General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

General Viscoelastic Flow Theory

The Viscoelastic Flow Interface is used to simulate incompressible and isothermal flow
of viscoelastic fluids. It solves the continuity equation, the momentum balance
equation, and a constitutive equation that defines the extra elastic stress contribution.
The continuity and momentum balance can be expressed as

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-171)

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (3-172)
∂t

where τ is the extra stress tensor, which is defined as a sum of a viscous and a viscoelastic
or elastic contribution as

τ = 2μ s S + T e (3-173)

where μs is the solvent viscosity, S is the strain-rate tensor, and Te is the elastic (or
viscoelastic) stress tensor. To adequately describe a flow of fluid with a complex
rheological behavior, the symmetric stress tensor Te is represented as a sum of the
individual modes:

Te =  Tem (3-174)
m

To close the equation system, the constitutive relation for each mode is required.

254 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Several commonly used constitutive models can be written as a hyperbolic partial
differential transport equation of the form

1 - λ em ∇
------------- f rm ( T e ) + -------------
- = f pm ( T e )S (3-175)
2μ em m 2μ em T em m

where the relaxation function f rm and the viscosity factor f pm are model-specific
functions of stress, λ em is a relaxation time, μ em is a polymer viscosity, and the upper
convective derivative operator is defined as

∇ ∂T T
T≡ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T – [ ( ∇u )T + T ( ∇u ) ] (3-176)
∂t

The first two terms on the right-hand side represent the material derivative, and the
other two terms represent the deformation. For more information, see Ref. 1.

OLDROYD-B MODEL
For the Oldroyd B model, the relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

f rm = T e , f pm = 1 (3-177)
m

The Oldroyd-B model can be derived from the kinetic theory representing the
polymer molecules as suspensions of the Hookean spring in a Newtonian solvent.
While demonstrating some basic features of viscoelasticity, the model can only predict
a constant shear viscosity and gives unrealistic results for purely extensional flows due
to the lack of a mechanism that limits the extensibility.

FENE-P MODEL
The finitely extensible nonlinear elastic model (FENE) is based on the kinetic theory
that describes the polymer chains as a non-linear elastic springs and account for finite
extension of the polymers monoculars. The FENE model with Peterlin closure
(FENE-P) shows a finite extensibility and a shear-thinning behavior. The expressions
for the relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

1 - 3 λ em  1
f rm = 1 + ----------  --------------------------- + ---------- tr ( T e ) T e , f pm = ---------------------------
(3-178)
2
Le  1 – 3 ⁄ Le
2 μ em
m
 m
1 – 3 ⁄ L em
2
m m

where L em is the extensibility.

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 255

 GIESEKUS MODEL
The Giesekus model is often used to model the flow of the semi-diluted and
concentrated polymers. It adds the quadratic nonlinearity that is attributed to the
effect of the hydrodynamic drag induced by the polymer-polymer interactions. The
corresponding relaxation function and the viscosity factor are given by

λ em
f rm =  1 + α em ---------
-  , f pm = 1 (3-179)
μ e T em T em
m

where α em is the dimensionless mobility factor.

The theory about boundary conditions is found in the section Theory for the
Single-Phase Flow Interfaces. Note that for the viscoelastic models, the extra stress
tensor is defined as a sum of a viscous and an elastic contribution: τ = K + Te.
Therefore, an additional term should be added to the expression for the normal extra
stress: Kn = Kn + Ten.

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The constitutive equations (Equation 3-175) can easily become unstable if discretized
using the Galerkin finite element method (Ref. 2). Stabilized finite element methods
are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The streamline diffusion
method is used for the equations for the elastic stress tensor.

The theory about stabilization of the momentum equations Equation 3-171–

Equation 3-172 is found in Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid
Flow.

Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

256 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Solvers for Viscoelastic Flow
The default solver suggestions for single phase flow interfaces are discused in Solvers
for Laminar Flow. Note that if an iterative solver is used, the separate hybrid
preconditioners are used for the velocity group and the viscoelastic stresses.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Selecting a Preconditioner for an Iterative Linear System Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Viscoelastic Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives. Solving
Equation 3-171 through Equation 3-175 requires a starting guess that is close enough
to the final solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be
solved instead. This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational
time. An intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative. Further details is
found in Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

References for the Viscoelastic Flow Interfaces

1. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2005.

2. T.J. Craven, J.M. Rees, and W.B. Zimmerman, “Stabilized finite element modelling
of Oldroyd-B viscoelastic flow,” COMSOL Conference 2006, Birmingham, U.K.,
2006.

THEORY FOR THE VISCOELASTIC FLOW INTERFACE | 257

258 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Heat Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow

Interfaces
There are several physics interfaces included in the CFD Module to model heat
transfer and nonisothermal flow. This chapter describes the physics interfaces found
under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) as well as those under the
Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch ( ). The Modeling Heat Transfer in the
CFD Module section helps you choose the best physics interface to start with.

• Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD Module

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow,
Turbulent Flow and LES Interfaces
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
The documentation of all features in the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface
is now found in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide, specifically in the
following sections:

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

259
 Modeling Heat Transfer in the CFD
Module
Heat transfer is an important phenomenon in many industrial processes. Often, a fluid
plays a major role in transporting the heat and a detailed description of the flow field
is necessary to accurately describe such processes. Typical examples are heating and
cooling operations. Chemical reactions and phase changes are other commonly
occurring phenomena. The temperature, in turn, affects the fluid properties and can
alter the flow field. Natural convection is an example of this.

In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Heat Transfer branch ( ) included with this module has a number of physics
interfaces that can be used to model energy transport. One or more of these can be
added; either by themselves or together with other physics interfaces, typically flow
physics interfaces.

While the standard COMSOL Multiphysics package includes physics interfaces for
simulating heat transfer through conduction and convection, this module provides
extra functionality within the standard Heat Transfer interfaces. The CFD Module also
includes additional Heat Transfer interfaces such as The Heat Transfer in Porous
Media Interface.

For heat transfer in single-phase flows, the CFD Module provides several turbulent
(RANS) versions of the Nonisothermal Flow ( ) (located under the Fluid Flow branch)
and Conjugate Heat Transfer ( ) (located under the Heat Transfer branch)
multiphysics interfaces as well as three turbulent (LES) versions of the Nonisothermal
Flow ( ) multiphysics interfaces, and the Brinkman Equations ( ) multiphysics
interface, in addition to the laminar version available with the standard COMSOL
Multiphysics package. The multiphysics interfaces automatically couple the flow and
heat equations and they also provide functionality, such as support for turbulent heat
transfer, that is not readily available when adding the interfaces separately.

260 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS OR FLUIDS, AND JOULE HEATING
The Heat Transfer in Solids ( ), Heat Transfer in Fluids ( ) (general convection and
conduction), and Electromagnetic Heating>Joule Heating interfaces ( ), all belong to
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package.

HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface ( ) is an extension of a the generic heat
transfer interface that includes modeling heat transfer through convection, conduction
and radiation, conjugate heat transfer, and nonisothermal flow. The ability to define
material properties, boundary conditions, and more for porous media heat transfer is
also activated by selecting the Heat transfer in porous media check box on any heat
transfer interface.

NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER

The Nonisothermal Flow ( ) and Conjugate Heat Transfer ( ) interfaces solve the
Navier-Stokes equations together with an energy balance. They can also solve for heat
transfer in solids.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer differ by their default features. The
default heat transfer domain feature for Nonisothermal Flow is a Heat Transfer in
Fluids node while Conjugate Heat Transfer has a Heat Transfer in Solids node as its
default domain feature.

The Laminar Flow versions of the physics interfaces are used primarily to model slowly
flowing fluids in environments where energy transport is also an important part of the
system and application, and must be coupled or connected to the fluid flow in some
way. Stokes’ law (creeping flow) can be activated from the Nonisothermal Flow,
Laminar Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow interfaces if wanted. If you
expect the flow to become turbulent, select one of the versions of the turbulent flow
interfaces. Each physics interface includes a RANS or LES turbulence model to
calculate the turbulence and algebraic models for the turbulent Prandtl number.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer laminar and turbulent (RANS)
flow interfaces can solve the fully compressible form of the Navier-Stokes equations.
But boundary conditions and stabilizations are provided for Mach numbers less than
0.3. If you expect the Mach number in your model to become higher than 0.3, use

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER IN THE CFD MODULE | 261

 The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces. The Nonisothermal Flow, LES interfaces
are only applicable to incompressible flow.

• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module in the Heat Transfer Module
User’s Guide
• The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Often, you are simulating applications that couple heat transfer in turbulent flow to
another type of phenomenon described by another physics interface. This can, for
example, include chemical reactions and mass transport, as covered by the physics
interfaces in the Chemical Species Transport branch.

Furthermore, the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module includes, not only support
for setting up and simulating chemical reactions, but also for simulating reaction
kinetics through the temperature-dependent Arrhenius Expression and Mass Action
Law. This physics interface also includes support for including and calculating
thermodynamic data as temperature-dependent expressions, for both reaction kinetics
and fluid-flow.

In addition, if you also have the Heat Transfer Module, it includes more detailed
descriptions and tools for simulating energy transport, such as surface-to-surface and
participating media radiation.

Viscous Heating in a Fluid Damper: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Nonisothermal_Flow/fluid_damper

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections of the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Solver Settings

262 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

Also see The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces and Theory for the Heat Transfer
Module.

MODELING HEAT TRANSFER IN THE CFD MODULE | 263

 The Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar
Flow, Turbulent Flow and LES
Interfaces
In this section:

• Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface
• Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
• Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features
• Nonisothermal Flow
• Marangoni Effect

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces combine the heat
equation with either laminar flow or turbulent flow and use either a Heat Transfer in
Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids domain model. The advantage of using the multiphysics
interfaces is that predefined couplings are available in both directions. In particular,
physics interfaces use the same definition of the density, which can therefore be a
function of both pressure and temperature. Solving this coupled system of equations
usually requires numerical stabilization accounting for the couplings, which the
predefined multiphysics interfaces also set up.

See also Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling in the Heat Transfer
Module User’s Manual for more information.

264 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch
of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces
(laminar or turbulent flow) and Heat Transfer are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 • The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

• The LES RBVM interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with an
LES RBVM interface.

• The LES RBVMWV interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
an LES RBVMWV interface.

• The LES Smagorinsky interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface

with an LES Smagorinsky interface.

The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Heat Transfer and one of the
Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.

266 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 • The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( )combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Solids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Brinkman Equations Interface

When the Brinkman Equations multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, the Heat
Transfer in Porous Media and the Brinkman Equations interfaces are added to the Model
Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings may not be automatically included.

For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are added,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click this
node, you can add the Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature, but the modified settings
are not included. To get all the modified settings presented below automatically, you

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 may instead right-click the component node, select Add Multiphysics, and add the
Nonisothermal Flow coupling feature from the Add Multiphysics window.

TABLE 4-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES.

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Solids Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
A Heat Transfer in Fluids feature is added with a
default editable selection set to All domains. The
Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section) and
the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection section)
are automatically set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling
feature.
Heat Transfer in Fluids The Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section)
and the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection
section) are automatically set to the variables
from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are
preselected
The Compressibility option of the fluid flow
interface is set to Weakly Compressible for the
laminar and turbulent (RANS) flow interfaces
and to Incompressible for the LES interfaces.

Coupling Feature
The Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is described in this section.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

268 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS (NONISOTHERMAL FLOW)

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in the
section The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface. Also see Fluid in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS (CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER)

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in the
section The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. Also see Solid in the Heat Transfer
Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface are
listed in the section The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface. Also see Porous
Medium in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about that feature.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interfaceare listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , R E A L I Z A B L E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SPALART-ALLMARAS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, V2-F

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES RBVM
The available physics features for The LES RBVM Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES RBVMWV
The available physics features for The LES RBVMWV Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LES SMAGORINSKY
The available physics features for The LES Smagorinsky Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

270 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The available physics features for The Brinkman Equations Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface.

Nonisothermal Flow
Use the Nonisothermal Flow ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate fluid flows where
the fluid properties depend on temperature. Models can also include heat transfer in
solids or in porous media as well as surface-to-surface radiation and radiation in
participating media, with the Heat Transfer Module. The laminar and turbulent
(RANS) physics interface supports low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). The
LES interfaces only support incompressible flow.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface solves for conservation of energy, mass
and momentum in fluids and porous media and for conservation of energy in solids.

It defines p and u variables in order to set the Absolute pressure in the Model Input
section and the Velocity field in the Heat Convection section of the Fluid feature and
subfeature, in the Heat Transfer interface. In addition it provides all the fluids
quantities that may be needed by the Heat Transfer interface (for example, viscosity,
turbulence parameters).

In the Fluid Flow interface, it sets the Temperature in the Model Input section and
defines the Density in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties and Fluid and
Matrix Properties features.

It synchronizes also the definition of the reference temperature to be used for

incompressible flows, and the features from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow interfaces
when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Screen and Interior
Fan feature from the flow interface to account for thermal effects.

In addition, it also accounts for the multiphysics stabilization terms, for the heat
transfer changes in the turbulent regime (for example, thermal wall functions), for
work due to pressure forces and viscous dissipation, and for natural convection,
including a Boussinesq approximation.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer trigger pseudo time

stepping when Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form in the
Fluid Flow interface is set to Automatic from physics.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 The multiphysics stabilizations (streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion) are controlled by the Fluid Flow interface. For example, the
multiphysics streamline diffusion can be disabled in a Laminar Flow physics
node, in the Stabilization section. The stabilization selected in the Heat
Transfer physics interface has no effect if the multiphysics coupling
stabilization is active, but remains active if not. However, the isotropic
diffusion is not a multiphysics stabilization and is controlled by each
physics interface. The crosswind diffusion stabilization is turned off for
the LES interfaces.

Finally, when one of the physics interfaces or the multiphysics coupling is

not solved in a study step, then the stabilization of each solved physics is
used instead of the coupled stabilization, and the solver suggestions are
uncoupled.

The pressure, velocity, and temperature variables of the Nonisothermal

Flow coupling node are set to the Common Model Input values of the
Default Model Inputs node on its complementary selection, that is, all
domains except those from the Selection list. It allows to couple multiple
fluid flow interfaces with a single heat transfer interface. See Default
Model Inputs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitf1.

272 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 DOMAIN SELECTION
The Nonisothermal Flow coupling node selection is locked to the union of:

• The intersection of the Fluid or Moist Air feature’s selection with the Fluid Properties
feature’s selection.
• The intersection of the Porous Medium feature’s selection within the Heat Transfer
in Porous Media interface and the Porous Medium feature’s selection within the
Brinkman Equations interface.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created:

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Heat Transfer in
Fluids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple
to.

HEAT TRANSFER TURBULENCE MODEL

This section is available when the fluid flow interface uses a turbulence model. When
a RANS turbulence model is used, select an option from the Heat transport turbulence
model list: Kays-Crawford (the default), Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined
turbulent Prandtl number.

For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).

For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number PrT
(dimensionless).

When the flow interface uses a RANS turbulence model, the conductive heat flux is
defined as

q = – ( k + k T ) ∇T

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 with the turbulent thermal conductivity defined as

μT Cp
k T = --------------
Pr T

where μT is defined by the flow interface, and PrT depends on the Heat transport
turbulence model. See Turbulent Conductivity for details.

This section is also available when either of the LES interfaces RBVMWV or
Smagorinsky is used. For these two LES models, additional diffusion terms,
corresponding to the ones in the momentum equation, appear in the energy equation.
The magnitude of these terms can be controlled by a turbulent Prandtl number.

The Turbulence model type used by the fluid flow interface can be displayed by selecting
the Show or Hide Physics Property Settings button at the right of the Fluid flow list.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Boussinesq Approximation
When the Compressibility setting in the fluid flow interface is set to Incompressible,
select the Boussinesq approximation check box in order to use material data evaluated
at the reference temperature and reference pressure. If gravity is included in the
physics, it is linearized with respect to temperature.

Density
Select an option from the Specify density list: From heat transfer interface (the default),
From fluid flow interface, Custom, linearized density, or Custom:

• For From heat transfer interface: define the Density ρ in the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface. Depending on the
Fluid type option in this node, the density may bet taken from material, set directly,
or computed by using the ideal gas law. The same value is automatically set in the
Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled
interface.
• For From fluid flow interface: define the Density ρ in the Fluid Properties section of
the Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface. The same value is
automatically set in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat
Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, linearized density, enter the Reference density ρref (SI unit: kg/m3) and
the Coefficient of thermal expansion αp(SI unit:1/K), or select From material, or
select a variable in the list if available. Regardless how the properties are defined they

274 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 should be constant. If material properties are not constant you should consider
using any of the other options to define the density. Also, if Custom, linearized
density is used for incompressible flow, the density ρ is evaluated to ρref. In this case
αp is not used unless Boussinesq approximation is selected. The same value is
automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the Fluid Properties node, in the
Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid
node, in the Heat Transfer coupled interface.
• For Custom, enter a Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), or select a density in the list if
available. The same value is automatically set in the Fluid Properties section of the
Fluid Properties node, in the Fluid Flow coupled interface, and in the
Thermodynamics, Fluid section of the Fluid node, in the Heat Transfer coupled
interface.

See Fluid Properties and Fluid in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
details.

When the coupled heat transfer interface is also coupled to a phase transport interface
via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify density must be
set to From fluid flow interface.

The density definition in the Nonisothermal Flow node ensures that the same definition
of the density is used on the fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces. When Include gravity
is selected and the Compressibility is set to Incompressible flow in the fluid interface
properties, the gravity forces are defined using the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Along with the fact that the material properties are evaluated for a constant
temperature and pressure, this gravity force definition corresponds to Boussinesq
approximation. Unless the density is defined as Custom, linearized density the
coefficient of thermal expansion is evaluated from the fluid density.

Reference Temperature
Select an option from the Specify reference temperature list — From heat transfer
interface, From fluid flow interface (the default), or User defined.

For From heat transfer interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in the
Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Heat transfer list of the Coupled
Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Fluid flow interface is
synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.

For From fluid flow interface, set the Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) in the
Physical Model section of the interface selected in the Fluid flow list of the Coupled

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 Interfaces section. The Reference temperature input in the Heat transfer interface is
synchronized to the same value or expression, and is not editable.

For User defined, set a value or expression. The Reference temperature inputs in the
Physical Model sections of the Heat transfer and Fluid flow interfaces are synchronized
to the same value or expression, and are not editable.

When the coupled heat transfer interface is also coupled to a phase transport interface
via the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, Specify reference
temperature must be set to From fluid flow interface.

FLOW HEATING
The Include viscous dissipation check box is selected by default to account for the heat
source corresponding to viscous heating. Because it may induce an extra
computational cost it should be only selected in application where such effect is
expected. If no information on this is available, selecting the option ensures that the
energy balance for the heat and the flow equation is respected.

When an interface is selected from the Heat transfer list, some of its model
inputs are forced with values from the Nonisothermal Flow node. In
addition, it defines how the turbulence has to be accounted for,
depending on the Fluid flow interface’s turbulence settings.

Therefore, each fluid flow interface should be used in at most one

Nonisothermal Flow node. In cases where multiple fluid flow interfaces are
used, they can be coupled with a single heat transfer interface, using an
equal number of Nonisothermal Flow nodes to define proper multiphysics
couplings. In the Heat transfer interface, the inputs for pressure and
velocity are then taken from the first Nonisothermal Flow node.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

276 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 See also Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat
Transfer Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Manual for more
information.

Marangoni Effect
The Marangoni Effect multiphysics coupling ( ) accounts for Marangoni convection.
Marangoni convection occurs when the surface tension of a fluid-fluid interface
(generally liquid-air) depends on the concentration of a species or on the temperature
distribution. In the case of temperature dependence, the Marangoni effect is also called
thermo-capillary convection. It is of primary importance in the fields of welding,
crystal growth, and electron beam melting of metals.

The Marangoni effect is a shear stress that depends on the tangential and normal
variations of surface tension with temperature gradient. It has the following
contribution described by forces induced on the fluid/fluid interface:

T 2
– pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = σ ( ∇ t ⋅ n )n – ∇ t σ
3

where σ is the surface tension coefficient (N/m). The first term on the right-hand-side
accounts for the normal forces related to curvature effects, while the second term
stands for tangential forces. Note that this formulation is intended for laminar flow
regimes only.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mar1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

SURFACE TENSION
Select a Surface tension coefficient type: Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface, or User
defined (the default).

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface choose an option from the Library surface
tension coefficient list.
• For User defined enter a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

CONTACT ANGLE
The attachment angle between the fluid/fluid interface and the adjacent walls can be
specified in this section.

Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI unit:
J/m2).

278 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER, LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND LES INTERFACES
 Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow
and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces
• The Boussinesq Approximation
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition
• References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

In industrial applications it is common that the density of a process fluid varies. These
variations can have a number of different sources but the most common one is the
presence of an inhomogeneous temperature field. This module includes the
Nonisothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate systems in which
the density varies with temperature.

Other situations where the density might vary includes chemical reactions, for instance
where reactants associate or dissociate.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces contain the fully
compressible formulation of the continuity and momentum equations:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
(4-1)
∂u
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
∂t  3 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

280 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)
• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is given by

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + τ:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (4-2)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where in addition to the quantities above

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kgK))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s)
1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

• Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)

The work done by pressure changes term

∂p 1 ∂ρ
α p T  ------ + u ⋅ ∇ p with α p = – --- ------- .
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p

and the viscous heating term

τ:S

are often negligible. The pressure work term is included by default, while the viscous
heating term is optional. The latter can be accounted for by selecting the
corresponding check-box in the Nonisothermal Flow feature. Observe that the
pressure in the pressure work term always is the absolute pressure even if a reduced
pressure is used in the momentum equation. For a detailed discussion of the
fundamentals of heat transfer in fluids, see Ref. 3.

The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids:

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 281
 ∂T
ρC p ------- = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + Q + Q ted
∂t

where Qted is the thermoelastic damping heat source (SI unit: W/(m3)). This term is
not included by default but must be added by selecting corresponding check-box.

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Manual.
• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces

Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory

Turbulent energy transport is conceptually more complicated than energy transport in
laminar flows since the turbulence is also a form of energy.

Equations for compressible turbulence are derived using the Favre average. The Favre
˜
average of a variable T is denoted T and is defined by

˜ ρT
T = -------
ρ

where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as

˜
T = T + T''

With this notation the equation for total internal energy, e, becomes

˜ ˜ u˜ i u˜ i ρu i''u i''
∂-----   ˜ u i u i ρu i''u i'' ------ ∂
ρ e + ----------- + ------------------- + -  ρũ j  h˜ + ----------- + u˜ j ------------------- =
∂t   2  2  ∂x j  2  2
(4-3)
∂ ρu j''u i''u i'' ∂ ˜
-------  – q j – ρu j''h'' + τ ij u i'' – --------------------------
- + ------- ( u i ( τ ij – ρu i''u j'' ) )
∂x j  2  ∂x j

where h is the enthalpy. The vector

∂T
q j = – λ ------- (4-4)
∂x j

282 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

is the laminar conductive heat flux and

2 ∂u k
τ ij = 2μS ij – --- μ --------- δ ij
3 ∂x k

is the laminar, viscous stress tensor. Notice that the thermal conductivity is denoted λ.

The modeling assumptions are in large part analogous to those for incompressible
turbulence modeling. The stress tensor

– ρu i''u'' j

is modeled using the Boussinesq approximation:

˜ ˜
1 ∂u k  2
– ρu i''u'' j = ρτ T ij = 2μ T  S ij – --- --------- δ ij – --- ρkδ ij (4-5)
 3 ∂x k  3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn is defined by

1
ρk = --- ρu i''u i'' (4-6)
2

The correlation between u j'' and h'' in Equation 4-3 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is modeled analogously to the laminar conductive heat flux

˜ μ T C p ∂T ˜
∂T
ρu j''h'' = q T j = – λ T ------- = – -------------- ------- (4-7)
∂x j Pr T ∂x j

The molecular diffusion term,

τ ij u i''

and turbulent transport term,

ρu j''u i''u i'' ⁄ 2

are modeled by a generalization of the molecular diffusion and turbulent transport

terms found in the incompressible k equation

ρu j''u i''u i'' μ T ∂k

τ ij u i'' – --------------------------- =  μ + ------ ------- (4-8)
2  σ k  ∂x j

Inserting Equation 4-4 through Equation 4-8 into Equation 4-3 gives

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 283
 ˜ ˜ u˜ i u˜ i
∂-----   ˜ u i u i ∂
ρ e + ----------- + k  + -------  ρũ j  h˜ + ----------- + k  =
∂t   2   ∂x j   2 
(4-9)
∂ μ T ∂k  ∂ ˜
-------  – q j – q T j +  μ + ------ ------- + ------- ( u ( τ + ρτ T ij ) )
∂x j   σ k  ∂x j ∂x j i ij

The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 4-5, can be written

∂----- ∂ ∂p ∂
( ρũ i ) + ------- ( ρũ j u˜ i ) = – ------- + ------- ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) (4-10)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

Taking the inner product between u˜ i and Equation 4-10 results in an equation for the
resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 4-9 with the following
result:

∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j
( ρ ( e˜ + k ) ) + ------- ( ρũ j ( e˜ + k ) ) = – p -------- +
∂t ∂x j ∂x j
(4-11)
∂ - μ T ∂k ∂
------
 – q j – q T j +  μ + ------ ------- + ------- ( u˜ i ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) )
∂x j  σ k  ∂x j ∂x j

where the relation

h˜ = e˜ + p ⁄ ρ

has been used.

According to Wilcox (Ref. 1), it is usually a good approximation to neglect the

contributions of k for flows with Mach numbers up to the supersonic range. This gives
the following approximation of Equation 4-11 is

∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j ∂ ∂
( ρẽ ) + ------- ( ρũ j e˜ ) = – p -------- + ------- ( – q j – q T j ) + ------- ( u˜ i ( τ ij + ρτ T ij ) ) (4-12)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j

Larsson (Ref. 2) suggests to make the split

τ ij = τ̃ ij + τ ij''

Since

284 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 τ̃ ij » τ ij''

for all applications of engineering interest, it follows that

τ ij ≈ τ̃ ij

and consequently

˜
∂----- ∂ ∂u˜ j ∂  ∂T  ∂
( ρẽ ) + ------- ( ρũ j e˜ ) = – p -------- + -------  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + ------- ( u˜ i τ̃ ij
Tot
) (4-13)
∂t ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j  ∂x j ∂x j

where

 ˜ ˜
Tot 2 ∂u k 
τ̃ ij = ( μ + μ T )  2S ij – --- --------- δ ij
 3 ∂x k 

Equation 4-13 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation and can be
expanded using the same theory (see for example Ref. 3):

 ∂T ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
∂T  ∂  ∂T  ˜ T ∂ρ ∂p ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u˜ j ------- = -------  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + τ̃ ij S ij – ---- -------  ------ + u˜ j -------
 ∂ t ∂ x j ∂ x j ∂ x j ρ ∂T ˜ ∂ t ∂ xj
p

which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.

TURBULENT CONDUCTIVITY

Kays-Crawford
This is a relatively exact model for PrT, while still quite simple. In Ref. 4, it is compared
to other models for PrT and found to be a good approximation for most kinds of
turbulent wall bounded flows except for turbulent flow of liquid metals. The model is
given by

 1 0.3 C p μ T Cp μT 2  –1
Pr T =  ----------------- + ------------------ -------------- –  0.3 -------------- ( 1 – e –λ ⁄ ( 0.3C p μT Pr T∞ ) )
 (4-14)
 2Pr T∞ Pr T∞ λ  λ  

where the Prandtl number at infinity is PrT∞ = 0.85 and λ is the conductivity.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 285
 Extended Kays-Crawford
Weigand and others (Ref. 5) suggested an extension of Equation 4-14 to liquid metals
by introducing

100λ
Pr T∞ = 0.85 + -------------------------------
-
C p μRe ∞0.888

where Re∞, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.

TEMPERATURE CONDITION FOR AUTOMATIC WALL TREATMENT AND

WALL FUNCTIONS
Both automatic wall treatment and wall functions introduce a theoretical gap between
the solid wall and the computational domain for the fluid and temperature fields. See
Wall Boundary Conditions described for The Algebraic yPlus Turbulence Model and
The k-ε Turbulence Model). This theoretical gap applies also to the temperature fields
but is most often ignored when the computational geometry is drawn.

The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:

ρC p u * ( T w – T f )
q wf = -----------------------------------------
-
T+

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, u∗ is the friction velocity given
by the wall treatment (u∗ for two-equation RANS models with automatic wall
treatment and uτ for all other cases). T+ is the dimensionless temperature and is given
by (Ref. 6):

+
Prδ w for δ w
+ < δ+
w1

 15Pr 2 / 3 – 500
---------- + ≤ δ+ < δ+
for δ w1
T+ =  δ +2  w w2
w
Pr T
--------- lnδ w
+ +β for δ w2
+ ≤ δ+
κ w

where in turn

286 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k 10 -
+ = ------------------------------
δw + = ------------
δ w1
μ Pr 1 / 3
κ Cp μ
+ = 10 10 --------
δ w2 - Pr = ----------
Pr T λ
Pr T κ
β = 15Pr 2 / 3 – ---------  1 + ln  1000 --------- 
2κ Pr T

λ is the thermal conductivity, and κ is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41.

The distance between the computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is always hw/2
for automatic wall treatment where hw is the height of the mesh cell adjacent to the
wall. hw/2 is almost always very small compared to any geometrical quantity of interest,
at least if a boundary layer mesh is used. For wall functions, δw is at least hw/2 and can
be bigger if necessary to keep δw+ higher than 11.06. So the computational results for
wall functions should be checked so that the distance between the computational fluid
domain and the wall, δw, is everywhere small compared to any geometrical quantity of
interest. The distance δw is available for evaluation on boundaries.

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces

The current versions of the Nonisothermal Flow, LES interfaces only support
incompressible flow. When gravity is active in the model, buoyancy effects may be
taken into account using The Boussinesq Approximation. For large eddy simulations
(LES) of nonisothermal flow, the temperature field is divided up into resolved and
unresolved scales, T + T' in the same way as is done for the velocity and pressure fields
(see Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces). For incompressible flow, the
energy equation can be projected onto the resolved scales, w, producing the following
weak form equation,

∂T-
 w, ρC ------
 p ∂t  + ( ∇w, K ∇T ) Ω – ( w, τ:S + Q ) Ω + ( w, q ) ∂Ω =
Ω (4-15)
( ∇w, ρC p ( uT + uT' + u'T + u'T' ) ) Ω

where q is the inward heat flux on the boundary ∂Ω of the spatial domain Ω . The
unresolved temperature scales are modeled in terms of the residual to the energy
equation and the intrinsic time-scale,

T' = – τ e res e (4-16)

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 287
 with,

∂T
res e = ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇T – ∇ ⋅ ( K ∇T ) – τ:S – Q
 ∂t 
1 (4-17)
τ e = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C 1 ρC
 -----------------p
2
2 2
- + 4ρ C p2 u ⋅ Gu + C 4 K G:G
 Δt 

Here, C4 is a constant depending on the shape of the element and G is the covariant
metric tensor.

For the RBVMWV LES models, an additional heat-diffusion term is added to the
right-hand side of the energy equation,

˜
ρC p C u' h
– (∇w, ---------------------------- ∇T) (4-18)
Pr T Ω

For the Smagorinsky LES model, the last term on the right-hand side is replaced by,

ρC p C s S
– (∇w, -------------------------------------- ( ∇T – ∇T )) (4-19)
2Pr T trace ( G ) Ω

For further details, see Theory for the Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces.

TEMPERATURE CONDITION FOR AUTOMATIC WALL TREATMENT

When automatic wall treatment is applied in an LES model, a flux condition is imposed
for the temperature equation. The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and
a wall with temperature Tw, is,

ρC p u τ ( T w – T f )
q wf = ----------------------------------------
-
T+

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, u τ is the friction velocity and
T+ is the dimensionless temperature, given by,

+ +
T = Prδ w
+
for δ w < δ w
* , and,

288 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 + Pr T +
* + --------
T = Prδ w * ) 2 + 2κ ( δ + – δ * ) )
- log ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
κ w w


  + * ) 2 – 1 )
 ( 2Pr T – Pr ) ( 1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
- tan-1  -------- - , Pr ≥ Pr T
Pr
 ---------------------------- - – 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------
  Pr T + 
Pr
κ --------- – 1  2κ ( δ – δ *)

 Pr T
w w


–  + * ) 2 – 1 )
Pr- (----------------------------------------------------------------
1 + 4κ 2 ( δ w – δ w
  1 + 1 – -------- -
 ( 2Pr T – Pr )  Pr T 2κ ( δ
+
– δ *) 
 ------------------------------ log  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
w w  , Pr < Pr
 Pr  + 2  T
 2κ 1 – ---------  Pr ( 1 + 4κ ( δ w – δ w ) – 1 ) 
2 *
 Pr T  1 – 1 – --------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- -
  Pr T +
2κ ( δ – δ * )
w w



+
for δ w ≥ δ w
* , where,

---  1 + log  ------

* = 1 E 
δw
κ  4κ 

E and κ are the L-VEL parameters used in the automatic wall treatment expressions
(see Automatic Wall Treatment).

The Boussinesq Approximation

The Boussinesq approximation assumes that density variations only contribute to
buoyancy effects, of which thermal effects are considered herein

ρ = ρ0 ( 1 – αp ( T0 ) ( T – T0 ) ) (4-20)

where ρ0, α and T0 are constants and T is the temperature. Constant temperature and
pressure are assumed when evaluating all other material properties. Provided that αp
and T − T0 are small enough, Equation 4-1 and Equation 4-2 reduce to

ρ0 ∇ ⋅ u = 0
∂u
ρ 0 ------- + ρ 0 u ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + μ 0 ∇ ⋅ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) + F (4-21)
∂t
∂T
ρ 0 C p0  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = ( ∇ ⋅ K 0 ∇T ) + τ:S + Q
 ∂t 

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 289
 where K0 is the constant thermal conductivity.

The Boussinesq approximation is commonly used to simulate buoyancy-driven flows.

In this case

F = ( ρ 0 + Δρ )g = – ρ 0 ( 1 – α p ( T 0 ) ( T – T 0 ) )g (4-22)

where g is the gravity vector. A further useful simplification is possible by writing

Equation 4-22 in terms of a potential, Φ:

F = – ∇ ( ρ 0 Φ ) + Δρg

The first part can be canceled out by splitting the true pressure, p, into a hydrodynamic
component, P, and a hydrostatic component, −ρ0Φ such that P = p + ρ0Φ. This
reduced Equation 4-21 to:

ρ0 ∇ ⋅ u = 0
∂u
ρ 0 ------- + ρ 0 u ⋅ ∇u = – ∇P + μ 0 ∇ ⋅ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) + ρ 0 α p ( T 0 ) ( T – T 0 )g(4-23)
∂t
∂T
ρ 0 C p0  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = ( ∇ ⋅ K 0 ∇T ) + τ:S + Q
 ∂t 

The gravity force is added on the form given by Equation 4-22 if Include gravity is
selected in the fluid flow interface. The form in Equation 4-23 is obtained when
selecting the Use reduced pressure option.

When an LES turbulence model is applied, an additional contribution,

ρ 0 α p ( T 0 )T'g

is added to the buoyancy force in Equation 4-22 and Equation 4-23. See Theory for
the Nonisothermal Flow, LES Interfaces for more information.

The main assumption in the Boussinesq approximation is that the density fluctuations
must be small; that is, Δρ/ρ0 << 1. There are also some more subtle constraints that,
for example, make the Boussinesq approximation unsuitable for systems of very large
dimensions. It can also be observed the energy equation in Equation 4-23 retains both
the viscous heating term and the pressure work term. These can, however, almost
always be neglected in situations when the Boussinesq approximation is valid (see, for
example, Ref. 7). But there are situations where they need to be retained (Ref. 8). In
particular, the pressure work term can be of importance for liquids where Cp ≠ Cv

290 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

(Ref. 9). An excellent discussion of the Boussinesq approximation and its limitations
appears in Chapter 14 of Ref. 7.

Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across a screen in isothermal flow are complemented by:

[ H 0 ] -+ = 0 (4-24)

where H0 is the total enthalpy.

• See Screen for the feature node details.

• Also see Screen Boundary Condition described for the single-phase
flow interfaces.

Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the temperature
field is discontinuous over the fan and the conditions that apply across an interior fan
are complemented by:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined by:

 

 up ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   down ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

• If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined
by:

 

 down ( u ⋅ nρC p ) dS T avg =
   up ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) dS
Γ Γ

References for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces
1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW AND CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES | 291
 2. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat
Transfer, Doctoral Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.

3. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

4. W.M. Kays, “Turbulent Prandtl Number — Where Are We?”, ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, vol. 116, pp. 284–295, 1994.

5. B. Weigand, J.R. Ferguson, and M.E. Crawford, “An Extended Kays and Crawford
Turbulent Prandtl Number Model”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 40, no. 17,
pp. 4191–4196, 1997.

6. D. Lacasse, È. Turgeon, and D. Pelletier, “On the Judicious Use of the k-ε Model,
Wall Functions and Adaptivity”, Int. J. Thermal Sciences, vol. 43, pp. 925–938, 2004.

7. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Clarendon Press, 1988.

8. D.D. Gray and A. Giorgini, “The Validity of the Boussinesq Approximation for
Liquids and Gases”, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 19, pp. 545–551, 1967.

9. P.G. Drazin and W.H. Reid, Hydrodynamic stability, Cambridge University Press,
1981.

292 | CHAPTER 4: HEAT TRANSFER AND NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

 5

High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

This chapter discusses physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>High Mach
Number Flow branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

• The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow Interfaces
• The Compressible Euler Equations Interface
• Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

293
 The High Mach Number Flow
Interfaces
There are three versions of the same predefined multiphysics interface (all with the
name hmnf) that combine the heat equation with either the laminar or turbulent flow
equations. The advantage of using the multiphysics interfaces — compared to adding
the individual physics interfaces separately — is that a set of two-way couplings has
been predefined. In particular, the physics interfaces use the same definition of the
density, which can therefore be a function of both pressure and temperature. Solving
this coupled system of equations usually requires numerical stabilization, which the
predefined multiphysics interface also sets up.

These physics interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 5-1) or
selections from check boxes or lists under the Physical Model and Turbulence sections
for the physics interface.
TABLE 5-1: THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME TURBULENCE TURBULENCE HEAT

MODEL TYPE MODEL TRANSPORT
TURBULENCE
MODEL

High Mach Number Flow, hmnf None N/A N/A

Laminar
High Mach Number Flow, hmnf RANS k-ε Kays-Crawford
k-ε
High Mach Number Flow, hmnf RANS Spalart-Allmaras Kays-Crawford
Spalart- Allmaras

Most of the other physics nodes share the same setting options as
described in this section and in Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair
Nodes for the High Mach Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent
Interfaces. See also The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface in the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide for details about the Heat Transfer in
Solids physics node.

294 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 • The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface
• Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the Fluid
Flow>High Mach Number Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to
model gas flows at low and moderate Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude
is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, laminar flows in the transonic and
supersonic range. This state is often connected to very low pressures.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass and momentum. The
interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation.

This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Laminar

Flow interface, applied to compressible flow, in combination with a Heat Transfer
interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 295

 TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By definition, no turbulence model is needed when studying laminar flows. The
default is None. See The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface or The High Mach
Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface for the settings if RANS is chosen as the
Turbulence model type.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The names can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic calculates the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) from a built-in expression. For Manual enter a Local CFL number
CFLloc.

By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach
Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to

296 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

model gas flows at high Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude is comparable
to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in the transonic and supersonic range.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and momentum.
Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation k-ε model with
realizability constraints. Flow and heat transfer close to walls are modeled using wall
functions. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as
surface-to-surface radiation.

This is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Turbulent Flow k-ε interface,

applied to compressible flow, in combination with a heat transfer interface. As shown
in Table 5-1, the turbulent versions of the physics interfaces differ by where they are
selected when adding a physics interface and the default turbulence model selected —
k-ε for this physics interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is k-ε, and the
default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford. Alternatively, select
User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl number model describes
the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature field. It is always
possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl number. Enter the
user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number in the Model Inputs
section of the Fluid feature node.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 297

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Edit the model parameters of the k-ε model as needed. Turbulence model parameters
are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the
turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent
dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3) variables are also available.

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the
High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface,
is used to model gas flows at high Reynolds number where the velocity magnitude is
comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in the transonic and
supersonic range.

The physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and momentum.
Turbulence effects are modeled using the one-equation Spalart-Allmaras turbulence
model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which
means that it resolves the velocity, pressure, and temperature fields all the way down
to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. It also supports heat
transfer in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation.

298 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

This is a predefined multiphysics coupling consisting of a Turbulent Flow,
Spalart-Allmaras interface, applied to compressible flow, in combination with a Heat
Transfer interface. As shown in Table 5-1, the turbulent versions of the physics
interfaces differ by where they are selected when adding a physics interface and the
default Turbulence model selected — Spalart-Allmaras for this physics interface.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid, Wall, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions,
volume forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the node to select physics
features from the context menu.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is
Spalart-Allmaras., and the default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford.
Alternatively, select User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl
number model describes the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature
field. It is always possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl
number. Enter the user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number
in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid feature node.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m) and Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s) variables are also available.

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

Transonic Flow in a Sajben Diffuser: Application Library path

CFD_Module/High_Mach_Number_Flow/sajben_diffuser

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 299

 Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
The High Mach Number Flow Interfaces has these domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

The following nodes are slightly different from those in the other physics interfaces and
are described in this section (listed in alphabetical order):

• Continuity • Inlet
• Fluid • Outlet
• Initial Values • Symmetry

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• Volume Force • Interior Wall

• Wall • Pressure Point Constraint

The Interior Wall feature requires appropriate conditions for the

temperature. Use a Thermal Insulation or Temperature node together
with Interior Wall to get appropriate boundary conditions for all the flow
and heat variables.

For The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface, the same nodes are selected from
the Turbulent Flow, k-ε submenus. For The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface, the same nodes are selected from the Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
submenus.

300 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The following physics nodes and subnodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described
for the Heat Transfer interfaces in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide.
Additional features can also be available when you have additional licenses:

• Boundary Heat Source • Point Heat Source

• Heat Flux • Diffuse Surface (Surface-to-Surface
• Heat Source Radiation Interface)

• Solid • Temperature

• Line Heat Source • Thermal Insulation

• Periodic Condition (Heat Transfer • Thin Layer (Heat Transfer Interface)

Interface) and Solid (Heat Transfer in Shells
Interface)

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Continuity
The Continuity node can be added to pair boundaries. It prescribes that the flow and
temperature fields are continuous across the boundary. Flow characteristics at the
boundary, described in Plane Wave Analysis of Inviscid Flow, are utilized to implement
the continuity of the flow and temperature fields. When added to pair boundaries, the
Continuity feature is applicable where the boundaries match, that is, when the source
boundary has a corresponding destination boundary and vice-versa. Elsewhere in the
pair boundaries, the Fallback feature is activated.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair to apply this condition to.
A pair must be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 301

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field, the pressure and the
temperature that can serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver. For turbulent flow there are also initial values for the
turbulence model variables. The surface radiosity is only applicable for
surface-to-surface radiation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s),
the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default values are
0 m/s for the velocity, 1 atm for the pressure, and 293.15 K for the temperature.

In a turbulent flow interface, initial values for the turbulence variables are also
specified. By default these are specified using the predefined variables defined by the
expressions described in Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces under
Initial Values.

Fluid
The Fluid node adds the continuity, momentum and temperature equations for an ideal
gas but omits volume forces and heat sources. Volume forces and heat sources can be
added as separate physics features. Viscous heating and pressure work terms are added
by default to the temperature equation.

When the turbulence model type is set to RANS, the Fluid node also adds the equations
for k and ε, or the undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity, depending on the
turbulence model used.

The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q and
the temperature gradient ∇T as in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

HEAT CONDUCTION
Select a Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) from the list — Sutherland’s Law
(the default), From material, or User defined. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter
another value or expression in the field or matrix.

302 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Sutherland’s Law
For Sutherland’s Law enter the following model parameters:

• Conductivity at reference temperature kref (SI unit: W/(m·K))

• Reference temperature Tk,ref (SI unit: K)
• Sutherland constant Sk (SI unit: K)
Sutherland’s law describes the relationship between the thermal conductivity and the
total temperature of an ideal fluid according to

T 3 / 2 T k, ref + S k
k = k ref  -------------- ---------------------------
 T k, ref T + Sk

THERMODYNAMICS
The High Mach Number Flow interface is applicable for ideal gases. Specify the
thermodynamics properties by selecting a gas constant type and selecting between
entering the heat capacity at constant pressure or the ratio of specific heats. For an ideal
gas the density is defined as

Mn pA pA
ρ = ---------------- = -----------
RT Rs T

where pA is the absolute pressure, and T is the temperature.

• Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). The default setting is to use the property value
From material. For User defined enter another value or expression for either material
property. For Mean molar mass the universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K),
which is a built-in physical constant, is also used.

• From the Specify Cp or γ list, select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp

(SI unit: J/(kg·K)) or Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless). The default setting is
to use the property value From material. For User defined enter another value or
expression for either material property.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid.

Select a Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) from the list — Sutherland’s Law (the
default), From material, or User defined.

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 303

 Sutherland’s Law
For Sutherland’s Law enter the following model parameters:

• Dynamic viscosity at reference temperature μref (SI unit: Pa·s)

• Reference temperature Tμ,ref (SI unit: K)
• Sutherland constant Sμ (SI unit: K)

Sutherland’s law describes the relationship between the dynamic viscosity and the total
temperature of an ideal fluid according to

T 3 / 2 T μ, ref + S μ
μ = μ ref  -------------- ---------------------------
 T μ, ref T + Sμ

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

This section is available for the Turbulent Flow, k-ε model.

The k-ε turbulence model needs an upper limit on the mixing length to be numerically
robust. Select a Mixing length limit — Automatic (the default) or Manual.

• For Automatic this limit is automatically evaluated as:

lim = 0.5l
l mix (5-1)
bb

where lbb is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is a
complicated system of very slender entities, for example, Equation 5-1 tends to give
lim manually.
a result that is too large. In such cases, define l mix
lim (SI unit: m).
• For Manual enter a value or expression for the Mixing length limit l mix

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras since a Wall Distance
interface is then included.

Select how the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is defined — Automatic (default)
or Manual:

• For Automatic the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually quite accurate but it can
sometimes give a too high value if the geometry consists of several slim entities. In
such cases, define the reference length scale manually.
• For Manual it defines a different value or expression for the length scale. The default
is 1 m.

304 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

lref controls the result of the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than lref
are effectively be diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.

Inlet
The Inlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid flow and
temperature conditions at an inlet. The applied conditions are controlled by the Flow
Condition.

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Characteristics based (the default) or Supersonic.

For Characteristics based the current flow situation is analyzed using the inviscid flow
characteristics at the inlet. This can be used to specify either a subsonic (Ma < 1) inlet
or a supersonic inlet (Ma > 1).

For Supersonic the inlet flow is assumed to be supersonic.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Specify the flow properties at the inlet in terms of the static or total pressure, static or
total temperature, Mach number, and flow direction. By default Static input variables
are used.

Select an Input state — Static (the default) or Total. For either selection also enter
values or expressions for the Mach number Ma0 (dimensionless) at the inlet. The default
is 1.5.

• For Static enter values or expressions for the Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa) and
Static temperature T0,stat (SI unit: K).
• For Total enter values or expressions for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa) and
Total temperature T0,tot (SI unit: K).

The relationships between the static and total states are:

γ
-----------
p tot  γ–1 2 γ–1
- = 1 + ----------- Ma 
---------
p stat  2  (5-2)
T tot 
- = 1 + γ----------- Ma 
–1 2
----------
T stat  2 

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 305

 Select a Flow direction — Normal inflow (the default) or User defined to specify an
arbitrary flow direction. Then enter the components of the direction normal nM
(dimensionless).

TURBULENCE PROPERTIES
This section displays when RANS is selected as Turbulence model type.

Using a turbulence model, specify the turbulence properties at an inlet. For the
Turbulent Flow, k-ε model, specify turbulence quantities according to one of the
following options:

• Select Specify turbulence length scale and intensity to enter values or expressions for
the Turbulent intensity IT (dimensionless) and Turbulence length scale LT
(SI unit: m). IT and LT values are related to the turbulence variables via

3 2 3 ⁄ 4 k3 / 2
k = --- ( U I T ) , ε = Cμ -----------
2 LT

• For Specify turbulence variables enter values or expressions for the Turbulent kinetic
energy k0 (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0 (SI unit: m2/s3).

For The High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface, enter a

value or expression for the Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 (SI
unit: m2/s).

For background on the derivation and implementation of the conditions,

see Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.

Outlet
The Outlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid flow and
temperature conditions at an outlet. The applied conditions are controlled by the Flow
Condition.

306 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Hybrid (the default), Supersonic, or Subsonic.

• Using a Hybrid condition, both subsonic (Ma < 1) and supersonic flow (Ma > 1)
conditions at the outlet are supported.
• Select Supersonic when the flow at the outlet is known to be supersonic.
• Select Subsonic when the flow at the outlet is known to be subsonic.

FLOW PROPERTIES
This section displays when the Hybrid or Subsonic flow condition is selected.

Hybrid
For Hybrid an outlet pressure is specified. This pressure is enforced at the outlet when
the flow is subsonic. Select an Input state — Static (the default) or Total. The relation
between the static and total pressure is defined in Equation 5-2.

• For Static enter a value or expression for the Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa). The
default is 1 atm.
• For Total enter a value or expression for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa). The
default is 1 atm.

Subsonic
For Subsonic select the Boundary condition — Normal Stress (the default) or Pressure.
Then enter a value or expression for the Normal stress f0 (SI unit: N/m2) or Pressure
p0 (SI unit: Pa). The defaults are 1 atm for both.

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no heat flux, no penetration and
vanishing shear stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of Dirichlet
conditions and a Neumann condition.

q ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ n = 0,   – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3  

THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 307

 These conditions correspond to the ones for the Single-Phase Flow,
Laminar Flow interface. See Inlet and Outlet.

For a background on the derivation and implementation of the

conditions, see Theory for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces.

Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier-Stokes equations is

not a trivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at
an outflow boundary, extend the computational domain to include this
phenomenon.

308 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow Interfaces
The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow branch, found under the Fluid
Flow>High Mach Number Flow branch ( ), contains three variations of the same
predefined multiphysics interface (all with the name hmnf) for modeling gas flows
where one or more of the boundaries rotate in a periodic fashion and the velocity
magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound in the gas; that is, it flows in the
transonic and supersonic range. The High Mach Number Flow, Laminar ( ) and High
Mach Number Flow, Turbulent ( ) versions can be found under the High Mach Number
Flow>Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow branch ( ), when adding a physics
interface. The physics interfaces can be used to model high-speed turbomachinery
equipment.

The physics interfaces support Sutherland’s law for Thermal conductivity and Dynamic
viscosity as the default option.

• Moving Mesh
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Moving Mesh
The Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow interfaces rely on ALE (arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian) moving mesh functionality for their rotating domain
implementation.

ROTATING DOMAINS
When a Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow interface is added using the Model
Wizard, a Rotating Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder under the
Definitions>Moving Mesh node. It contains settings for specifying the rotation of one or
several domains. By default, All domains are selected. Under the Rotating Domain, you

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 309

 can exclude any non-rotating fluid domains. For both 3D and 2D components, the
Rotation type should be set to Specified rotational velocity.

Select a Rotational velocity expression — General revolutions per time (the default),
Constant revolutions per time, General angular velocity, or Constant angular velocity.

• For Constant revolutions per time, or General revolutions per time, enter a value or
expression respectively in the Revolutions per time input field and optionally an Initial
angle. The angular velocity in this case is defined as the input multiplied by 2π.
• For Constant angular velocity, or General angular velocity enter a value or an
expression respectively in the Angular velocity input field and optionally an Initial
angle.

3D Components
For 3D components, select the Rotation axis base point, rax. The default is the origin.
Select the Rotation axis, urot, the z-axis is the default. If the x-axis is selected, it
corresponds to a rotational axis (1, 0, 0) with the origin as the base point, and
correspondingly for the y-axis and z-axis.

2D Components
For 2D components, enter coordinates for the Rotation axis base point, rax. The
default is the origin (0, 0).

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface

The Laminar Flow version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow (hmnf)
interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas flows in geometries with one or
more rotating parts and gas at low and moderate Reynolds number where the velocity
magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, laminar flows in the transonic
and supersonic range. This state is often connected to very low pressures. The physics
interface is available for 3D and 2D components and it combines the High Mach Number
Flow, Laminar interface ( ), with a Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and
momentum. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well as

310 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent to pair boundaries
are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, Laminar — Fluid, Initial Values, Wall
and Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity node is
automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement,
for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You can also
right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See Moving
Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the Model
Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By definition, no turbulence model is needed when studying laminar flows. The
default is None. See The High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface or The High Mach
Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras Interface for the settings if RANS is chosen as the
Turbulence model type.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The names can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 311

 ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic calculates the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) from a built-in expression. For Manual enter a Local CFL number
CFLloc.

By default the Enable conversions between material and spatial frames check box is
selected.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k- ε Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k-ε version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow
(hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating Machinery,
High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas flows in
geometries with one or more rotating parts and gas at high Reynolds number where
the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent flows in
the transonic and supersonic range. The physics interface is available for 3D and 2D
components and it combines the High Mach Number Flow, k-ε interface ( ), with a
Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. In both types, the physics interface solves for conservation of energy, mass, and
momentum. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation k-ε
model with realizability constraints. Flow and heat transfer close to walls are modeled

312 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

using wall functions. The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids as well
as surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent to pair
boundaries are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, k-ε — Fluid, Initial Values, Wall and
Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity node is
automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement,
for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You can also
right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See Moving
Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the Model
Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is hmnf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Reference temperature Tref is used to define the reference enthalpy Href which is
set to 0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is k-ε, and the
default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford. Alternatively, select
User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl number model describes
the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature field. It is always
possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl number. Enter the
user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number in the Model Inputs
section of the Fluid node.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Edit the model parameters of the k-ε model as needed. Turbulence model parameters
are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but for some special cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 313

 turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and Turbulent
dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3) variables are also available.

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
Interface

Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras

Interface
The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras version of the Rotating Machinery, High Mach
Number Flow (hmnf) interface ( ), found under the High Mach Number Flow>Rotating
Machinery, High Mach Number Flow>Turbulent Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate gas
flows in geometries with one or more rotating parts and gas at high Reynolds number
where the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed of sound, that is, turbulent
flows in the transonic and supersonic range.The physics interface is available for 3D
and 2D components and it combines the High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
interface ( ), with a Rotating Domain under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

There are two study types available for this physics interface. Using the Time Dependent
study type, rotation is achieved through moving mesh functionality, also known as
sliding mesh. Using the Frozen Rotor study type, the rotating parts are kept frozen in
position, and rotation is accounted for by the inclusion of centrifugal and Coriolis
forces. Turbulence effects are modeled using the one-equation Spalart-Allmaras
turbulence model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a so-called low-Reynolds number
model, which means that it resolves the velocity, pressure, and temperature fields all
the way down to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the

314 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation. A Wall
Distance Initialization study type is automatically added. It also supports heat transfer
in solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation. However, only fluid domains adjacent
to pair boundaries are supported.

When this multiphysics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder under High Mach Number Flow, Spalart-Allmaras — Fluid, Initial
Values, Wall and Thermal Insulation. When a pair boundary is created, the Continuity
node is automatically added. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions, volume forces, and heat sources. You
can also right-click the node to select physics features from the context menu. See
Moving Mesh for more details of the Rotating Domain node added automatically in the
Model Builder under Definitions>Moving Mesh.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS, the default Turbulence model is
Spalart-Allmaras., and the default Heat transport turbulence model is Kays-Crawford.
Alternatively, select User-defined turbulent Prandtl number. The turbulent Prandtl
number model describes the influence of the turbulent fluctuations on the temperature
field. It is always possible to have a user-defined model for the turbulence Prandtl
number. Enter the user-defined value or expression for the turbulence Prandtl number
in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid node.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s), the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and the Temperature T (SI unit: K). For turbulence modeling
and heat radiation, the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m) and Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s) variables are also available..

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the High Mach
Number Flow Laminar and Turbulent Interfaces
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, Laminar Interface
• Rotating Machinery, High Mach Number Flow, k-ε Interface

THE ROTATING MACHINERY, HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 315

 The Compressible Euler Equations
Interface
The Compressible Euler Equations (cee) interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>High
Mach Number Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model
transient isentropic gas flows where the velocity magnitude is comparable to the speed
of sound, that is, compressible flows in the transonic and supersonic range. This state
is often connected to very low pressures.

The interface is based on the discontinuous Galerkin method (DG-FEM) and uses a
time-explicit solver. The method is very memory lean. The physics interface solves for
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, neglecting dissipative effects. The
dependent variables are the density, momentum, and total energy. Simulations using
the Compressible Euler Equations interface are always time dependent.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Initial Values, and Wall. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions, volume
forces, and heat sources. You can also right-click the Compressible Euler Equations node
to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cee.

PHYSICAL MODEL
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Euler equations.

316 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

NUMERICAL FLUX
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed.

Select the Numerical flux — Lax-Friedrichs (the default) or Osher-Solomon Riemann

solver.

LIMITER
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not need to be
changed. Note that these settings are ignored when the discretization is set to
Constant.

If the WENO limiter is selected from the Limiter list, the following settings are available:

• Choose the Trouble cell indicator: TVB (default) or Off. If TVB is selected, provide a
TVB constant (default: 10). The TVB method is used to limit the elements where the
WENO limiter is applied. This will reduce the cost of the limiter. A larger value of
the TVB constant means that a smaller number of cells will use WENO.
• Select the Positivity-preserving limiter for density and pressure check box to maintain
the positivity of pressure and density and prevent numerical blow-ups.

Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the CFL number. This CFL number will be used when defining the Cell time scale
expression cee.wtc used in the Time-Explicit Solver if the Time stepping is set to From
expressions. Note that the method will be unstable for CFL numbers larger than 1.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Explicit Solver

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 317

 DISCRETIZATION
In this section you can select the order of the shape function of the dependent
variables. The Compressible Euler Equations interfaces uses Nodal discontinuous
Lagrange functions. Select the Element order — Linear (default) or Constant.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Density rho (SI unit: kg/m3), the
Momentum m (SI unit: kg/(m2 s)), and the Total energy etot (SI unit: J/m3). The
names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique
within a component.

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Compressible
Euler Equations Interface
The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users):

• Continuity • Interior Wall

• Fluid Properties • Outlet
• Gravity • Symmetry
• Heat Source • Volume Force
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

318 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the continuity, momentum, and energy equations
solved by the physics interface, except for volume forces and heat sources, which are
added by the Volume Force and Heat Source features. Gravity is added by a global
Gravity feature when Include gravity is selected in the Physical Model settings. The Fluid
Properties node also provides settings for defining the material properties of the fluid.

THERMODYNAMICS
The Compressible Euler Equations interface is applicable for ideal gases. Specify the
thermodynamics properties by selecting a ratio of specific heats and selecting between
entering the specific gas constant, the heat capacity at constant pressure, or the mean
molar mass. For an ideal gas the density is defined as

Mn pA pA
ρ = ---------------- = -----------
RT Rs T

where pA is the absolute pressure, and T is the temperature.

Enter a value for the Ratio of specific heats γ (dimensionless). The ratio of specific heats
must be a real number larger than 1.

Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), Heat capacity
at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol).
The default setting is to use the property value From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression for either material property. For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, is
also used.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
You can provide initial values for the Primitive Variables (default) or Conservative
Variables.

• If Primitive Variables is selected, provide a value for the density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3),
velocity u (SI unit: m/s), and pressure p (SI unit: Pa).
• If Conservative Variables is selected, provide a value for the density ρ (SI unit:
kg/m3), momentum m (SI unit: kg/(m2 s), and total energy e (SI unit: J/m3).

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 319

 Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation, and a source term on the right-hand side of the energy equation.

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = F
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = F ⋅ u
∂t

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum and energy equations.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter a value for the volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Heat Source
This node describes heat generation within the domain. Express heating and cooling
with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as needed — all
heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source.

A source term Q is added to the right-hand side of the energy equation.

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = Q
∂t

HEAT SOURCE
Enter a value for the heat source Q (SI unit: W/m3).

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at walls. A no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0 , is enforced. Since viscous effects are
neglected, no boundary layer develops.

The no-penetration condition is imposed weakly setting the following flux:

Γρ ⋅ n = 0

– Γ m ⋅ n = pn

320 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 Γe ⋅ n = 0

Theory for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

Inlet
This condition provides the fluxes to describe the flow conditions at an inlet. The
applied conditions are controlled by the Flow Condition.

This condition uses the Osher-Solomon Riemann Solver (Ref. 4) to determine the
incoming and outgoing characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Supersonic (the default) or Subsonic.

• For Subsonic, a subsonic (Ma < 1) inlet is specified. The imposed flux uses the
imposed density and velocity, and computes the pressure from the interior of the
domain.
• For Supersonic the inlet flow is assumed to be supersonic (Ma > 1). A full set of
variables must be provided in Flow Properties. The numerical flux can determine
which characteristics are entering and leaving the domain, and can use values from
inside the domain when the condition requires it.

In transonic flows (0.8 < Ma < 1.2), or in cases where the flow may range from
subsonic to supersonic, it is safer to use the Supersonic condition and let the
characteristics based method determine the values used when computing the inlet flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Specify the flow properties at the inlet. If the inlet is Subsonic, enter values or
expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat (SI unit: Pa) and Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s).

In Supersonic inlets, the inlet can be specified in terms of primitive variables,

conservative variables, or a combination of static or total primitive variables and Mach

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 321

 number. Select an Input state — Primitive variables (the default), Conservative variables,
Static state, or Total state.

• For Primitive variables enter values or expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat
(SI unit: kg/m3), Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s), and Static pressure p0,stat
(SI unit: Pa).
• For Conservative variables enter values or expressions for the Static density ρ0,stat
(SI unit: kg/m3), Momentum m0 (SI unit: kg/(m2 s), and Total energy etot
(SI unit: J/m3).

• For Static state enter values or expressions for the Static pressure p0,stat
(SI unit: Pa), Static temperature T0,stat (SI unit: K), and Mach number Ma0
(dimensionless).
• For Total state enter values or expressions for the Total pressure p0,tot (SI unit: Pa)
and Total temperature T0,tot (SI unit: K), and Mach number Ma0 (dimensionless).

The relationships between the static and total states are:

γ
-----------
p tot  γ–1 2 γ–1
- = 1 + ----------- Ma 
---------
p stat  2  (5-3)
T tot 
- = 1 + γ----------- Ma 
–1 2
----------
T stat  2 

Select a Flow direction — Normal inflow (the default) or User defined to specify an
arbitrary flow direction. Then enter the components of the direction normal nM
(dimensionless).

Outlet
This condition provides the fluxes to describe the flow conditions at an outlet. The
applied conditions are controlled by the Flow Condition.

This condition uses the Osher-Solomon Riemann Solver (Ref. 4) to determine the
incoming and outgoing characteristics, and provide the appropriate flux.

322 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

FLOW CONDITION
Select a Flow condition — Subsonic (the default) or Supersonic.

• For Subsonic, a subsonic (Ma < 1) outlet is specified. The imposed flux computes
the density and velocity from inside the domain, and uses the pressure specified in
Flow Properties.
• For Supersonic the outlet flow is assumed to be supersonic (Ma > 1). All the
characteristics are assumed to be leaving the domain, and no variable needs to be
specified.

In transonic flows (0.8 < Ma < 1.2) or in cases where the flow may range from
subsonic to supersonic, it is safer to use the Subsonic condition and let the
characteristics based method determine the values used when computing the outlet
flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
This section is available when Subsonic is selected. Enter a value or expression for the
Static pressure p0,stat (SI unit: Pa).

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0 .

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0 . The software automatically provides an Axial Symmetry node
prescribing u ⋅ n = 0 on the axial symmetry boundaries.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that
it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition on interior
curves and surfaces instead.

THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 323

 Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include Gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. A volume force and a source term are
added on the right-hand side of the momentum and energy equations, respectively.

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = ρg
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = ρg ⋅ u
∂t

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s2, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

324 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the High Mach Number
Flow Interfaces
In some industrial applications involving fluid flow, the flow velocity is large enough
to introduce significant changes in the density and temperature of the fluid. This
occurs because the thermodynamic properties of the fluid are coupled. Appreciable
changes in the fluid properties are encountered as the flow velocity approaches, or
exceeds, the speed of sound. As a rule of thumb, velocities greater than 0.3 times the
speed of sound are considered to be high Mach number flows.

The High Mach Number Flow interface theory is described in this section:

• Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers

• Sutherland’s Law
• Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models
• References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

Compressible Flow for All Mach Numbers

The High Mach Number Flow interfaces solve the following equations

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (5-4)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (5-5)
∂t

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + τ:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (5-6)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 325

 • F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

These are the fully compressible Navier-Stokes equations for a simple compressible
fluid. As can be seen, the same set of equations can be assembled using, for example,
a Nonisothermal Flow interface or by manually coupling a Single-Phase Flow interface
with a Heat Transfer interface. The difference is that the High Mach Number Flow
interface can handle flow of any Mach numbers, while the other physics interfaces are
subject to The Mach Number Limit. The Mach number is defined as

u
Ma = -------
a

where a is the speed of sound. Equation 5-4 is hyperbolic whereas Equation 5-5 and
Equation 5-6 are parabolic for time-dependent flow and elliptic for stationary flow. If
diffusive effects can be neglected, as is usually the case for high-speed flows, the entire
system of equations becomes hyperbolic. When the Mach number passes through
unity, the direction of the characteristics associated with the hyperbolic system
changes. This means that new phenomena not observed for incompressible flows, such
as shock waves and expansion fans, can occur (Ref. 2). The stabilization and boundary
conditions must be adapted to the change in direction of the characteristics.

Note that the diffusive effects do not disappear entirely unless these terms are explicitly
excluded from the equations. Instead, they are confined to either boundary layers or
to “shock-waves”, which are really thin regions with steep gradients. In the High Mach
Number Flow interfaces these thin regions are assumed to be underresolved, and the
stabilization takes this into account. If the details of these regions are of physical
interest they must be adequately resolved.

The physics interface assumes that the fluid is an ideal gas. This is necessary for the
formulation of the Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions. The ideal gas law relates
density and specific heats to the pressure and temperature. The viscosity and thermal

326 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

conductivity of an ideal gas can be accurately approximated using Sutherland’s Law,
which is included as an option in the High Mach Number Flow interface.

The Mach Number Limit

Sutherland’s Law
Sutherland’s law, or Sutherland’s formula, is an approximation for how the viscosity of
gases depends on the temperature. This law is based on an idealized
intermolecular-force potential and reads (Ref. 5)

μ T 3 / 2 T 0 + S μ-
------ =  ------ ------------------- (5-7)
μ0  T 0 T + Sμ

where Sμ is an effective temperature called the Sutherland constant. Each gas has its
own Sutherland constant. Equation 5-7 is strictly valid only for single-component
gases at low pressure. It does, however, work well for air because air is mainly
composed of nitrogen and oxygen, which have very similar properties. Parameter
values for some common gases are given in Table 5-2 (Ref. 5).
TABLE 5-2: SUTHERLAND’S LAW PARAMETERS FOR DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

GAS μ0 T0 Sμ

Air 1.716·10-5 273 111

Argon 2.125·10-5 273 114
C02 1.370·10-5 273 222
CO 1.657·10-5 273 136
N2 1.663·10-5 273 107
O2 1.919·10-5 273 139
H2 8.411·10-5 273 97
Steam 1.12·10-5 350 1064

The SI unit for μ0 in Table 5-2 is N·s/m2. The SI unit for T0 and Sμ is kelvin (K).

Sutherland’s law can also be formulated for thermal conductivity (Ref. 5):

T 3 / 2 T0 + Sk
=  ------ -------------------
k-
----- (5-8)
k0  T 0 T + Sk

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 327

 Values for k0, T0, and Sk for some common gases are given in Table 5-3(Ref. 5).
TABLE 5-3: SUTHERLAND’S LAW PARAMETERS FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

GAS K0 T0 S,k

Air 0.0241 273 K 194

Argon 0.0163 273 170
C02 0.0146 273 1800
CO 0.0232 273 180
N2 0.0242 273 150
O2 0.0244 273 240
H2 0.168 273 120
Steam 0.0181 300 2200

The unit for k0 in Table 5-3 is W/(m·K). The unit for T0 and Sk is kelvin (K).

Consistent Inlet and Outlet Conditions

In order to provide consistent inlet and outlet conditions for high Mach number flow,
the flow situation needs to be monitored at the boundary. Because all flow properties
are coupled, the number and combinations of boundary conditions needed for well
posedness depend on the flow state — that is, with which speeds the different flow
quantities are propagated at the boundary. For a detailed specification on the number
of physical boundary conditions needed for well posedness, see Ref. 1.

PLANE WAVE ANALYSIS OF INVISCID FLOW

On inlets a plane wave analysis of the inviscid part of the flow is used in order to apply
a consistent number of boundary conditions. The method used here is described in
Ref. 3.

Inviscid flow is governed by Euler’s equations, which, provided that the solution is
smooth and neglecting the gravity terms, can be written as

∂Q ∂F j ∂Q
+ --------- -------- = 0
∂t ∂Q ∂x j

Considering a small region close to a boundary, the Jacobian matrices can be regarded
as constant, which leads to a system of linear equations

∂Q  ∂F j ∂Q
+ --------- -------- = 0
∂ t  ∂Q  0 ∂x j

328 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

where the subscript 0 denotes a reference state at the boundary. Assuming that the
state at the boundary, described by a surface normal vector αi (pointing out from the
domain), is perturbed by a plane wave, the linear system of equations can be
transformed to

∂Q ∂Q
+ A 0 ------- = 0
∂t ∂ξ

where

∂F j
A 0 = α j  ---------
∂Q 0

and ξ corresponds to the direction normal to the boundary. In the unsteady case,
Euler’s equations are known to be hyperbolic in all flow regimes: subsonic, sonic, and
supersonic flow (Ref. 4). This implies that A0 has real-valued eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors, and it can therefore be diagonalized according to

–1
TA 0 T = Λ, Λ ii = { λ 1, λ 2, λ 3, λ 4, λ 5 }

The matrix T contains the (left) eigenvectors, and the matrix Λ is a diagonal matrix
containing the eigenvalues. The eigenvalues are given exactly by

λ1 = α i u i
λ2 = λ1
λ3 = λ1
λ4 = λ1 + cs
λ5 = λ1 – cs

where cs is the speed of sound. Using the primitive variables

ρ
u
Q = v
w
p

The characteristic variables on the boundary are

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 329

 p
w 1 = ρ – ---------------2-
A
( cs )
α1 v – α2 u
w 2 = -------------------------------------
α1 α1 + α2 α2

1  α1 u + α2 v 
w 3 = --------------- ( w α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2 ) – α 3  ------------------------------------- (5-9)
αi αi  α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2

1  ρ αi ui p 
A
w 4 = ---  -------A- --------------- + ---------------2-
2c αi αi ( c A ) 
s s

1  ρ αi ui p 
A
w 5 = ---  – -------A- --------------- + ---------------2-
2 c αi αi ( c A ) 
s s

Each characteristic can be interpreted to describe a wave transporting some quantity.

The first one is an entropy wave while the next two correspond to vorticity waves. The
fourth and fifth, in turn, are sound waves.

Evaluating the primitive variables in Equation 5-9, the values are taken from the
outside (specified values) or from the inside (domain values) depending on the sign of
the eigenvalue corresponding to that characteristic variable. At inlets, a negative
eigenvalue implies that the characteristic is pointing into the domain and hence outside
values are used. Correspondingly, for a positive eigenvalue the inside values are used.

Variables in Equation 5-9 with a superscript A are computed as averages of the inside
and outside values.

The characteristic variables are then transformed to consistent face values of the
primitive variables on the boundary in the manner of

330 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 ρb = w1 + w4 + w5
A
α2 w2 α1  α3 w3 cs 
u 1, b = – ------------------------------------- – ---------------  ------------------------------------- – -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 )
α1 α1 + α2 α2 αi αi  α1 α1 + α2 α2 ρ 
A
α1 w2 α2  α3 w3 cs 
u 2, b = ------------------------------------- – ---------------  ------------------------------------- – -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 ) (5-10)
α1 α1 + α2 α2 αi αi  α1 α1 + α2 α2 ρ 
A
1  cs 
u 3, b = ---------------  w 3 α 1 α 1 + α 2 α 2 + α 3 -------
A
- ( w 4 – w 5 )
αi αi  ρ 
A 2
pb = ( cs ) ( w4 + w5 )

Characteristics Based Inlets

Applying this condition implies using the plane wave analysis described in Consistent
Inlet and Outlet Conditions. With this condition, a varying flow situation at the inlet
can be handled. This means that changes due to prescribed variations at the boundary,
due to upstream propagating sound waves or spurious conditions encountered during
the nonlinear solution procedure, can be handled in a consistent manner. The full flow
condition at the inlet is specified by the following properties

M in, p in, T in (5-11)

from which the density is computed using the ideal gas law. The dependent variables
defined in Equation 5-11 are applied as the outside values used in Equation 5-9, and
the boundary values of the dependent variables are obtained from Equation 5-10.

Supersonic Inlets
Applying a supersonic inlet, the full flow at the inlet is specified using the inlet
properties in Equation 5-11. Because the flow is supersonic, all characteristic at the
inlet are known to be directed into the domain, and the boundary values of the
dependent variables are computed directly from the inlet properties.

Hybrid Outlet
When building a model, it is recommended that it is constructed so that as little as
possible happens at the outlet. In the high Mach number flow case this implies keeping
the conditions either subsonic or supersonic at the outlet. This is, however, usually not
possible. For example, often one boundary adjacent to the outlet consists of a no slip
wall, in which case a boundary layer containing a subsonic region is present. The
hybrid outlet feature adds the following weak expression:

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 331

  0.5 ( – p – p )n ⋅ û Ma < 1
ΓW NS =  out
 ( – p )n ⋅ û else

where û is the test function for the velocity vector. This corresponds to a pressure, no
viscous stress condition in regions with subsonic flow and a no viscous stress condition
in regions with supersonic flow. When the static pressure at the outlet is not known
beforehand, it is recommended that it is set to the inlet pressure. When a converged
solution has been reached, the solution can be analyzed to find the pressure level just
outside the sonic point (Ma = 1) along the boundary. You can then apply this pressure
level instead.

Supersonic Outlet
When the outlet condition is known to be fully supersonic, the viscous stress is
specified in accordance with the equations and hence no physical condition is applied.
This is done by prescribing the boundary stress using the full stress vector:

T 2
W NS = – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I ( n ⋅ û )
3

It is often possible to use the supersonic condition at outlets that are not strictly
supersonic but mainly supersonic (the main part of the outlet boundary contains
supersonic flow).

Pseudo Time Stepping for High Mach Number Flow Models

Pseudo time stepping is per default applied to all governing equations for stationary
problems, for 2D component models as well as 3D component models. The
momentum, continuity, energy and turbulence equations (when present) use the same
expression for the pseudo time step symbol Δt̃ .

For laminar models the automatic expression for CFLloc is

1+
if ( niterCMP > 10, 1.2 min ( niterCMP – 10, 12 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 32, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 32, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 60, 40 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 60, 9 ), 0 )

while for models with turbulent flow it is

332 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 1+
if ( niterCMP > 10, 1.2 min ( niterCMP – 10, 12 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 120, 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 120, 9 ), 0 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 220, 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 220, 9 ), 0 )

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

References for the High Mach Number Flow Interfaces

1. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante, Theoretical and Numerical Combustion, 2nd ed.,
Edwards, 2005.

2. J.D. Anderson, Modern Compressible Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.

3. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat

Transfer Applications, Ph.D thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, 1998.

4. J.D. Tannehill, D.A. Anderson, and R.H. Pletcher, Computational Fluid

Mechanics and Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, 1997.

5. F.M. White, Viscous Fluid Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES | 333

 Theory for the Compressible Euler
Equations Interface
In this section:

• The Compressible Euler Equations

• The Numerical Method
• Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters
• References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface

The Compressible Euler Equations

The Euler equations form a set of hyperbolic equations governing inviscid and
adiabatic flow. The Compressible Euler Equations interface solves the transient
compressible version of the Euler equations for ideal gases

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (5-12)
∂t

∂ ( ρu ) + ∇ ⋅ [ ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI ] = F + ρg
(5-13)
∂t

∂e tot
+ ∇ ⋅ [ ( e tot + p )u ] = Q + F ⋅ u + ρg ⋅ u (5-14)
∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• ρu is the momentum vector (SI unit: kg/(m2 s))
• p is the absolute pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• etot is the total energy (SI unit: J/m3)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Q is the volumetric heat source (SI unit: W/m3)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2)
• I is the identity matrix

334 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

The volume force and heat source terms can be added using the Volume Force and
Heat Source features, respectively. The gravity terms are added when Include Gravity is
selected at the interface level in the Physical Model settings.

The physics interface assumes that the fluid is an ideal gas. This is used in the definition
of the Inlet and Outlet fluxes and the positivity-preserving limiter (see Shock
Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters). The equation of state for the internal
energy per unit volume e is

p
e = -----------
γ–1

Where γ is the ratio of specific heats (dimensionless), which is assumed constant. The
total energy is expressed as the sum of the internal energy and the kinetic energy

p 1 2
e tot = ----------- + --- ρu
γ–1 2

The physics interface solves for the conservative dependent variables, which are the
density, momentum, and total energy. In some features, the primitive variables, density,
velocity, and pressure, may be used to impose initial or boundary conditions.

The absolute temperature T (SI unit: K) can be obtained from the equation of state
for an ideal gas

p
T = ----------
Rs ρ

where Rs is the specific gas constant (SI unit: J/(kg·K)).

The Numerical Method

The physics interface solves the compressible Euler equations using the Discontinuous
Galerkin (DG) method in space together with explicit time stepping. The
computations are restricted to transient problems. The basis functions are the nodal
discontinuous Lagrange shape functions.

The numerical method used solves wave problems of the form

∂w
da + ∇ ⋅ Γ(w) = f
∂t

THEORY FOR THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 335

 In the compressible Euler equations, da is an identity matrix, w is the vector of
conservative variables, Γ represents the conservative fluxes, and f includes the
volumetric forces, heat sources, and gravity terms;

ρ
w = ρu
e tot

Γρ ρu
T

Γ ( w ) = Γm = ρ ( u ⊗ u ) + pI
T
Γe ( e tot + p )u

0
f = F + ρg
Q + F ⋅ u + ρg ⋅ u

Γ ρ , Γ m , and Γ e represent the fluxes of the continuity, momentum, and energy

equations, respectively.

Discontinuous Galerkin methods use shape functions that are continuous in the
interior of each mesh element, but discontinuous across the element boundaries. A
numerical flux must be defined across element boundaries, and the dependent variables
are not required to be continuous on faces between adjacent mesh elements. The
default numerical flux is the Lax-Friedrichs flux, which uses an average of the physical
fluxes together with a penalty term. The Osher-Solomon flux is also available (see
Ref. 4).

After discretization in space, the system of equations is integrated in time. The

standard procedure is to use an explicit Runge-Kutta method. The physics interface
uses the third-order SSP (strong stability preserving) Runge-Kutta method per default.

The time step in explicit computations is limited by the CFL condition; see Time
Explicit Integrator in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. The maximum
stable time step is proportional to the smallest mesh element size h, and inversely
proportional to the maximum wave speed in the domain. On unstructured meshes
with local refinement regions only a few elements are small, yet these dictate the overall
time step for the whole problem. In such cases, the use of Local Time Stepping is

336 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

advisable. COMSOL Multiphysics provides the Adams-Bashforth 3 (local) time stepping
method.

Theory for the Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

Shock Capturing and Positivity-Preserving Limiters

The compressible Euler equations form a system of hyperbolic conservation laws that
can develop discontinuous solutions even starting from a continuous initial solution.
These discontinuous solutions appear in the form of shock waves or contact waves, and
induce spurious oscillations and instabilities in the numerical solution when shape
functions other than constant are used. The control of oscillations around
discontinuities requires the use of a limiter to preserve the order of accuracy and
achieve sharp, non-oscillatory solutions.

The compressible Euler equations interface includes a weighted essentially

nonoscillatory (WENO) limiter for use in the discontinuous Galerkin method, which
is applied in each inner stage of the time-explicit solver. The WENO limiter
reconstructs the polynomial of the DG solution in a troubled element from a convex
combination of the polynomials in the current element and its immediate neighbors
based on smoothness indicators and nonlinear weights, and includes adjustments to
guarantee conservation. A total variation bounded (TVB) troubled cell indicator is
available to limit the use of WENO to the elements where it is needed and reduce
computational costs. The TVB constant can be set by the user and a larger value means
that a smaller number of elements will use WENO. For more information on the
WENO limiter, see Ref. 2.

The compressible Euler equations are well posed only if both density and pressure are
positive. When using constant interpolations, the positivity of density and pressure is
guaranteed if the CFL condition for the time step is satisfied. If the dependent variables
are discretized with linear shape functions, the positivity of density and pressure is not
ensured even when satisfying the CFL condition and using the WENO limiter.
Therefore, the physics interface includes a positivity-preserving limiter for density and
pressure which can be used together with WENO to prevent numerical blow-ups. See
Ref. 3 for more information.

THEORY FOR THE COMPRESSIBLE EULER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 337

 References for the Compressible Euler Equations Interface
1. J.D. Anderson, Modern Compressible Flow, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003.

2. J. Zhu, X. Zhong, C.W. Shu, and J. Qiu, Runge-Kutta discontinuous Galerkin

method using a new type of WENO limiters on unstructured meshes, J. Comput.
Phys., vol. 248, pp. 200–220, 2013.

3. X. Zhang, Y. Xia, and C.W. Shu, Maximum-principle-satisfying and

positivity-preserving high order discontinuous Galerkin schemes for conservation
laws on triangular meshes, J. Sci. Comput., vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 29–62, 2012.

4. J. Felcman & P. Šolín, On the Construction of the Osher-Solomon Scheme for 3D

Euler Equations, East-West J. Num. Math., vol. 6, pp. 43 - 64, 1998

338 | CHAPTER 5: HIGH MACH NUMBER FLOW INTERFACES

 6

Multiphase Flow Interfaces

This chapter discusses the physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase
Flow branch ( ). The section Modeling Multiphase Flow helps you choose the
best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface
• The Bubbly Flow Interfaces
• The Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces
• The Phase Transport Interfaces
• The Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

339
 • Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces
• Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces

340 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Modeling Multiphase Flow
In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• The Multiphase Flow Interface Options
• The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Certain types of multiphase flow can be described using the Phase Field
and Level Set interfaces found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ).

• The Physics Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual
• Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Multiphase Flow branch ( ) included with this module has a number of
subbranches to describe momentum transport for multiphase flow. One or more
physics interfaces can be added; either singularly or in combination with other physics
interfaces for applications such as mass transfer and energy (heat) transfer.

Different types of flow require different equations to describe them. If you know the
type of flow to model, then select it directly. However, when you are not certain of the
flow type, or when it is difficult to obtain a solution, you can instead start with a
simplified model and add complexity as you build the model. Then you can
successively advance forward, comparing models and results.

The Bubbly Flow, Mixture Model, Euler-Euler Model, and Phase Transport Mixture
Model interfaces are appropriate when you want to simulate a flow with many particles,
droplets, or bubbles immersed in a liquid. With these physics interfaces, you do not
track each particle in detail. Instead you solve for the averaged volume fraction. If you
are interested in the exact motion of individual bubbles, including how the fluid

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 341

 interface deforms due to, for instance, surface tension, use any of the Two-Phase Flow
interfaces.

To model the detailed dynamics of fluid interfaces, either use the level set method, the
phase field method, the phase field thin-film flow method, or by a moving mesh,
respectively. For problems involving topological changes (for example, jet breakup),
use either the Level Set, Phase Field or Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interfaces.These
techniques use an auxiliary function (the level set and phase field functions,
respectively) to track the location of the interface, which is necessarily diffuse. The
Level Set interface does not include the surface tension force per default, and is
recommended for use in large scale problems dominated by inertia, or when the effects
of the gradient of the surface tension coefficient are relevant. The phase field method
is physically motivated and is usually more numerically stable than the level set method.
It is can also be extended to more phases and is compatible with fluid-structure
interactions (requires the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics Module). In
general, it is not obvious which one of these to use when the flow is convection
dominated. However, when the flow is diffusion dominated, for example, in the case
of phase separation, the phase field method should be used. Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow method may be used to track the location of the interface in narrow channels,
represented by a surface or an edge within the geometry, which are thin enough for
the Reynolds equation or the modified Reynolds equation to apply.

The flow of two immiscible fluids in narrow channels can be simulated using the
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field interfaces.

The moving mesh method represents the interface as a boundary condition along a
line or surface in the geometry. Because the physical thickness of phase boundaries is
usually very small, for most practical meshes The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving
Mesh Interface describes the two-phase boundary more accurately. However, it cannot
accommodate topological changes in the boundary.

Three-phase flow can be simulated using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field
interface.

The Multiphase Flow Interface Options

For any of the Multiphase Flow interfaces, except for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow,
Phase Field interfaces, you can assume either laminar or turbulent flow as the starting
point. This enables you to make the appropriate mathematical model assumptions
required to solve the flow.

342 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Relationship Between the Physics Interfaces
Several of the interfaces vary only by one or two default settings (see Table 6-1,
Table 6-2, Table 6-4, and Table 6-5) in the Physical Model and Turbulence sections,
which are selected either from a check box or a list. For the Multiphase Flow branch, the
Bubbly Flow (bf), Mixture Model (mm), Euler-Euler Model (ee), and Phase Transport
subbranches have several physics interfaces each depending on the turbulence model
used. All the Two-Phase Flow interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature with
a name as (tpf). The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch contains a single interface for
laminar flow.

BUBBLY FLOW

TABLE 6-1: BUBBLY FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME LOW GAS TURBULENT TURBULENT SOLVE FOR
CONCENTRATION MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL AREA

Laminar Bubbly Flow bf Yes None n/a No

Bubbly Flow, Algebraic bf Yes RANS Algebraic No
yPlus yPlus
Bubbly Flow, L-VEL bf Yes RANS L-VEL No
Bubbly Flow, k-ε bf Yes RANS k-ε No
Bubbly Flow, Realizable bf Yes RANS Realizable No
k-ε k-ε
Bubbly Flow, k-ω bf Yes RANS k-ω No
Bubbly Flow, SST bf Yes RANS SST No
Bubbly Flow, Low Re bf Yes RANS Low No
k-ε Reynolds
number
k-ε
Bubbly Flow, bf Yes RANS Spalart-All No
Spalart-Allmaras maras
Bubbly Flow, v2-f bf Yes RANS v2-f No
The Bubbly Flow ( ) branch interfaces are used primarily to model two-phase flow
where the fluids are gas-liquid mixtures, and the gas content is less than 10%. The
Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface ( ) solves the Navier-Stokes equations with the
momentum equation corrected by a term induced by the slip velocity. The slip velocity
can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law for small spherical bubbles, a
nonlinear drag law taking surface tension into account for larger bubbles, or by
defining it on your own.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 343

 The various forms of the Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) solve the
RANS equations for the filtered velocity field and filtered pressure as well as models for
the turbulent viscosity. The Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces include all the
turbulence models available in the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces. See
The Bubbly Flow Interfaces for links to the physics interface information.

By default, the physics interfaces assume that the volume fraction of the gas is less than
0.1. It is then valid to approximate the liquid velocity as incompressible. This is
significantly easier to solve numerically. It is possible, though, to use the complete
continuity equation.

The physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the density of
both phases and for the dynamic viscosity of the liquid phase. You can also model mass
transfer between the two phases, using the two-film theory or your own expression for
interfacial mass transfer.

MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-2: MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE SOLVE FOR
LABEL PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL
AREA

Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous None n/a No

Laminar Flow particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Algebraic No
Algebraic yPlus particles flow yPlus
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS L-VEL No
L-VEL particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ε No
k-ε particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Realizable No
Realizable k-ε particles flow k-ε
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ω No
k-ω particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS SST No
SST particles flow
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Low No
Low Re k-ε particles flow Reynolds
number k-ε

344 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-2: MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE SOLVE FOR
LABEL PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL INTERFACIAL
AREA

Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS Spalart-All No

Spalart-Allmaras particles flow maras
Mixture Model, mm Solid Homogeneous RANS v2-f No
v2-f particles flow
The Mixture Model ( ) branch interfaces are similar to the Bubbly Flow interfaces
except that both phases are assumed to be incompressible. Examples include solid
particles dispersed in a liquid, and liquid droplets dispersed in another liquid when the
two liquids are immiscible.

Like the Bubbly Flow interfaces, The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface ( )
and Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces ( ) solve the flow equations,
whether described by the Navier-Stokes equations or the RANS equations with
different turbulence models, and where the momentum equation is corrected by a
term induced by the slip velocity. The slip velocity can be described by the
Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or Haider-Levenspiel method, or by
defining it on your own.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. The dynamic viscosity of the mixture can either
be of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), volume-averaged
(for gas-liquid, liquid-liquid systems), or a user-defined expression.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature. The physics interfaces also allow you to model mass transfer
between the two phases, using the two-film theory or your own expression for
interfacial mass transfer.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 345

 EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-3: EULER-EULER MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME DIPERSED DRAG MODEL TURBULENCE

PHASE MODEL TYPE

Euler-Euler Model, ee Solid Schiller-Naumann None

Laminar Flow particles
Euler-Euler Model, ee Solid Schiller-Naumann RANS, k-ε
Turbulent Flow particles

The Euler-Euler Model ( ) branch interfaces are used to model the flow of two
continuous and fully interpenetrating phases. For both phases the conservation
equations are averaged over volumes, which are small compared to the computational
domain, but large compared to the dispersed phase particles, droplets or bubbles. The
Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface solves two sets of conservation equations,
one for each phase. The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface additionally
solves transport equations for the turbulence quantities, either using a mixture
averaged turbulence models or solving separate transport equations for the turbulence
quantities of each phase. The drag model for solid particles or liquid droplets/bubbles
can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or Ishii-Zuber,
closures, or by defining it on your own. In addition the Haider-Levenspiel and
Gidaspow closures are available for solid particles, and the Tomiyama et al. closure is
available for liquid droplets/bubbles.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. Predefined expressions for the dynamic viscosity
of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), are available.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature.

346 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES

TABLE 6-4: PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL DISPERSED SLIP MODEL TURBULENCE TURBULENCE

PHASE MODEL TYPE MODEL

Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous None n/a

Model, Laminar Flow particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Algebraic
Model, Algebraic yPlus particles flow yPlus
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS L-VEL
Model, L-VEL particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ε
Model, k-ε particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Realizable
Model, Realizable k-ε particles flow k-ε
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS k-ω
Model, k-ω particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS SST
Model, SST particles flow
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Low
Model, Low Re k-ε particles flow Reynolds
number k-ε
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS Spalart-All
Model, Spalart-Allmaras particles flow maras
Phase Transport Mixture Solid Homogeneous RANS v2-f
Model, v2-f particles flow

The Phase Transport Mixture Model ( ) branch interfaces are similar to the Mixture
Model interfaces. The main difference is that the Phase Transport Mixture Model
interfaces are multiphysics interfaces that couple a single-phase flow interface with a
Phase Transport interface, allowing for multiple dispersed phases.

Like the Mixture Model interfaces, The Phase Transport Mixture Model, Laminar
Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces solve the flow equations, whether described by
the Navier-Stokes equations or the RANS equations with different turbulence models,
and where the dispersed phase velocities are determined by the slip velocity. The slip
velocity can be described by the Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann or
Haider-Levenspiel closures, or by defining it on your own.

These physics interfaces also allow you to define your own relations for the dynamic
viscosity and density of both phases. The dynamic viscosity of the mixture can either

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 347

 be of Krieger type (which uses a maximum packing concentration), volume-averaged
(for gas-liquid, liquid-liquid systems), or a user-defined expression.

You can also describe other material properties such as density by entering equations
that describe this term as a function of other parameters like material concentration,
pressure, or temperature. The physics interfaces also enable you to model mass transfer
between the two phases.

348 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TWO-PHASE FLOW AND THREE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-5: TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME MULTIPHASE TURBULENCE TURBULENCE NEGLECT

INTERFACE LABEL FLOW MODEL MODEL TYPE MODEL INERTIAL
TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Laminar, - Two-phaseflow, None n/a False

Two-Phase Flow, level set
Level Set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Algebraic False
Level Set, level set yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS L-VEL False
Level Set, L-VEL level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ε False
Level Set, k-ε level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Realizable False
Level Set, level set k-ε
Realizable k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ω False
Level Set, k-ω level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS SST False
Level Set, SST level set
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Low False
Level Set, Low level set Reynolds
Re k-ε number k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Spalart- False
Level Set, level set Allmaras
Spalart-Allmaras
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS v2f False
Level Set, v2f level set

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 349

 TABLE 6-6: TWO-PHASE FLOW, PHASE-FIELD AND THREE-PHASE FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME MULTIPHASE TURBULENCE TURBULENCE NEGLECT

INTERFACE LABEL FLOW MODEL MODEL TYPE MODEL TYPE INERTIAL
TERM
(STOKES
FLOW)

Laminar, - Two-phaseflow, None n/a False

Two-Phase Flow, phase field
Phase Field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Algebraic False
Phase Field, phase field yPlus
Algebraic yPlus
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS L-VEL False
Phase Field, phase field
L-VEL
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ε False
Phase Field, k-ε phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Realizable False
Phase Field, phase field k-ε
Realizable k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS k-ω False
Phase Field, k-ω phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS SST False
Phase Field, SST phase field
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Low False
Phase Field, Low phase field Reynolds
Re k-ε number k-ε
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS Spalart- False
Phase Field, phase field Allmaras
Spalart-Allmaras
Two-Phase Flow, - Two-phaseflow, RANS v2f False
Phase Field, v2f phase field
Two-Phase - Two-phase None n/a False
Thin-Film Flow, thin-film flow
Phase Field phase field
Laminar - Three-phase None n/a False
Three-Phase flow, phase field
Flow, Phase Field

350 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 6-7: TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH PHYSICAL MODEL DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME MULTIPHASE COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT

LABEL FLOW MODEL INERTIAL TERM
(STOKES FLOW)

Laminar, Two-Phase spf not applicable Incompressible None

Flow, Moving Mesh flow
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface ( ) and The Turbulent
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces ( ), found under the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
branch ( ), are used primarily to model two fluids separated by a fluid interface. The
moving interface is tracked in detail using the level set method. Surface tension acting
on the fluid interface can be included in the fluid-flow equations.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface. The Stokes’ flow option
is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface ( ) and The Turbulent
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces ( ) found under the Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field branch ( ), also model two fluids separated by a fluid interface. You can easily
switch between the physics interfaces, which can be useful if you are not sure which
physics interface provides the best description. Surface tension acting on the fluid
interface are per default included in the fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension
coefficients between a number of common substances are also available.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces. The Stokes’ flow
option is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 351

 Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface ( ) and The
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface ( ) found under the
Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), model two fluids separated by a
fluid interface, in a narrow channel represented by a surface or an edge within the
geometry. Surface tension acting on the fluid interface are per default included in the
fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension coefficients between a number of
common substances are also available.

Specify the density and viscosity for each of the two fluids. Density specification is not
allowed when modified Reynolds equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow
interface.

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface found under the Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field branch ( ) models flows of three incompressible fluids separated by
sharp interfaces. Library surface tension coefficients between a number of common
substances are also available.

Specify the density for each of the three fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface , ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is used primarily to model
two fluids separated by a fluid interface. The moving interface is tracked as a boundary
condition along a line or surface in the geometry. However, the method cannot
accommodate topological changes in the boundary. Surface tension acting on the fluid
interface are per default included in the fluid-flow equations. Library surface tension
coefficients between a number of common substances are also available.

Like for other Fluid Flow interfaces, compressible flow is possible to model for speeds
less than Mach 0.3 in the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface. The Stokes’ flow
option is available for low Reynolds number flows.

Specify the density for each of the two fluids. For any of the two fluids, you can easily
use Newtonian or predefined non-Newtonian constitutive models. The following
non-Newtonian constitutive models are available: Power law, Carreau,
Bingham-Papanastasiou, Herschel-Bulkley-Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou.

352 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
Often, you are simulating applications that couple fluid flow to another type of
phenomenon described in another physics interface. Although this is not often another
type of flow, it can still involve physics interfaces supported in the CFD Module or in
the COMSOL Multiphysics base package. This typically occurs in cases where
applications include chemical reactions and mass transport, as included in Chemical
Species Transport Interfaces, or energy transport, found in the Heat Transfer and
Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces chapter.

More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, such as those involving radiation, can be
found in the Heat Transfer Module, while tools for modeling chemical reactions and
mass transport are available in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

MODELING MULTIPHASE FLOW | 353

 The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and
Phase Field Interfaces
The following sections list all the physics interfaces and the physics features associated
with them under the Multiphase Flow branch ( ). The descriptions follow a
structured order as defined by the order in the branch. Because many of the physics
interfaces are integrated with each other, some nodes described also cross reference to
other physics interfaces.

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

• The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces
• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
• The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
• The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
• The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
• The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and Turbulent Flow,
Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,

354 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Level Set interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
is also added, but with empty selection. Other Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling
features and The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature can be added when needed
to model walls.

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is None.

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the level set discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides exact conservation of the integral of the level
set variable when using the nonconservative form of the level set equation.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interfaces ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level Set branch ( ), are multiphysics interfaces designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be turbulent,
that is, to be of high Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible or
compressible.

When adding a Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics interface, a Turbulent
Flow interface and a Level Set interface are added in the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, is

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 355
 automatically added under the Multiphysics node. Another multiphysics coupling
feature, The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature, can be added when needed.

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with
a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Level Set interface with a
Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

Simulations using the Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set interfaces are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is RANS. Turbulent flow can be simulated
by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

356 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Level Set,
which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface, and
it defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Level Set interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 357
 Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 1 μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

358 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
The default method for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In
addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or
Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function,
Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside
function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. The surface tension force is not
added to porous domains.

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 359
 The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
( ) interfaces contain an optional multiphysics coupling boundary feature, Wetted
Wall. It is an exclusive feature that overrides the Wall feature in the Laminar or
Turbulent Flow interface as well as the No Flow feature in the Level Set interface. It
cannot be used in boundaries that have a Flow Continuity feature in the flow physics
interface or a Continuity feature in the level set physics interface. It is available for
laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall functions or automatic wall treatment.

The Wetted Wall boundary condition is suitable for walls in contact with the fluid-fluid
interface. When this boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move
along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition u ⋅
nwall = 0 and adds a tangential stress on the form

μ
K nt = – --- u
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size. The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity
component to zero. However, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at
a distance β outside the wall (see Figure 6-1).

For turbulent flow, the wall is modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall
functions depending on the Wall Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the
turbulent flow interface settings.

If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation in The Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, the Wetted Wall boundary condition also adds the
following boundary force to enforce the contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

The contact angle θw is defined as the angle between the fluid interface and the wall
(see Figure 6-1). For more information, see Ref. 4 and Ref. 5. Note that the contact
angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young's equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

360 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (6-1)

where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

Fluid 1

u Wall
Wall
θ

Fluid 2
β

Figure 6-1: Definition of the contact angle θ at interface/wall contact points (left) and
an illustration of the slip length β (right).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the model)
is ww1.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 361
 component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame. For 2D axisymmetric
components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface properties, the ϕ
component of utr may also be specified.

Translational velocity can also be set to Zero (Fixed wall) to force utr = 0. This is typically
used in problems where the mesh is deforming or rotating, but we want the boundary
to keep zero velocity. For example, in fixed walls tangential to a Rotating Domain.

WETTED WALL
Specify the following two properties for the wetted wall:

• The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The
slip length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length selection list in
order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).
• Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or
Through Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The
default is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for
Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface
energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Interior Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Interior Wetted Wall, multiphysics coupling boundary feature can only be applied
on interior boundaries.

It is similar to The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature available on exterior boundaries of

the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Level Set

362 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

( ) multiphysics interfaces, except that it applies on both sides of an interior
boundary. It is an exclusive feature which overrides the Interior Wall feature in the
Laminar or Turbulent Flow interface as well as the Thin Barrier feature in the Level Set
interface. It is available for laminar flow and turbulent flow with wall functions or
automatic wall treatment.

The Interior Wetted Wall coupling feature allows discontinuities (velocity, pressure,
level set variable, and turbulence variables) across the boundary and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures in contact with the fluid-fluid interface. When this
boundary condition is used, the fluid-fluid interface can move along the wall.

For laminar flow, this boundary condition enforces the no-penetration condition
u ⋅ nwall = 0 on both sides of the wall, and adds a tangential stress on the form

μ
K nt = – --- u
β

where K nt = K n – ( K n ⋅ n wall )n wall , K n = Kn wall and K is the viscous stress tensor.

β is the slip length. For numerical calculations, a suitable choice is β = h, where h is the
mesh element size.

For turbulent flow, the wall is modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall
functions depending on the Wall Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the
turbulent flow interface settings.

If the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, the Interior Wetted
Wall boundary condition also adds the following boundary force on both sides of the
walls to enforce the contact angle:

F θ = σδ ( n wall ⋅ n – cos θ w )n

Note that the contact angle is not enforced on boundaries adjacent to porous domains.
For more information, see The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Interior Wetted Wall multiphysics coupling feature in the
model) is iww1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 363
 order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame. For 2D axisymmetric
components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface properties, the ϕ
component of utr may also be specified.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, select All boundaries (the default) or
select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific boundaries.

WETTED WALL
Specify the following two properties for the interior wetted wall:

• The Slip Length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The
slip length β is then defined as β = f h h min , where h min is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and f h is a user input. Select User defined from Slip Length selection list in
order to manually prescribe β (SI unit: m).
• Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or
Through Young’s equation. For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The
default is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for

364 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface
energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

The Wetted Wall Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is assumed to be laminar,
that is, to be of low to moderate Reynolds number. The fluids can be incompressible
or compressible.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Laminar
Flow and a Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is
added automatically under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate
multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default Wetted Wall feature in the Phase
Field interface.

Wetted Wall

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is None. Turbulent flow can be simulated
by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 365
 Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides improved conservation of the integral of the
phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field equations.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

The Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces ( ) found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), are multiphysics interfaces designed to
track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The flow is by default assumed to be
turbulent. The fluids can be incompressible or compressible.

When adding a Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a Turbulent
Flow and a Phase Field interface are added in the Model Builder. In addition, a
multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is
automatically added under the Multiphysics node. Note that unlike the Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set interfaces, the wetted wall feature here is not implemented as a separate
multiphase coupling boundary feature but as a default feature in the Phase Field
interface.

Wetted Wall

• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.

366 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, SST interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with
a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Phase Field interface with a
Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

Simulations using the Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field interfaces are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Turbulence Model
By default the Turbulence model type selected is RANS. If None is selected for Turbulence
model type, the model becomes laminar.

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature

The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field, ( ) and Turbulent Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, ( ) interfaces contain a multiphysics coupling feature, Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the density and
dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow interfaces,
and it defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Phase Field interface to use the velocity field
calculated from the Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface to transport the interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 367
 interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Flow, Phase
Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

368 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1ρ1 and Dynamic viscosity of fluid
1μ1 are both set to From Material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the fluid flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau––, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–

Bulkley–Papanastasiou, and Casson–Papanastasiou–––– models can alternatively be
used to specify the dynamic viscosities of the two fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1 ρ1 or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1 μ1
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 369
 The fluid defined as Fluid 1 affects the wetting characteristics on wetted walls. See the
Wetted Wall node for details.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
Select the method used for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging. The default
method for both settings is Volume average. In addition to the default method, Density
averaging can be set to Heaviside function or Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity
averaging can be set to Heaviside function, Harmonic volume average, Mass average or
Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside function is used, enter a value for the
corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ. The Shift surface tension force to the heaviest
phase check-box can be selected to diminish smoothing effects on the surface-tension
force, that may result in unphysical, strong acceleration of a much lighter phase. When
selected, enter a value for the Smoothing factor, ds,Fst.

When the surface tension force is included in the momentum equation, you can select
the Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase check box. This can prevent
significant spurious oscillations in the velocity field for the lighter phase in cases with
a large difference in density between the two phases. The amount of shifting is
controlled by the Smoothing factor ds,Fst (default 0.1). The surface tension force is
then multiplied by

V f, 1 – 0.5 V f, 2 – 0.5
f s = -----------------------  ρ 1 H  ------------------------- + ρ 2 H  ------------------------- 
2
(6-2)
( ρ1 + ρ2 )   d s, Fst   d s, Fst  

Shift surface tension force to the heaviest phase works better when combined with
Heaviside function for the averaging of density and viscosity.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. If the surface tension force is
included, select Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force to
account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension coefficient.

370 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar and
Turbulent Flow, Two-Phase, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interfaces together with Level Set or
Phase Field interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for the Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow Interface are also listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

LEVEL SET
The available physics features for the Level Set Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface.

PHASE FIELD
The available physics features for the Phase Field Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, LEVEL SET AND PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 371
 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase
Field Interfaces
The following sections list all the physics interfaces and the physics features associated
with the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field interfaces, located under the
Multiphase Flow branch ( ).

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

This section includes the following topics:

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface
• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Thin-Film
Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field Interface

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics
interface designed to track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The fluids are
assumed to flow in a narrow channel that is represented by a surface within the
geometry.

When adding the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Thin-Film Flow, Shell and a Phase-Field Thin-Film Flow, Shell interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. In addition, a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is added automatically under the
Multiphysics node.

372 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Simulations using the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Shell, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides an improved conservation of the integral of
the phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field
thin-film flow equations.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field Interface

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field interface ( ) found under the
Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics
interface designed to track the interface between two immiscible fluids. The fluids are
assumed to flow in a narrow channel that is represented by an edge within the
geometry.

When adding the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Thin-Film Flow, Edge and a Phase-Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge interfaces are added to the
Model Builder. In addition, a multiphysics coupling feature, The Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, is added automatically under the
Multiphysics node.

Simulations using the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Edge, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history.

INTERFACE PROPERTIES

Discretization
By default the fluid flow discretization is set to P1+P1, and the phase field discretization
is set to Linear. This combination provides an improved conservation of the integral of
the phase field variable when using the nonconservative form of the phase field
thin-film flow equations

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 373

 The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field, ( ) interface contains a multiphysics
coupling feature, Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field, which is added automatically.

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field multiphysics coupling feature defines the
density and dynamic viscosity of the fluid used in the Thin-Film Flow interface, and it
defines the surface tension on the interface in form of a volume force used in the
momentum equation. It also enables the Phase Field, Thin-Film Flow interface to use the
velocity field calculated from the Thin-Film Flow interface to transport the interface.

The multiphysics coupling is not available for boundaries (edges in 2D problems) with
Cavitation option enabled in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow,
Phase Field in the model) is tpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select All domains (the default)
or select Manual from the Selection list to choose specific domains.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density, viscosity, or the surface tension
coefficient, can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature, may be required to
define these properties.

374 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of the two fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid 1 from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid 1 list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid 1, ρ1, and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid 1, μ1, are both set to From Material.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for Fluid
A, select User defined in the Density of fluid 1, ρ1, or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid 1, μ1,
list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

Similarly, the properties of Fluid 2 can be specified. The default material is set to None.

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 375

 The specification of densities for the two fluids is not available when the Modified
Reynolds Equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

Care should be taken when using the Domain Material setting for the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2. The material properties are
obtained from the domain irrespective of the location of the interface. If
two different materials are selected in domains 1 and 2, with the phase
boundary initially coincident with the domain boundary, the model has
convergence issues once the phase boundary moves away from the
domain boundary. This is because a density discontinuity and a viscosity
discontinuity occurs at the boundary separating the two fluids. For this
reason, selecting the material directly is recommended when setting the
material properties for Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
The default method for Density averaging and Viscosity averaging is Volume average. In
addition to the default method, Density averaging can be set to Heaviside function or
Harmonic volume average, while Viscosity averaging can be set to Heaviside function,
Harmonic volume average, Mass average or Harmonic mass average. When a Heaviside
function is used, enter a value for the corresponding mixing parameter, lρ or lμ.

The specification of the Density averaging is not available when the Modified Reynolds
Equation option is chosen in the Thin-Film Flow interface.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation. Select a Surface tension coefficient σ
(SI unit: N/m):

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (for example, Water/Air or Glycerol/Air).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI
unit: N/m).

Theory for the Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

376 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase
Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces are multiphysics interfaces
combining Thin-Film Flow interfaces together with Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
interfaces.

THIN-FILM FLOW
The available physics features for the Thin-Film Flow interfaces are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film Flow Branch
Interfaces..

PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW

The available physics features for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interfaces are listed
in the section Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces.

All domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 377

 The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field
Interface
This section includes the following topics:

• The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar Three-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Interface

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

The Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to track the interfaces between three immiscible and incompressible fluids. The flow is
assumed to be laminar; that is, a flow characterized by a low-to-moderate Reynolds
number. The density of each fluid is assumed to be constant, but the there is no
restriction on the density differences between the separate fluids.

When adding the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow and a Ternary Phase Field interface are added to the Model Builder. In
addition the Multiphysics node, including the multiphysics coupling feature Three-Phase
Flow, Phase Field is added.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Simulations using the Laminar Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface almost always depends on its history.

378 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature
Use the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate the flow
of a three immiscible fluids while explicitly tracking the interface separating each pair
of the fluids.

The Three-Phase Flow interface solves Navier-Stokes equations for the conservation
of momentum, and a continuity equation for the conservation of mass. The positions
of the interfaces separating the fluid phases are tracked by solving four additional
transport equations: two equations governing phase field variables and two equations
for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials. The movement of the
fluid-fluid interfaces is determined by minimization of free energy.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tfpf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the three-phase flow, or
select All domains as needed.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties of each phase, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own

THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 379

 tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the fluid flow physics interface level.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES
Use the corresponding section to specify the properties of all three fluids. The fluids
are denoted Fluid A, Fluid B, and Fluid C, respectively.

To specify the properties of Fluid A from a material, select the appropriate material in
the Fluid A list. Also make sure that the Density of fluid A ρA and Dynamic viscosity of
fluid A μA are both set to From material.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref for incompressible flows (as
specified by the Compressibility setting of the laminar flow interface).

The non-Newtonian Power law, Carreau, Bingham–Papanastasiou, Herschel–Bulkley–

Papanastasiou, and Casson-Papanastasiou models can alternatively be used to specify
the dynamic viscosities of the three fluids.

To instead apply a variable or expression for the density or dynamic viscosity for
Fluid A, select User defined in the Density of fluid A ρA or the Dynamic viscosity of fluid
A μA list and enter the expression in the corresponding text field.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in

380 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Fluid flow or Moving interfaces lists.

• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Laminar

Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces is a multiphysics interface
combining The Laminar Flow Interface and The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TERNARY PHASE-FIELD
The available physics features for The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces are listed
in Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field Interface.

All domain, boundary, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

THE THREE-PHASE FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 381

 T he L a m i na r T wo- Ph ase Fl ow, Mov i n g
M e s h I nte r f a c e
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh branch ( ), is a multiphysics interface designed
to model laminar two–phase flow of immiscible fluids separated by a moving interface.
The velocity field, pressure, and mesh deformation are solved for, and the location of
the interface is tracked by the deformed mesh.

When adding the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface, a
Laminar Flow interface is added to the component, and a Moving Mesh interface with a
Deforming Domain feature is added under the Definitions node. The Laminar Flow
interface adds the Navier–Stokes equations and provides a way of defining the
properties of the fluids. For each of the fluids the density and viscosity must be
specified (these are typically taken from the corresponding materials, but can be user
defined).

Simulations using the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh interface are always
time-dependent since the position of an interface is almost always dependent of its
history. There are additional boundary conditions to describe how the fluid-fluid
interface moves from the Laminar Flow context menu under the option Fluid Interface
Features:

• Fluid-Fluid Interface
• Free Surface
• Contact Angle (as a subfeature to the two conditions above)

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), a

specific physics interface called Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh
(tpfmm) was added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics
coupling approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options
for your modeling. For specific details, see The Multiphysics Branch and
Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

382 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select Laminar Flow Properties
For a full list of available properties, see The Laminar Flow Interface.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This physics interface deforms the mesh within the domains on either side of the two
fluid interfaces to track its movement.

The Compressibility defaults to Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant

density) formulation of the Navier–Stokes equations. Select Compressible flow (Ma<0.3)
to use the compressible formulation.

If flow is occurring at very low Reynolds numbers, the inertial term in the Navier–
Stokes equations can be neglected and the linear Stokes equations can be solved on the
domain. This flow type is referred to as creeping flow or Stokes flow and can occur in
microfluidics and MEMS devices, where the flow length scales are very small. To make
this approximation select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box, which
significantly improves the solver speed.

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Velocity field and Pressure. The
names can be changed in the corresponding fields, but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

The following models are found at this Application Library path

CFD_Module/Multiphase_Flow/<filename>

• Drug Delivery System: viscous_catenary

• Electrowetting Lens: electrowetting_lens
• Viscous Catenary: viscous_catenary

Deforming Domain
When the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh multiphysics interface is added using
the Model Wizard, a Deforming Domain node is added automatically in the Model Builder
under the Definitions>Moving Mesh node. This node serves to represent domains and
boundaries where the mesh can deform. By default, the selection is all domains. Under
the Deforming Domain, you can also choose the Mesh smoothing type, by default set to

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 383

 Yeoh with a default Stiffening factor of 10. More information of the smoothing type can
be found in the Deforming Domain chapter in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

By default, the mesh is fixed at all external boundaries of the geometry. Use the
Symmetry/Roller node to select the external boundaries, where the fluid-fluid
interface can slide along the boundary. You can also add other types of boundary
conditions for the mesh motion, for details see Moving Mesh Features in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Fluid-Fluid Interface
The Fluid-Fluid Interface node defines the initial position of a fluid-fluid interface and
includes equations to track the evolution of the interface. The Contact Angle subnode
is added by default, and is also available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select Library
coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

384 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

NORMAL DIRECTION
The normal direction on the selected boundaries can be reversed by selecting Reverse
normal direction. The direction is indicated by a red arrow in the Graphics window.

The Fluid-Fluid Interface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the

normal direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel
to those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Fluid-Fluid
Interface and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary
condition.

If a Fluid-Fluid Interface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the

movement of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip
condition. For laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier
Slip option should be selected. For turbulence models with wall functions
or automatic wall treatment the Wall feature with the No Slip option can
be selected.

Free Surface
The Free Surface node defines the initial position of an external fluid interface - that is,
an interface in which the viscosity in the fluid outside the domain can be neglected. By
applying this feature the motion of the two-phase interface can be tracked. In the
tangential direction the free surface motion is governed by the fluid motion in
combination with the surface tension of the fluid-fluid interface.

The Free Surface node can only be applied to outer boundaries of a Deforming Domain
that do not have any boundary condition assigned under Moving Mesh.

To control the attachment angle between the free surface and adjacent walls, a Contact
Angle subnode is by default added under the Free Surface node. A different contact
angle subnode can be added from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 385

 The Free Surface feature is supported by laminar flow and by turbulence models using
wall functions or automatic wall treatment but not low-Reynolds number wall
treatment. It also requires the study to be time dependent. The node is inactive for
Frozen Rotor studies.

MODEL INPUT
Enter a value for the Temperature T (SI unit: K). This option is only necessary when
the surface tension coefficient comes from a library of coefficients, as explained below.

FREE SURFACE
Enter an External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa).

SURFACE TENSION
Select the Include surface tension force in momentum equation check box to include the
surface tension force in the momentum equation.

The default Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m) can be User defined, or select
Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface (default) or Library coefficient, liquid/liquid
interface.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface select an option from the list — Water/Air
(default), Acetone/Air, Acetic acid/Air, Ethanol/Air, Ethylene glycol/Ethylene glycol vapor,
Diethyl ether/Air, Glycerol/Air, Heptane/Nitrogen, Mercury/Mercury vapor, or
Toluene/Air.

• For Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface select an option from the list —
Benzene/Water, 20°C, Corn oil/Water, 20°C, Ether/Water, 20°C, Hexane/Water, 20°C,
Mercury/Water, 20°C, or Olive oil/Water, 20°C.

MASS FLUX
The mass flux setting specifies the mass transfer across the boundary, due to processes
such as boiling. The default Mass Flux Mf (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is User defined, with a
value of 0.

386 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 The Free Surface feature imposes a mesh deformation in the normal
direction. On adjacent boundaries, the mesh displacement parallel to
those boundaries cannot be fixed if the contact point is moving. In this
case a Mesh Slip, Symmetry/Roller, Prescribed Normal Mesh
Displacement, or Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity boundary condition
under Definitions>Moving Mesh should be selected. A Mesh Slip condition
is automatically used on boundaries that are adjacent to the Free Surface
and dot not have a prescribed Moving Mesh boundary condition.

If a Free Surface feature is in contact with a solid boundary, the movement

of the contact point is not compatible with the no slip condition. For
laminar flow the Wall boundary condition with the Navier Slip option
should be selected. For turbulence models with wall functions or
automatic wall treatment the Wall feature with the No Slip option can be
selected.

Contact Angle
The Contact Angle subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Fluid-Fluid Interface, Free Surface, or Stationary Free Surface parent node) or from
the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The condition applies forces on the wall that
balance the surface tension for the prescribed contact angle. Note that the contact
angle can only be enforced when the surface tension force is included in the
momentum equation in the parent feature.

For laminar flow with moving mesh, the Contact Angle node should be used on edges
or points where a Wall feature with the Navier Slip option is prescribed adjacent to the
free surface. In this case, the Navier Slip option is required for the contact line to move
along the wall.

The representation of the contact angle is dependent on the mesh resolution in the
region where the fluid-fluid interface attaches to the wall. If, during the simulation, the
contact angle is found to fluctuate around a given value, this indicates that the
resolution needs to be improved. This can for example be achieved by adding more
mesh boundary layers on the wall.

THE LAMINAR TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 387

 CONTACT ANGLE
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation.

• For Directly enter a Contact angle θw (SI unit: rad). The default is π/2 radians.
• For Through Young’s equation enter values or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface
energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase 2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI
unit: J/m2).

NORMAL WALL VELOCITY

Select whether to Constrain the wall-normal velocity. This ensures that the fluid velocity
normal to the wall on the contact edge or point is exactly the desired value. This can
be helpful when the adjacent wall uses a Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation and the
no-penetration condition is satisfied in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
Moreover, constraining the wall-normal velocity simplifies the equilibrium of forces in
the wall-normal direction. This setting should not be selected when the adjacent
boundary has an unknown velocity.

The contact angle θw is defined between the fluid-fluid interface and the
surface of the wall adjacent to phase 1.

The moving mesh boundary condition must be compatible with the

motion of the wall for the problem to have a valid solution.

388 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Bubbly Flow Interfaces
In this section:

• The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface

• The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface
• The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow

The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface

The Laminar Bubbly Flow (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model the flow of liquids
with dispersed bubbles at low and moderate Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is computed from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the effective gas density.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, that is, the
number of bubbles per unit volume which in turn can be used to calculate the
interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
laminar bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 389

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Laminar Bubbly Flow, Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary
types are No slip for the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Laminar Bubbly Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is bf.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Specify if the gas concentration is low and whether or not to solve for the interfacial
area.

Low Gas Concentration

The Low gas concentration check box is selected by default. This approximation is valid
if the gas volume fraction is low ( φ g less than a few percent) and its density does not
have any significant effects on the continuity equation. It is then generally valid to
replace the continuity equation in The Bubbly Flow Equations; see Equation 6-31
with Equation 6-34).

Solve for Interfacial Area

To add a transport equation for the bubble density in order to determine the interfacial
area, select the Solve for interfacial area check box.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the liquid and the
absolute pressure pA.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA = p + pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference

390 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

pressure level is also used to define the density of the liquid. The default Reference
pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa) is 1[atm].

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the density of the
liquid. The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) is 293.15[K].

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component — that is, the velocity component u ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While u ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Also see
General Single-Phase Flow Theory in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

By default no turbulence model is used.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The names can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. This section contains the settings for stabilization
of the momentum transport (the fluid flow) in the Momentum transport area and
stabilization of the equation for the dispersed phase in the Gas phase transport area.

Consistent streamline and crosswind diffusion is applied by default to both gas and
momentum transport. Additional inconsistent stabilization terms may be added when
required as isotropic diffusion.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 391

 Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. For Manual enter a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
• Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are included using an
enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics interface
therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

392 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Algebraic yPlus.

Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible,
but for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Wall distance in viscous units
yPlus (dimensionless), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization
study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL Interface

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 393

 guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are included using an
enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics interface
therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is L-VEL.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

The turbulence model parameters are optimized for internal flow. For certain cases,
better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description
of the turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),

394 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Tangential velocity in viscous units
uPlus (dimensionless), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, k-ε(bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
standard two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints and bubble-induced
turbulence production. The flow near walls is modeled using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 395

 TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The names of variables can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables
must be unique within a component.

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box. The settings for this section are the same as for
The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface with the addition of this section: stabilization for
the turbulence variables in the Turbulence equations area.

When using a turbulence model, streamline and crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the turbulence equations.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Turbulence variables scale
parameters subsection is available when the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface, enter a
value for Uscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.

The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units

396 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
• Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces

Flow in an Airlift Loop Reactor: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/airlift_loop_reactor

The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε(bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
realizable two-equation k-ε model and bubble-induced turbulence production. The
flow near walls is modeled using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 397

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Realizable k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the Realizable k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More
options becomes available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface

The Bubbly Flow, k-ω (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints and bubble-induced

398 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

turbulence production. The k-ω model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model,
which means that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ω.

Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 399

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Specific dissipation rate om (SI unit: 1/s), the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit:
m2/s2), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface

The Bubbly Flow, SST (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints and bubble-induced turbulence production. The SST model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The SST model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

400 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is SST.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Specific dissipation rate om (SI unit: 1/s), the Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit:
m2/s2), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density, gas
phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 401

 It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the AKN
two-equation k-ε with realizability constraints and bubble-induced turbulence
production. The AKN model is a so-called low-Reynolds number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Low Reynolds number
k-ε.

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

402 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density,
gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart-Allmaras (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Bubbly Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds
numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the
Spalart–Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart–Allmaras model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The Spalart–Allmaras model depends on the distance to the closest
wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 403

 The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Spalart-Allmaras.

Wall Treatment
The Spalart–Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s), the Reciprocal wall
distance G (SI unit: 1/m), and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization

study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

404 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f Interface

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f (bf) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Bubbly
Flow>Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used
to model the flow of liquids with dispersed bubbles at high Reynolds numbers.

It is assumed that the bubbles only occupy a small volume fraction and that they always
travel with their terminal velocity. It is thereby possible to solve only one set of
Navier-Stokes equations for the liquid phase and to let the velocity of the bubbles be
guided by a slip model. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture-averaged
continuity equation. The volume fraction of bubbles is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the effective gas density. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The v2-f model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which can
be used to calculate the interfacial area, useful when simulating chemical reactions in
the mixture.

The main physics node is the Fluid Properties feature, which adds the equations for
turbulent bubbly flow and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the
liquid and the gas and the slip velocity model to use.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary types are No slip for
the liquid and No gas flux for the gas), and Initial Values.

Except where indicated below, the nodes settings for this physics interface are the same
as for The Laminar Bubbly Flow Interface and The Bubbly Flow, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is v2-f.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 405

 Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit:
m/s), the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3),
the Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3), the Turbulent kinetic energy k
(SI unit: m2/s2), the Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta (dimensionless), the Elliptic
blending function alpha (dimensionless), the Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m),
and the Number density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The Bubbly Flow, v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in the
study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

406 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Domain and Boundary Nodes for Bubbly Flow
The following domain and boundary nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Fluid Properties
• Volume Force (described for The Laminar Flow Interface)
• Mass Transfer
• Gravity
• Initial Values

BOUNDARY

The sections describe the available boundary conditions for the liquid and
the gas. In all equations, n denotes the outward pointing unit vector
normal to the boundary.

The boundary types for the liquid flow variables, described in this section, are:

• Wall (the default boundary condition)

• Inlet
• Outlet
• Symmetry
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall

PAIR
• Flow Continuity

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 407

 In addition to the boundary conditions for the liquid, the following boundary
conditions for the gas are available for all boundary condition types except symmetry
and interior wall:

• Gas Concentration (the default condition for inlets)

• Gas Flux
• Gas Outlet (the default condition for outlets)
• No Gas Flux (the default condition for walls)
• Symmetry

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node contains the material properties for the liquid and the gas. It
also contains settings for the slip model.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as the gas density and liquid viscosity, can be defined through
user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional
inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these
properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

408 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIALS
Select the materials to use for the material properties of the liquid and the gas (when
they are set to take their value from the material). The default is to use the Domain
material for the Liquid and None for the Gas. Select another material to use that
material’s properties for the liquid or gas as needed.

LIQUID PROPERTIES
The default Density, liquid phase ρl (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. For User
defined enter another value or expression.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified at the
physics interface level.

The default Dynamic viscosity, liquid phase μl (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material;
the value is then defined for the material selected in the Materials section for the
continuous phase. For User defined enter another value or expression.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 409

 The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

GAS PROPERTIES
The default Density, gas phase ρg (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. For User
defined enter another value or expression. Alternatively, select Calculate from ideal gas
law and enter the Molecular weight M (SI unit: kg/mol) of the gas.

Enter the Bubble diameter db (SI unit: m). The default value is 10−3 m (1 mm).

SLIP MODEL
Select a Slip model — Homogeneous flow (the default), Pressure-drag balance, or User
defined.

Homogeneous flow assumes that the velocity of the two phases are equal; that is,
uslip = 0. For User defined enter different values or expressions for the components of
the Slip velocity uslip (SI unit: m/s).

For Pressure-drag balance it uses a model based on the assumption that the pressure
forces on a bubble are balanced by the drag force:

3 C
--- ------d- ρ l u slip u slip = – ∇p
4 db

Here db (SI unit: m) is the bubble diameter, and Cd (dimensionless) is the drag
coefficient.

Select a Drag coefficient model:

• Small spherical bubbles (Hadamard-Rybczynski) for bubbles with a diameter smaller

than 2 mm.
• Large bubbles for gas bubbles with a diameter larger than 2 mm. Then enter the
Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit N/m). The default is 0.07 N/m.

410 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Air bubbles in tap water (Schwarz-Turner) for air bubbles of 1–10 mm mean diameter
in water.
• User defined to enter a different value or expression for the Drag coefficient Cd
(dimensionless). The default value is 1.

See the Slip Model theory section.

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

This section is available for the Bubbly Flow, k-ε, Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε, and
Bubbly Flow, k-ω interfaces, where an upper limit on the mixing length is required.

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, the mixing length limit is
evaluated as the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for
example, a complicated system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such
cases, it is recommended that the mixing length limit is defined manually. Select Manual
to enter a different value or expression.

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for the Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε, Bubbly Flow, Algebraic
yPlus, Bubbly Flow, L-VEL, Bubbly Flow, SST, Bubbly Flow, Spalart–Allmaras, and
Bubbly Flow, v2-f interfaces.

When the Reference length scale lref is set to Automatic, it is evaluated one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled by the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling because small objects would have too large an impact on the
solution if the wall distance were measured exactly. The automatic value is usually a
good choice but the value can become too high if the geometry consists of several slim
entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually. Select Manual to enter a different value or expression.

Mass Transfer
Add a Mass Transfer node to include mass transfer from the gas to the liquid.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 411

 MASS TRANSFER
Select a Mass transfer model — Two-film theory, Nonequilibrium model, or User defined.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mass transfer from gas to liquid mgl
(SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Nonequilibrium Model
For Nonequilibrium model enter values or expressions for each of the following:

• Equilibrium volume fraction in dispersed phase φ eq. The default is 0.

• Inverse time scales fl and fg (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 s-1.
The mass transfer is modeled as

m gl = ρ g [ f l max ( φ g – φ eq ) – f g max ( φ eq – φ g ) ]

Two-film theory
For Two-film theory enter values for the Mass transfer coefficient k (SI unit: m/s),
Henry’s constant H (SI unit: Pa·m3/mol), the Dissolved gas concentration c (SI unit:
mol/m3), and the Molecular weight of species M (SI unit: kg/mol). Refer to the theory
below for more information.

Henry’s law gives the equilibrium concentration c* of gas dissolved in liquid:

p + p ref
c∗ = -------------------
H

where H is Henry’s constant. The molar flux per interfacial area, N (SI unit:
mol/(s·m2)), is determined by

N = k ( c∗ – c )

where k is the Mass transfer coefficient and c is the Dissolved gas concentration in
liquid.

The mass transfer from gas to liquid, mgl, is given by

m gl = NMa

where M is the Molecular weight of species and a is the interfacial area per volume
(SI unit: m2/m3).

Also see Theory for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces for details about how a is
computed.

412 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For two-film theory, you also need to solve for the concentration of the dissolved gas;

∂c m gl
+ ∇ ⋅ ( cu l ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D∇c ) + ---------
∂t M

which can be done by adding a Transport of Diluted Species interface.

Gravity
The Gravity node adds the force ρg to the right-hand side of the momentum transport
equation. Gravity nodes are mutually exclusive, that is, there can only be one active
Gravity node per domain.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector, g (SI unit: m/s2). For 2D components
the default Gravity vector is defined as (0, −g_const). Here g_const is a physical
constant equal to 9.8066 m/s2. For 3D and 2D axisymmetric components, the gravity
acts in the negative z direction by default.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the flow variables and the effective gas
density that can serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess
for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field, liquid phase u (SI unit: m/s)
and for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0. Also enter a value or
expression for the Effective gas density rhogeff (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is
0 kg/m3.

If the Solve for interfacial area check box is selected, enter an initial value for the Number
density, gas phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The default is 0 1/m3.

For the Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence
variables should be also specified. Additional initial values may be required for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy k

• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Specific dissipation rate om

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 413

 • Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha

Wall
The Wall node adds a selection of boundary conditions that describe the existence of a
solid wall. The Wall node by default specifies no gas flux for the gas phase.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — No slip (the default) or Slip.

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the liquid. A no slip wall is a wall where
the liquid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For stationary walls, it sets the
liquid velocity to zero at the wall:

ul = 0

For turbulent bubbly flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or
modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall
Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

When Wall functions are selected, the Apply wall roughness option becomes available.
Click to select the Apply wall roughness check box to apply the roughness correction.
When the check box is selected, the default Roughness model is Sand roughness, which
is derived from the experiments by Nikuradse. Select Generic roughness to specify more
general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness enter an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq (SI unit: m). The
default is 3.2 micrometers.

414 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• For Generic roughness enter a Roughness height ks (SI unit: m). The default is
3.2 micrometers. Then enter a Roughness parameters Cs (dimensionless). The
default is 0.26.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Slip
Sets the velocity component normal to the wall to zero:

ul ⋅ n = 0

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

From the list, select a Gas boundary condition for the gas phase on the wall — No gas
flux (the default), Gas concentration, Gas outlet, Gas flux, or Symmetry.

Gas Concentration
For Gas concentration enter the Effective gas density ρ g φ g0 (SI unit: kg/m3). The
default is 0 kg/m3.If Solve for interfacial area is selected, also select either the Bubble
number density (the default) or the Bubble diameter and gas density button.

• For Bubble number density enter the Bubble number density n0 (SI unit: 1/m3). The
default is 1000 1/m3.
• For Bubble diameter and gas density enter the Bubble diameter db (SI unit: m) (the
default is 1 mm) and Density, gas phase ρg (SI unit: kg/m3) (the default is
1 kg/m3).

Gas Flux
For Gas flux enter the Gas mass flux N ρ g φ g (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) (the default is
0 kg/(m2·s)) and if the Solve for interfacial area check box is selected on the physics
interface, the Number density flux Nn (SI unit: 1/(m2·s)). The default is 0 (1/(m2·s)).

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the spatial
frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational velocity, utr. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. When Automatic from frame is selected, the physics
automatically detects if the spatial frame moves. If there is no movement, utr is set to

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 415

 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal to the frame movement. utr is accounted for
in the actual boundary condition prescribed in the Liquid boundary condition section.

When Manual is selected from Translational velocity selection list, the Velocity of moving
wall, utr can be prescribed manually. Specifying the translational velocity manually
does not automatically cause the associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh
interface needs to be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial
reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the surface is sliding in its tangential direction.
A velocity is prescribed at the wall and the boundary itself does not have to actually
move relative to the reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a selection of boundary conditions that describe inlets in fluid-flow
simulations.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — Velocity (the default), Pressure, or Fully developed
flow.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Normal inflow velocity (the default) or Velocity field buttons.

• For Normal inflow velocity enter a value or expression for U0 (SI unit: m/s).
• For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given u0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:

416 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ul = u0

PRESSURE
This condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately equal
to the pressure. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa.
Enter a relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref
defined at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.

• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the inlet
pressure, pˆ 0 ≥ p 0 , locally in order to reduce the amount of fluid exiting the domain
through the boundary. If suppress backflow is deselected, the inlet boundary can
become an outlet depending on the pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow (the default) it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined define an Inflow velocity direction, du (dimensionless). The
magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The velocity is defined by
the boundary condition of the adjacent boundary in the model.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

Select a Fully developed flow option — Average velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Average pressure.

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow toward the solution for a fully developed channel flow.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• For Average velocity enter Uav .

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 417

 • Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow
boundary.

Fully developed inflow can be used in conjunction with the turbulence models. No
additional inputs are required for the turbulence variables. They are instead solved for
on the inlet boundary to be consistent with the fully developed flow profile.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

These settings are the same as for Wall. See Gas Boundary Condition. The only
difference is that Gas concentration is the default.

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
This section is available for Bubbly Flow, Turbulent Flow interfaces. No additional
inputs are required for Fully developed flow.

No additional inlet conditions are required for the algebraic turbulence models:
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL.

For the Bubbly Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface, a value or expression for the Undamped
turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 should be specified. The default value is 3*bf.nul.

For transport-equation turbulence models, apart from Spalart–Allmaras, the following

settings are available under the Specify turbulence length scale and intensity option (see
Table 3-3 for the default values):

• Turbulent intensity IT
• Turbulent length scale LT
• Reference velocity scale Uref
For the v2-f turbulence model, the additional choice between Isotropic turbulence and
Specify turbulence anisotropy appears. For Specify turbulence anisotropy, a value for the
turbulent relative fluctuations at the inlet, ζ0, may be specified. When Specify
turbulence variables is selected, values or expressions for the dependent turbulence
variables should be defined. Availability is based on the physics interface and the
boundary condition chosen.

• Turbulent kinetic energy k0

418 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0
• Specific dissipation rate ω0

• Turbulent relative fluctuations ζ0

• Elliptic blending function α0

The turbulent length scale LT and turbulence intensity IT are related to the turbulence
variables, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

See Inlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a set of boundary conditions that describe outlets in fluid-flow
simulations; that is, the conditions at boundaries where the fluid exits the domain.

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — Pressure (the default), Velocity, or Fully developed
flow.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
The Pressure condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately
equal to the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to 0 N/m2.

• Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa. Enter a
relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref defined
at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.
• Select the Normal flow check box to change the no tangential stress condition to a
no tangential velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain
perpendicularly to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Velocity field (the default) or Normal outflow velocity buttons.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 419

 • For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given u0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:
ul = u0

• For Normal outflow velocity enter a value or expression for U0 (SI unit: m/s).

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

Select a Fully developed flow option — Average velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Average pressure.

GAS BOUNDARY CONDITION

The settings for the Gas boundary condition are the same as for Wall. See Gas Boundary
Condition.

When the Gas boundary condition is set to Gas outlet, the Exterior gas condition(s)
section contains an input field for the Effective gas density on the downstream side of
the outlet. If Solve for interfacial area is selected at the physics interface level, additional
input fields appear for the Bubble number density or the Bubble diameter and gas density
on the downstream side of the outlet.

See Outlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds boundary conditions that describe symmetry boundaries in
fluid-flow simulations. The boundary condition for symmetry boundaries prescribes
no penetration and vanishing shear stresses:

t T  φ l ( μ l + μ T )  ∇u l + ∇u l – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u l )I  n = 0
T 2
u l ⋅ n = 0,
  3 

420 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY SELECTION
A boundary condition for 2D axial symmetry is not required.

For the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically provides a condition that
prescribes ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
A value or expression should be specified for the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 421

 Interior Wall
The Interior Wall node adds a wall boundary condition on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that it
applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the dependent
variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall node specifies no gas flux for the gas
phase.

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

LIQUID BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Liquid boundary condition — No slip (the default) or Slip.

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the liquid. A no slip wall is a wall where
the liquid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For interior stationary walls, it
sets the liquid velocity to zero on both sides of the wall:

ul = 0

For turbulent bubbly flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or
modeled using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall
Treatment setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition. For an interior stationary
wall it sets the velocity component normal to the interior wall to zero on both sides of
the wall:

ul ⋅ n = 0

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the spatial
frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational velocity, utr. The list is per
default set to Automatic from frame. When Automatic from frame is selected, the physics
automatically detects if the spatial frame moves. If there is no movement, utr is set to

422 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal to the frame movement. utr is accounted for
in the actual boundary condition prescribed in the Liquid boundary condition section.

When Manual is selected from Translational velocity selection list, the Velocity of moving
wall, utr can be prescribed manually. Specifying the translational velocity manually
does not automatically cause the associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh
interface needs to be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial
reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

Gas Boundary Condition Equations

In addition to the boundary conditions for the liquid, specify boundary conditions for
the gas on Wall, Inlet, Outlet, and Interior Wall nodes. Select a Gas Boundary Condition:

Gas Concentration
Using this boundary condition, specify the effective gas density.

THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 423

 0
ρ̃ g = ρ̃ g

Gas Outlet
This boundary condition is appropriate for boundaries where the gas phase flows
outward with the gas velocity, ug, at the boundary.

Gas Flux
Using this boundary condition, specify the gas mass flux through the boundary:

– n ⋅ ( ρ̃ g u g ) = N ρg φ g

Symmetry
This boundary condition, which is useful on boundaries that represent a symmetry line
for the gas flow, sets the gas flux through the boundary to zero:

n ⋅ ( ρ̃ g u g ) = 0

No Gas Flux
This boundary condition represents boundaries where the gas flux through the
boundary is zero:

n ⋅ ( φg ug ) = 0

In walls moving with a boundary velocity u bnd , the gas flux through the boundary is:

n ⋅ ( φ g u g ) = n ⋅ ( φ g u bnd )

424 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Mixture Model Interfaces
In this section:

• The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface

• The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface
• The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface
• The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface
• The Mixture Model, SST Interface
• The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface
• The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model the
flow at low and moderate Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed phase.
The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

The main physics node is the Mixture Properties feature. It adds the equations for the
mixture and provides an interface for defining the fluid materials for the continuous
and dispersed phases as well as which slip model and mixture viscosity model to use.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 425

 When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Mixture Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions
and volume forces. You can also right-click Mixture Model, Laminar Flow to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mm.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Specify the characteristics of the dispersed phase, the model for the slip velocity, and
whether or not to solve for the interfacial area.

Dispersed Phase
To characterize the Dispersed phase, select Solid particles (the default) or Liquid
droplets/bubbles.

The selection from this list is further defined for the Mixture Properties node under
the Mixture Model section.

Slip Model
To compute the slip velocity jslip (SI unit: m/s), select a Slip model — Homogeneous
flow (the default), Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann, Haider-Levenspiel, or User
defined.

• The Homogeneous flow model assumes that the velocities of the two phases are equal,
that is, uslip = 0.
• In most cases there is a significant difference in the velocity fields due to the
buoyancy of the dispersed phase. Use one of the predefined slip models for such
cases.
• For User defined specify an arbitrary expression for the relative velocity. For example,
give a constant velocity based on experimental data. Enter the Slip velocity field uslip

426 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 (SI unit: m/s) or Slip flux jslip (SI unit: m/s) in the Mixture Properties node under
the Mixture Model section.

Solve For Interfacial Area

To add a transport equation for the number density of the dispersed particles, in order
to determine the interfacial area, select the Solve for interfacial area check box (by
default not selected).

For the Mass Transfer rate, use a two-film theory model, which includes the interfacial
area per unit volume between the two phases. It is possible to compute the interfacial
area per unit volume if the number density n (that is, the number of dispersed particles
per volume) is known. Select the Solve for interfacial area check box to add the
following equation for the number density n:

∂n
+ j ⋅ ∇n + ∇ ⋅ ( nu slip φ c ) = 0
∂t

This equation states that a dispersed phase particle cannot disappear, appear, or merge
with other particles, although it can expand or shrink.

The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface calculates the interfacial area a
(SI unit: m2/m3) from

1⁄3 2⁄3
a = ( 4nπ ) ( 3φ d )

Reference values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of both phases and
the absolute pressure pA.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA = p + pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the density of both phases. The default Reference
pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa) is 1[atm].

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the density of

both phases. The default Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K) is 293.15[K].

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 427

 Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component — that is, the velocity component j ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While j ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction

General Single-Phase Flow Theory

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

The default selection is None.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3).

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), the

Mixture Model interfaces solved for the mass-averaged mixture velocity
u. Now, the volume-averaged mixture velocity j is used. For specific
details, see Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces and Mass-Averaged
Mixture Velocity.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

The consistent stabilizations Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the Navier-Stokes and dispersed phase transport equations. In addition, when
the flow is turbulent, the consistent stabilizations are also applied to the Turbulence.

428 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Additional inconsistent stabilization terms may be added when required as isotropic
diffusion.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Penalty Diffusion can be used to suppress negative values of the dispersed volume
fraction. Including this term has been observed to slow down convergence and it is
therefore disabled by default.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. For Manual enter a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface
• Slip Velocity Models and Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

Two-Phase Flow Modeling of a Dense Suspension: Application Library

path CFD_Module/Verification_Examples/dense_suspension

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 429

 The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes
equations for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated
from a mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are included
using and enhanced viscosity model based on the scaled wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Algebraic yPlus.

Wall Treatment
Algebraic yPlus employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to
the wall. This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that
the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized for turbulent pipe flow. For certain cases,
better performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description
of the turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)

430 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization
study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface

The Mixture Model, L-VEL (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, L-VEL interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation, and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are included
using and enhanced viscosity model based on the local wall distance, and the physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 431

 Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is L-VEL.

Wall Treatment
L-VEL employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches between a
low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation depending on how
well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall treatment gives a robust
formulation that makes the most out of the available resolution. Select the Low Re
option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall. This can be more
accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized for internal flow. For certain cases, better
performance can be obtained by tuning the model parameters. For a description of the
turbulence model and the included model parameters see Theory for the Turbulent
Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, L-VEL interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step
in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

432 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard
two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ε.

Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More options
become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 433

 Edit Turbulence Model Parameters
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Stabilization. The settings for this section are the same as for The Mixture Model,
Laminar Flow Interface with the addition of this section: stabilization for the
turbulence variables in the Turbulence equations area.

When using a turbulence model, streamline and crosswind diffusion are by default
applied to the turbulence equations.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. The Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection is available when
the Turbulence model type is set to RANS.

In addition to the settings described for The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface,
enter a value for Jscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters
subsection.

The Jscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units

434 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces
• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the realizable two-equation k-ε model. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Realizable k-ε.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 435

 Wall Treatment
Wall treatment for the Realizable k-ε model can only be set to Wall functions. More
options become available by selecting another option under Turbulence model.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface

The Mixture Model, Realizable k-ω (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, k-ω interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture

436 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Wilcox
revised two-equation k-ω model with realizability constraints. The k-ω model is a
so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is k-ω.

Wall Treatment
The k-ω model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution. The most robust, but least accurate option is to select the Wall functions
option.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough. Observe that the Low Re formulation requires the wall distance to be
solved for prior to the flow.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 437

 • Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Specific dissipation rate ω (SI unit: 1/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, SST Interface

The Mixture Model, SST (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, SST interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the Menter
shear-stress transport (SST) two-equation model from 2003 with realizability
constraints. The SST model is a so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means
that it can resolve the flow all the way down to the wall. The SST model depends on
the distance to the closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance
equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

438 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is SST.

Wall Treatment
The SST model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Specific dissipation rate ω (SI unit: 1/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 439

 The Mixture Model, SST interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations
for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a
mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the AKN two-equation k-ε model with realizability constraints. The AKN model
is a so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all
the way down to the wall. The AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall.
The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Low Reynolds number
k-ε.

440 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The AKN model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Low Re k-ε interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study
step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 441

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Mixture Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics
interface, is used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a
dispersed phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles,
which are assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes

equations for the momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated
from a mixture averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is
described by a slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by
solving a transport equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled
using the Spalart-Allmaras one-equation model. The Spalart-Allmaras model is a
so-called low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the
way down to the wall. The Spalart-Allmaras model depends on the distance to the
closest wall. The physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is Spalart-Allmaras.

442 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The Spalart-Allmaras model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which
switches between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function
formulation depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The
automatic wall treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the
available resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity nutilde (SI unit: m2/s)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization

study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 443

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface

The Mixture Model, v2-f (mm) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase Flow>Mixture
Model>Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is
used to model the flow at high Reynolds numbers of liquids containing a dispersed
phase. The dispersed phase can be bubbles, liquid droplets, or solid particles, which are
assumed to always travel with their terminal velocity.

The Mixture Model, v2-f interface solves one set of Navier–Stokes equations for the
momentum of the mixture. The pressure distribution is calculated from a mixture
averaged continuity equation and the velocity of the dispersed phase is described by a
slip model. The volume fraction of the dispersed phase is tracked by solving a transport
equation for the volume fraction. Turbulence effects are modeled using the v2-f
transport-equation model with realizability constraints. The v2-f model is a so-called
low-Reynolds-number model, which means that it can resolve the flow all the way
down to the wall. The v2-f model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The
physics interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.

The physics interface can also model the distribution of the number density, which in
turn can be used to calculate the interfacial area, which is useful when simulating
chemical reactions in the mixture.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Mixture Model, Laminar Flow Interface and The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface.

TURBULENCE
The default Turbulence model type is RANS. A different turbulence model can be
selected under Turbulence model. The default turbulence model is v2-f.

444 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Wall Treatment
The v2-f model employs per default an Automatic wall treatment, which switches
between a low-Reynolds-number formulation and a wall function formulation
depending on how well resolved the flow is close to the wall. The automatic wall
treatment gives a robust formulation that makes the most out of the available
resolution.

Select the Low Re option in order to enforce resolution all the way down to the wall.
This can be more accurate than the automatic wall treatment provided that the mesh
is fine enough.

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Enter values for the dependent variables (field variables):

• Velocity field, mixture j (SI unit: m/s)

• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid (dimensionless)
• Squared slip velocity slipvel
• Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3)
• Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
• Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
• Turbulent dissipation rate ε (SI unit: m2/s3)
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta (dimensionless)
• Elliptic blending function alpha (dimensionless)

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

The Mixture Model, v2-f interface requires a Wall Distance Initialization study step in
the study previous to the Stationary or Time Dependent study step.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 445

 For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Time Dependent with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

• Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

• Slip Velocity Models
• Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces

Domain and Boundary Nodes for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The following domain and boundary nodes are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Mixture Properties
• Mass Transfer
• Volume Force (described for The Laminar Flow Interface)
• Gravity
• Initial Values

BOUNDARY
The boundary types for the mixture flow variables, described in this section, are:

• Wall (the default boundary condition feature)

• Inlet
• Outlet
• Symmetry
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Interior Wall

446 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PAIR
• Mixture Continuity
For the flow variables, the velocity and the pressure, the boundary conditions
correspond to those defined for single phase flow (see Domain, Boundary, Pair, and
Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow). There is also a point constraint for the pressure,
which is useful if no other boundary condition in the model includes a pressure level
constraint.

The following boundary conditions for the dispersed phase are available for all
boundary condition types except symmetry and interior wall. These are described in
more detail in the Theory for the Mixture Model Interfaces.

• Dispersed phase concentration (the default condition for inlets)

• Dispersed phase flux
• Dispersed phase outlet (the default condition for outlets)
• No dispersed phase flux (the default condition for walls)
• Symmetry

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

Mixture Properties
The Mixture Properties node contains the material properties for the continuous phase
and the dispersed phase. It also contains settings for the viscosity model. For the
Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces, the Mixture Properties node also adds the
equations for the turbulence transport equations.

MODEL INPUTS
The viscosity of each phase can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by
selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature
or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 447

 locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p + pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIALS
Select the fluid materials to use for the material properties. The default material used
for the Continuous phase is the Domain material. This corresponds to the material
currently applied to the domain in question. The Dispersed phase uses None per default.
A valid material must be selected instead.

CONTINUOUS PHASE PROPERTIES

The default Density, continuous phase ρc (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section). For User defined enter another value or expression. In
this case the default is 0 kg/m3.

448 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified at the
physics interface level.

The default Dynamic viscosity, continuous phase μc (SI unit: Pa·s), uses values From
material. It describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the shear rate in a
fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as
thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity. For User defined enter another value or
expression. In this case, the default is 0 Pa·s.

DISPERSED PHASE PROPERTIES

The default Density, dispersed phase ρd (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section). For User defined enter another value or expression. In
this case, the default is 0 kg/m3.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified at the
physics interface level.

Enter the Diameter of particles/droplets dd (SI unit: m). The default is 10−3 m (1 mm).
If Haider-Levenspiel is selected for the Slip model under Physical Model, enter a value
between 0 and 1 for the Sphericity (dimensionless). The default is 1.

If Liquid droplets/bubbles is selected from the Dispersed phase list in the interface, then
Dynamic viscosity, dispersed phase μd (SI unit: Pa·s) is also available. The default uses
values From material (as selected in the Materials section) or select User defined to enter
another value or expression. In this case, the default is 0 Pa·s.

MIXTURE MODEL
The options in this section are based on the selection made from the Dispersed phase
list for the Mixture Model interfaces.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 449

 Slip Velocity Field
When a User defined Slip model is selected for the physics interface, specify an arbitrary
expression for the relative velocity. For example, give a constant velocity based on
experimental data.

• When Slip velocity is set to Specify slip velocity field, enter the slip velocity between
the two phases, uslip (SI unit: m/s).
• When Slip velocity is set to Specify slip flux, enter the slip flux jslip (SI unit: m/s).

• The Mixture Model Equations in Theory for the Mixture Model

Interfaces

Mixture Viscosity Model

Select the Mixture viscosity model.

• When Solid particles is the Dispersed phase, select either Krieger type (the default) or
User defined.
• When Liquid droplets/bubbles is the Dispersed phase, select Krieger type (the default),
User defined, or Volume averaged.

For User defined enter a value or expression for the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa⋅s).
The default is 0 Pa⋅s. When using this option, make sure to limit the viscosity to
bounded positive values.

When Krieger type is selected, enter a value or expression for the Maximum packing
concentration φ max (dimensionless). The default is 0.62.

Select Krieger type to model the most generally valid expression for the mixture
viscosity:

φ d – 2.5φ max μ∗
μ = μ c  1 – ------------
 φ max

where φ max is the maximum packing concentration, which for solid particles is
approximately 0.62. The dimensionless parameter μ* = 1 for solid particles and

μ d + 0.4μ c
μ∗ = ---------------------------
μd + μc

for droplets and bubbles. When applying the Krieger type viscosity model, φd is
replaced by min( φ d , 0.999 φ max ) for better robustness.

450 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select Volume averaged to model the mixture viscosity of liquid-liquid mixtures, which
uses the following equation for the viscosity:

μ = φd μd + φc μc

The Mixture Model interfaces always employ the mixture viscosity in the particle
Reynolds number expression used to calculate the slip velocity, thereby accounting for
the increase in viscous drag due to particle-particle interactions.

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

This section is available for The Mixture Model, k-ε Interface, The Mixture Model,
Realizable k-ε Interface, and The Mixture Model, k-ω Interface, where an upper limit
on the mixing length is required.

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, the mixing length limit is
evaluated as the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for
example, a complicated system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such
cases, it is recommended that the mixing length limit is defined manually. Select Manual
to enter a different value or expression. The default is 1 (that is, one unit length of the
model unit system).

DISTANCE EQUATION
This section is available for The Mixture Model, Algebraic yPlus Interface, The
Mixture Model, L-VEL Interface, The Mixture Model, SST Interface, The Mixture
Model, Low Re k-ε Interface, The Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras Interface, and
The Mixture Model, v2-f Interface.

When the Reference length scale lref is set to Automatic, it is evaluated one tenth of the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. The solution to the wall distance
equation is controlled by the parameter lref. The distance to objects larger than lref is
represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively diminished by
appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable feature in
turbulence modeling because small objects would have too large an impact on the
solution if the wall distance were measured exactly. The automatic value is usually a
good choice but the value can become too high if the geometry consists of several slim
entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually. Select Manual to enter a different value or expression.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 451

 Mass Transfer
Use the Mass Transfer node to include mass transfer from the dispersed phase to the
continuous phase.

MASS TRANSFER
Select a Mass transfer model — User defined (the default), Nonequilibrium model, or
Two-film theory. For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mass transfer from
dispersed to continuous phase mdc (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Nonequilibrium Model
For Nonequilibrium model enter values or expressions for each of the following:

• Equilibrium volume fraction in dispersed phase φ eq. The default is 0.

• Inverse time scales fc and fd (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 s-1.
The mass transfer is modeled as

m dc = ρ d [ max ( f c ( φ d – φ eq ), 0 ) – max ( f d ( φ eq – φ d ), 0 ) ]

Two-Film Theory
For Two-film theory enter values or expressions for each of the following:

• Mass transfer coefficient k (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.

• Species concentration in dispersed phase cd (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is
0 mol/m3.
• Species concentration in continuous phase cc (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is
0 mol/m3.
• Molecular weight of species M (SI unit: kg/mol). The default is 0 kg/mol.

The mass transfer is modeled as

m dc = k ( c d – c c )Ma

where k denotes the mass transfer rate, and cd and cc are the species concentrations in
the dispersed and the continuous phase, respectively. M is the species’ molecular
weight, and a is the interfacial area per unit volume between the two phases. The Mass
transfer model — Two-film theory is available when the Solve for interfacial area check
box is selected (under the Physical Model section).

452 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Gravity
The Gravity node adds the force ρg to the right-hand side of the momentum transport
equation.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector, g (SI unit: m/s2). The default value is
(0,-g_const) where g_const is a physical constant equal to 9.8066 m/s2.

For 2D components, gravity acts in the negative y direction by default.

For example, in a 2D component, the y component is -g_const and the
other component is 0. In this setting, g_const is a predefined physical
constant for the standard gravity (acceleration due to gravity at sea level).

For 3D and 2D axisymmetric components, gravity acts in the negative z

direction by default. For example, in a 3D component, the z component
is -g_const and the other components are 0. In this setting, g_const is
a predefined physical constant for the standard gravity (acceleration due
to gravity at sea level).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the mixture velocity, pressure, and volume
fraction of the dispersed phase, that can serve as an initial condition for a transient
simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the following dependent variables:

• Velocity field, mixture, the components of j (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
• Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase (dimensionless). The default is 0.

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 453

 • If the Solve for interfacial area check box is selected for the physics interface, enter
an initial value for the Number density, dispersed phase nd (SI unit: 1/m3). The
default is 0 1/m3.
• If a Schiller-Naumann or a Haider-Levenspiel slip model is used in the physics interface,
enter an initial value for the Squared slip velocity slipvel (SI unit: m2/s2). The
default is 0.081 m2/s2.

For the Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence
variables should be also specified. Additional initial values may be required for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy k

• Turbulent dissipation rate ep
• Reciprocal wall distance G
• Specific dissipation rate om
• Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0
• Wall distance in viscous units yPlus
• Tangential velocity in viscous units uPlus
• Turbulent relative fluctuations zeta
• Elliptic blending function alpha

The following sections describe the available boundary conditions for the
mixture and the dispersed phase volume fraction. In all equations, n
denotes the outward pointing unit vector normal to the boundary.

Wall
The Wall node has boundary conditions available that describe the existence of a solid
wall.

MIXTURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Mixture boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip
• Slip
• Navier Slip

454 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the liquid. A no slip wall is a wall where
the mixture velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For stationary walls, it sets the
mixture velocity to zero at the wall:

j = 0

For turbulent flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

When Wall functions are selected, the Apply wall roughness option becomes available.
Click to select the Apply wall roughness check box to apply the roughness correction.
When the check box is selected, the default Roughness model is Sand roughness, which
is derived from the experiments by Nikuradse. Select Generic roughness to specify more
general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness enter an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq (SI unit: m). The
default is 3.2 micrometers.
• For Generic roughness enter a Roughness height ks (SI unit: m). The default is
3.2 micrometers. Then enter a Roughness parameters Cs (dimensionless). The
default is 0.26.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Slip
Select Slip to set the velocity component normal to the wall to zero j ⋅ n wall = 0 .

Navier Slip
This boundary condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, j ⋅ n wall = 0 , and adds
a friction force of the form

μ
F fr = – --- j tan g
β

where β is a slip length, and j tan g = j – ( j ⋅ n wall )n wall is the velocity tangential to the
wall. The boundary condition does not set the tangential velocity component to zero;
however, the extrapolated tangential velocity component is 0 at a distance β outside of
the wall. In cases where the wall movement in non-zero, check Account for the
translational wall velocity in the friction force to use

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 455

 ( j – u bnd – ( ( j – u bnd ) ⋅ n wall )n wall ) instead of jtang in the friction force. Then, the
extrapolated tangential velocity component is ubnd at a distance β outside of the wall.
Note that the Velocity of sliding wall uw is always accounted for in the friction force.

The Navier Slip boundary condition is suitable for walls adjacent to a free surface when
solving for laminar flow. Applying this boundary condition, the contact line
(fluid-fluid-solid interface) is free to move along the wall. Note that in problems with
contact lines, the tangential velocity of the wall typically represents the movement of
the contact line but the physical wall is not moving. In such cases, Account for the
translational wall velocity in the friction force should not be selected.

The Slip length setting is per default set to Factor of minimum element length. The slip
length β is then defined as β = fhhmin, where hmin is the smallest element side
(corresponds to the element size in the wall normal direction for boundary layer
elements) and fh is a user input. Select User defined from the Slip length list to manually
prescribe β.

The Navier Slip option is not available when selecting a turbulence model.

DISPERSED PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Dispersed phase boundary condition — No dispersed phase flux (the default),
Dispersed phase concentration, Dispersed phase outlet, Dispersed phase flux, or Symmetry.

• For Dispersed phase concentration enter a Dispersed phase volume fraction φ d0

(dimensionless). The default is 0. When Solve for interfacial area is selected under
the Physical Model section, click either the Dispersed phase number density n0
(SI unit: 1/m3) or Diameter of particles/droplets dd (SI unit: m) button and enter a
value or expression for n0 (the default is 5·106 1/m3) or dd (the default is 1 mm).
• For Dispersed phase flux enter values or expression for the Dispersed phase flux N φd
(SI unit: m/s) and, if Solve for interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model
section, the Number density flux Νn (SI unit: 1/(m2⋅s)). The defaults are 0 m/s and
0 1/(m2⋅s), respectively.

Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

456 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and
the boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.
• For 2D axisymmetric components when Swirl flow is selected in the physics interface
properties, the Velocity of moving wall, ϕ component vw may also be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 457

 Inlet
The Inlet node adds a set of boundary conditions that describe inlets in fluid-flow
simulations.

MIXTURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Mixture boundary condition for the inlet — Velocity (the default) or Pressure.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Normal inflow velocity (the default) or Velocity field buttons.

• For Normal inflow velocity enter a value or expression for J0 (SI unit: m/s).
• For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given j0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:
j = j0

PRESSURE
This condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately equal
to the pressure. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa.
Enter a relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref
defined at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.

• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the inlet
pressure, pˆ 0 ≥ p 0 , locally in order to reduce the amount of fluid exiting the domain
through the boundary. If suppress backflow is deselected, the inlet boundary can
become an outlet depending on the pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow (the default) it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined define an Inflow velocity direction, dj (dimensionless). The
magnitude of dj does not matter, only the direction. dj must point into the
domain.

DISPERSED PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

The default is Dispersed phase concentration. See Wall>Dispersed Phase Boundary
Condition for the settings.

See Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations for more information.

458 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
This section is available for Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces so that the inlet
conditions for the turbulence variables can be specified.

No additional inlet conditions are required for the algebraic turbulence models:
Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL.

For the Mixture Model, Spalart-Allmaras interface, a value or expression for the
Undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity υ0 should be specified. The default value is
3*mm.nu.

For transport-equation turbulence models, apart from Spalart-Allmaras, the following

settings are available under the Specify turbulence length scale and intensity option:

• Turbulent intensity IT
• Turbulent length scale LT

For the v2-f turbulence model, the additional choice between Isotropic turbulence and
Specify turbulence anisotropy appears. For Specify turbulence anisotropy, a value for the
turbulent relative fluctuations at the inlet, ζ0, may be specified. When Specify
turbulence variables is selected, values or expressions for the dependent turbulence
variables should be defined. Availability is based on the physics interface and the
boundary condition chosen.

• Turbulent kinetic energy k0

• Turbulent dissipation rate, ε0
• Specific dissipation rate ω0
• Turbulent relative fluctuations ζ0
• Elliptic blending function α0

The turbulent length scale LT and turbulence intensity IT are related to the turbulence
variables, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

See Inlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 459

 Outlet
The Outlet node adds a selection of boundary conditions that describe outlets in
fluid-flow simulations; that is, the conditions at boundaries where the fluid exits the
domain.

MIXTURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Mixture boundary condition for the outlet — Pressure (the default) or Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
The Pressure condition specifies the normal stress which in most cases is approximately
equal to the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to 0 N/m2.

• Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa. Enter a
relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref defined
at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.
• Select the Normal flow check box to change the no tangential stress condition to a
no tangential velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain
perpendicularly to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to reduce the amount of fluid entering the domain through the
boundary.

VELOCITY
For Velocity click the Normal outflow velocity (the default) or Velocity field buttons.

• For Normal outflow velocity enter a value or expression for J0 (SI unit: m/s).
• For Velocity field specify that the velocity at the boundary is equal to a given j0 (SI
unit: m/s) and enter the components in the matrix:
j = j0

DISPERSED PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

The default is Dispersed phase outlet. See Wall>Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition
for the settings.

When the Dispersed phase boundary condition is set to Dispersed phase outlet, the
Exterior dispersed phase condition(s) section contains an input field for the Dispersed
phase volume fraction on the downstream side of the outlet. If Solve for interfacial area
is selected at the physics interface level, additional input fields appear for the Dispersed

460 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

phase number density or the Diameter of particles/droplets on the downstream side of
the outlet.

See Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations for more information.

See Outlet in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds boundary conditions that describe symmetry boundaries in
fluid-flow simulations. The boundary condition for symmetry boundaries prescribes
no penetration and vanishing tangential stress:

T
j ⋅ n = 0, t T ( ( ρ c + ρ d – ρ )u slip j slip + τ Gm )n = 0

BOUNDARY SELECTION
A boundary condition for 2D axial symmetry is not required.

For the symmetry axis at r = 0, the program automatically provides a condition that
prescribes ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
A value or expression should be specified for the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 461

 boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context
menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall node adds a wall boundary condition on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that it
applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the dependent
variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall node specifies no flux for the dispersed
phase.

Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations

MIXTURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Mixture boundary condition — No slip (the default), or Slip.

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for the mixture. A no slip wall is a wall where
the mixture velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a interior stationary wall,
it sets the mixture velocity to zero at the wall:

j = 0

For turbulent flows, the no slip condition may either be prescribed exactly or modeled
using automatic wall treatment or wall functions depending on the Wall Treatment
setting in the Turbulence section of the interface settings.

462 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

When Wall functions are selected, the Apply wall roughness option becomes available.
Click to select the Apply wall roughness check box to apply the roughness correction.
When the check box is selected, the default Roughness model is Sand roughness, which
is derived from the experiments by Nikuradse. Select Generic roughness to specify more
general roughness types.

• For Sand roughness enter an Equivalent sand roughness height kseq (SI unit: m). The
default is 3.2 micrometers.
• For Generic roughness enter a Roughness height ks (SI unit: m). The default is
3.2 micrometers. Then enter a Roughness parameters Cs (dimensionless). The
default is 0.26.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Slip
Select Slip to set the velocity component normal to the wall to zero j ⋅ n = 0 .

Navier Slip
The Navier slip condition enforces no-penetration at the wall, j ⋅ n = 0 , and adds a
friction force of the form

μ
F fr = – --- j
β

where β is a slip length. For more information, see the Navier Slip option in the Wall
feature.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall

THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 463

 where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options.

Wall

Mixture Continuity
The Mixture Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

464 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces
In this section:

• The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface

• The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Euler–Euler Model Interfaces

The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface

The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow (ee) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Euler-Euler Model branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, can be used to
simulate the flow of two continuous and fully interpenetrating incompressible phases
(see Ref. 1 under the Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces). The physics
interface can model flow at low and moderate Reynolds numbers. Typical applications
are fluidized beds (solid particles in gas), sedimentation (solid particles in liquid), or
transport of liquid droplets or bubbles in a liquid.

The physics interface solves two sets of Navier-Stokes equations, one for each phase,
in order to calculate the velocity field for each phase. The phases interchange
momentum as described by a drag model. The pressure is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase
is tracked with a transport equation.

When this physics interface is added, the following default physics nodes are also added
in the Model Builder — Phase Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces. You can also right-click Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 465

 The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ee.

DISPERSED PHASE
Select a Dispersed phase — Solid particles or Liquid droplets/bubbles.

When Solid particles is selected, the Solid Pressure section is available in the Phase
Properties node. Also see Dispersed Phase in the theory section.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Dispersed Phase
Select a Dispersed phase — Solid particles or Liquid droplets/bubbles.

When Solid particles is selected, the Solid Pressure section is available in the Phase
Properties node. Also see Dispersed Phase in the theory section.

Reference Values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid and
define the absolute pressure.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA = p + pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the density of incompressible fluids.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS, k-ε
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes, k-ε).

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are:

• Velocity field, continuous phase uc

• Velocity field, dispersed phase ud

466 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Pressure p
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

Inconsistent stabilization can be activated independently for the momentum equation

for the continuous phase, the momentum equation for the dispersed phase, and for the
dispersed phase transport equation respectively by selecting the corresponding check
box. Each inconsistent stabilization contribution has a tuning parameter.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Residue volume fraction, continuous phase, φ c,res, and Residue volume fraction,
dispersed phase, φ d,res, set the smallest values used to avoid division by zero when
evaluating terms that involve 1/ φ c and 1/ φ d. Observe that this value does not prevent
φ c or φ d from becoming smaller than φ c,res and φ d,res, respectively.

Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expression — Automatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. For Manual enter a Local CFL number CFLloc (dimensionless).

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 DISCRETIZATION
The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow interface supports three options for the basis
functions: P1+P1 (the default option), P2+P1, and P3+P2. They all represent
Lagrangian basis functions of different orders:

• P1+P1 – Linear basis functions for all degrees of freedom. Linear basis functions are
computationally less expensive than the higher-order options and are also more
robust. This option requires that Streamline diffusion is activated for both of the
momentum equations.
• P2+P1 – Quadratic basis functions for all degrees of freedom except the pressure
which is described by linear basis functions. Higher order elements, as compared to
linear elements, are a computationally effective way to obtain high accuracy but only
if the flow is well resolved. This requirement is most likely fulfilled for flows with
very low velocities and/or small length scales.
• P3+P2 – Cubic basis functions for all degrees of freedom except the pressure which
is described by quadratic basis functions. This option is computationally very
expensive and the least robust one but it is also the option with the highest formal
accuracy.

To see all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Isotropic Diffusion in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Euler–Euler Model
Interfaces
• Theory for the Euler-Euler Model Interfaces

The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface

The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow (ee) interface ( ), found under the Multiphase
Flow>Euler-Euler Model branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, can be used to
simulate high Reynolds number flow of a two-phase mixture containing a continuous
and a dispersed phase. The Euler-Euler model assumes that both phases are
continuous, fully interpenetrating, and incompressible (see Theory for the Euler-Euler
Model Interfaces). Typical applications for the interface are fluidized beds (solid

468 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

particles in gas), sedimentation (solid particles in liquid), or transport of liquid droplets
or bubbles in a liquid.

The physics interface solves two sets of Navier-Stokes equations, one for each phase,
in order to calculate the velocity field for each phase. The phases interchange
momentum as described by a drag model. The pressure is calculated from a
mixture-averaged continuity equation and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase
is tracked with a transport equation.

Two-phase turbulence is modeled using the standard two-equation k-ε model with
realizability constraints. The interface includes the possibility to solve one set of k-ε
equations for the two-phase mixture, or to solve two sets of k-ε equations, one for each
phase. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall functions.

Except where indicated below, the settings for this physics interface are the same as for
The Euler-Euler Model, Laminar Flow Interface.

TURBULENCE

Turbulence Model Type

The default Turbulence model type is RANS, k-ε.

Two-Phase Turbulence
By default the Two-Phase Turbulence is defined as Mixture. This implies that one set of
k-ε equations are solved for. To instead solve for two sets of k-ε equations, one for each
fluid phase, select Phase specific (see Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling).

Edit Turbulence Model Parameters

Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters. For a description of the turbulence model and the included model
parameters see Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (field variables) are defined for this interface:

• Velocity field, continuous phase uc

• Velocity field, dispersed phase ud
• Pressure p
• Turbulent kinetic energy, mixture k
• Turbulent dissipation rate, mixture ep

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 • Turbulent kinetic energy, continuous phase kc
• Turbulent dissipation rate, continuous phase epc
• Turbulent kinetic energy, dispersed phase kd
• Turbulent dissipation rate, dispersed phase epd

The names can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be
unique within a component.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options. The Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection is available when
the Turbulence model type is set to RANS, k-ε.

In addition to the settings described for the Laminar Flow interface, enter a value for
Uscale and Lfact under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.

The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units
or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver.

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Euler–Euler Model
Interfaces
The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces have the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context
menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

• Flow Continuity • Mass Transfer

• Gravity • Outlet
• Initial Values • Phase Properties
• Inlet • Volume Force
• Interior Wall • Wall

The following nodes are described for the Laminar Flow interface:

• Pressure Point Constraint

470 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Phase Properties
The Phase Properties node has the material properties settings for the pure continuous
and dispersed phases. It also has settings for the viscosity models for each of the two
interpenetrating phases and the drag model. When the dispersed phase consists of solid
particles, it also has settings for the solid pressure model.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

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 The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

MATERIALS
Select the materials to use for the material properties of the continuous phase and the
dispersed phase respectively (when they are defined to take their values From material).
By default, the default material used for the Continuous phase is the Domain material.
This corresponds to the material currently applied to the domain in question. The
Dispersed phase uses None per default. A valid material must be selected instead.

Other materials present can be selected from the Continuous phase or Dispersed phase
list in order to use that material’s properties for the liquid or gas, respectively.

CONTINUOUS PHASE PROPERTIES

Density, Continuous Phase

The default Density, continuous phase ρc (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material.
For User defined enter another value or expression.

Dynamic Viscosity, Pure Continuous Phase

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity. The dynamic viscosity of the pure
continuous phase refers to the viscosity the fluid would have in the absence of the
dispersed phase.

The default Dynamic viscosity, pure continuous phase μc (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From
material. The value of the viscosity is then the value defined for the material selected in
the Materials section for the continuous phase. For User defined define a different value
or expression.

472 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

DISPERSED PHASE PROPERTIES
The default Density, dispersed phase ρd (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material. For
User defined enter another value or expression.

Enter a value or expression for the Diameter of particles/droplets dd (SI unit: m). The
default is 10−3 m (1 mm).

The Dynamic viscosity, pure dispersed phase μd (SI unit: Pa·s) field is
available when Liquid droplets/bubbles is selected as the Dispersed phase in
The Euler-Euler Model Interfaces.

The default uses values From material. The value of the viscosity is then
the value defined for the material selected in the Materials section for the
dispersed phase. For User defined define a different value or expression.

VISCOSITY MODEL
Select a model for the Mixture viscosity — Krieger type (the default), Volume average
(available for liquid droplets and bubbles) or User defined. Krieger type is appropriate
for dispersed phases that do not form any pure phase regions. Volume average is more
appropriate when the dispersed phase effectively can become the only phase in some
regions.

• For Krieger type, select an option for Maximum packing concentration. The default is
to use φ d,max = 1.0 for droplets and bubbles and φ d,max = 0.62 for particles. Select
User defined to enter another value or expression for φ d,max .
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mixture viscosity. The default
expression corresponds to the Krieger type viscosity with maximum packing equal
to 0.62.

Select a Dynamic viscosity model, continuous phase — Mixture viscosity (default), Pure
phase value or User defined. The Mixture viscosity option is appropriate when the
maximum packing is controlled by the mixture viscosity. The Pure phase value option
is more appropriate if the maximum packing is controlled in some other way, for
example by solid pressure. Select User defined to enter an expression for the Dynamic
viscosity model, continuous phase.

Select a Dynamic viscosity model, dispersed phase — Mixture viscosity (default), Pure
phase value (available for bubbles and droplets), Gidaspow (available for solid particles)
m
or User defined. The Gidaspow model prescribes μ d = 0.5φ d which basically
m
prescribes a small value for μ d and should be combined with a solid pressure model.

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 DRAG MODEL
The models are described in The Euler–Euler Model Equations. When the dispersed
phase corresponds to Solid particles, the Schiller-Naumann, Hadamard-Rybczynzki,
Ishii-Zuber, Gidaspow, and Haider-Levenspiel models are available. For Liquid
droplets/bubbles, the Schiller-Naumann, Hadamard-Rybczynzki, Ishii-Zuber, Tomiyama et
al. models are available. Select the User-defined drag coefficient option to specify an
expression for the drag coefficient CD.

• The Schiller-Naumann is valid for dispersed, rigid spheres and can be used for particle
Reynolds numbers less than approximately 2.5·105. The Schiller-Naumann model
is a general purpose model for diluted flows.
• The Hadamard-Rybczynzki is appropriate for diluted flows at low Reynolds numbers.
• The Ishii-Zuber model can for solid particles be regarded as a generalization of the
Schiller-Naumann model in that it can be used also for dense flows. For droplets and
bubbles, the Ishii-Zuber model also takes deformation of the fluid particles into
account. The deformation depends on the Surface tension coefficient, σ. Use a
predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or Library
coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that displays
below (for example, Water/Air, Glycerol/Air and so forth). For User defined enter a
value or expression for the surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).
• The Gidaspow model describes the drag force coefficient for dispersed phase flows
for all concentrations of the dispersed solid, including high concentrations.
• The Haider-Levenspiel model describes non-spherical particles for low and moderate
particle Reynolds numbers. Enter a value between 0 and 1 for the Sphericity Sp
(dimensionless).
• The Tomiyama et al. model describes the drag for diluted droplets and bubbles for
any particle Reynolds number. The correlation is available in three versions, Pure
fluid, Slightly contaminated fluid and Contaminated fluid. The Tomiyama et al. model
depends on the Surface tension coefficient, σ that is selected in the same way as for
the Ishii-Zuber model.

SOLID PRESSURE MODEL

The solid pressure models the particle dispersion due to collisions and friction between
the solid particles. Details of the implemented models are described in Solid Pressure.

474 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

This section is available when Solid particles is selected as the Dispersed phase in The
Euler-Euler Model Interfaces. Select a Solid pressure model ∇ps.

• The No solid pressure (the default) disables solid pressure and leaves the collision to
be described by a mixture viscosity. This option is appropriate for solid suspension,
typically solids suspended in liquids.
• The other options, Gidaspow-Ettehadieh, Gidaspow, Ettehadieh and User defined
modulus of elasticity describes particle-particle interaction for dispersed solids,
typically solid particles in gas flows. These options should be combined with the
m
Gidaspow model or a small user defined value for μ d .
• For User defined modulus of elasticity enter an expression for the Modulus of elasticity,
G (SI unit: N/m2).

MIXING LENGTH LIMIT

When the Mixing length limit lmix,lim is set to Automatic, the mixing length limit is
evaluated as the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for
example, a complicated system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such
cases, it is recommended that the mixing length limit is defined manually. Select Manual
to enter a different value or expression.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity fields for the continuous and
dispersed phases, the pressure, and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase that can
serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions in the tables for each component of:

• Velocity field, continuous phase uc

• Velocity field, dispersed phase ud

Enter initial values or expressions for:

• Pressure p
• Volume fraction, dispersed phase phid

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 For The Euler-Euler Model, Turbulent Flow Interface, initial values are needed for the
turbulence variables. When Mixture is selected as Two-phase turbulence, enter values or
expressions for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy, mixture k

• Turbulent dissipation rate, mixture ep

When Phase specific is selected as Two-phase turbulence, enter values or expressions for:

• Turbulent kinetic energy, continuous phase kc

• Turbulent dissipation rate, continuous phase epc
• Turbulent kinetic energy, dispersed phase kd
• Turbulent dissipation rate, dispersed phase epd

Mass Transfer
Use the Mass Transfer node to include mass transfer from the dispersed phase to the
continuous phase.

MASS TRANSFER
Select a Mass transfer model — User defined (the default) or Nonequilibrium model. For
User defined enter a value or expression for the Mass transfer from dispersed to
continuous phase mdc (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Nonequilibrium Model
For Nonequilibrium model enter values or expressions for each of the following:

• Equilibrium volume fraction in dispersed phase φ eq. The default is 0.

• Inverse time scales fc and fd (SI unit: 1/s). The default is 0 s-1.
The mass transfer is modeled as

m dc = ρ d [ max ( f c ( φ d – φ eq ), 0 ) – max ( f d ( φ eq – φ d ), 0 ) ]

Interphase Velocity
Select Dispersed phase velocity field (the default) or User defined. For User defined enter
a value or expression for each component of the interphase velocity u int .

476 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Gravity
The Gravity node adds the gravity force vector to the right-hand side of the momentum
equations; ρcg for the continuous phase and ρdg for the dispersed phase.

Gravity nodes are mutually exclusive, that is, there can only be one active Gravity node
per domain.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector, g (SI unit: m/s2). For 2D components
the default Gravity vector is defined as (0,-g_const). Here g_const is a physical
constant equal to 9.8066 m/s2. For 3D and 2D axisymmetric components, the gravity
acts in the negative z direction by default.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume forces on the right-hand side of the
momentum equations; Fc for the continuous phase and Fd for the dispersed phase. It
may for example be used to add user defined interaction forces (in addition to the
interphase drag force).

If several volume force nodes are added to the same domain, the sum of all
contributions are added to the respective momentum equations.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions to describe the flow conditions
at a solid wall. The conditions for each phase are selected separately.

CONTINUOUS PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Continuous Phase Condition — No slip (the default), or Slip.

No Slip
A No slip condition models a wall where the velocity of the continuous phase relative
to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall, it sets the velocity of the continuous
phase to zero:

uc = 0

For turbulent flows, wall functions are used to model the thin region near solid (no
slip) walls with high gradients in the flow variables

THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 477

 Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition. For a stationary wall,
u c ⋅ n = 0 . It is implicitly assumed that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and
hence, no boundary layer develops.

Leakage
·
Select the Leakage check box to specify an Inward continuous phase mass flux, m c (SI
2 ·
unit: kg/(m ·s)). This option is intended for small values of m c . For large mass fluxes,
select us an Inlet feature instead.

DISPERSED PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Dispersed velocity boundary condition — No slip (the default), or Slip. The
conditions prescribed for the velocity of the dispersed phase correspond to those
described for the continuous phase above.

Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition

The Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition defines the condition at the wall for the
volume fraction of the dispersed phase.

• No dispersed phase flux prescribes a zero flux condition at the wall.

·
• Select Leakage to prescribe an Inward dispersed phase mass flux, m d (SI unit:
·
kg/(m2·s)). This option is intended for small values of m d . For large mass fluxes,
select an Inlet feature instead.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

478 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and
the boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

• Wall in the Single-Phase Flow interfaces

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
The Inlet node prescribes the flow and turbulence conditions (when applicable) at a
boundary where one or both phases enter the adjacent domain.

TWO-PHASE INLET TYPE

Selecting Mixture as the Two-Phase Inlet Type, inlet conditions are prescribed for both
phases. Selecting Continuous phase or Dispersed phase, inlet conditions are prescribed
for the corresponding phase, while wall conditions are applied to the remaining phase.

CONTINUOUS PHASE
The options available in this section are based on the Two-phase inlet type selected.

When Mixture or Continuous phase is selected as the Two-phase inlet typ the Velocity
field, continuous phase uc0 is prescribed.

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 When Dispersed phase is selected as the Two-phase inlet type, the conditions applied to
the continuous phase are No slip (uc=0) or Slip (uc·n=0, and no viscous stresses in the
tangential directions).

Using the Phase specific option for the Two-phase turbulence interface property, the
feature also prescribes inlet conditions for the continuous phase turbulence variables.

• Specify turbulent length scale and intensity defines the turbulence inlet conditions
using the Turbulent intensity IT,c (dimensionless) and the Turbulence length scale LT,c
(SI unit: m).
• Specify turbulence variables prescribes the Turbulent kinetic energy k0,c (SI unit:
m2/s2) and the Turbulent dissipation rate ε0,c (SI unit: m2/s3) at the inlet.

DISPERSED PHASE
The options available in this section are based on the Two-phase inlet type selected.

When Mixture or Dispersed phase is selected as the Two-phase inlet type, the Velocity
field, dispersed phase ud0.

The Dispersed phase boundary condition can be Volume fraction, Mass flux or No flux.

• For Volume fraction, specify the Dispersed phase volume fraction, φ d0, at the inlet.
This option locks the value of φ d, but the exact flux depends on the dispersed phase
velocity, ud0.
·
• For Mass flux, prescribe describe the Inward dispersed phase mass flux, m d (SI unit:
kg/(m2·s)). This option prescribes the flux for the dispersed phase, but the resulting
volume fraction at the inlet depends on the dispersed phase velocity, ud0.
When Continuous phase is selected as the Two-phase inlet type, the conditions applied
to the dispersed phase are No slip (ud=0) or Slip (ud·n=0, and no viscous stresses in the
tangential directions).

Using the Phase specific option for the Two-phase turbulence interface property, the
feature also prescribes inlet conditions for the dispersed phase turbulence variables.

• Specify turbulent length scale and intensity defines the turbulence inlet conditions
using the Turbulent intensity IT,d (dimensionless) and the Turbulence length scale
LT,d (SI unit: m).
• Specify turbulence variables prescribes the Turbulent kinetic energy k0,d (SI unit:
m2/s2) and the Turbulent dissipation rate ε0,d (SI unit: m2/s3) at the inlet.

480 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
Using the Mixture option for the Two-phase turbulence interface property, the feature
also prescribes inlet conditions for the mixture turbulence variables.

• Specify turbulent length scale and intensity defines the turbulence inlet conditions
using the Turbulent intensity IT (dimensionless) and the Turbulence length scale LT
(SI unit: m).
• Specify turbulence variables prescribes the Turbulent kinetic energy k0 (SI unit:
m2/s2) and the Turbulent dissipation rate ε0 (SI unit: m2/s3) at the inlet.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Outlet
This node is used to prescribe conditions at boundaries where the two-phase mixture
exits the computational domain. The settings available in the node specifies conditions
for the entire mixture, as opposed to the Inlet, Outlet and Wall nodes where the
conditions for can be specified for each phase individually.

MIXTURE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select Mixture boundary conditions — Pressure, no viscous stress, Pressure, normal flow,
Velocity, Degassing, or Filtration.

Pressure Conditions
When Pressure, no viscous stress or Pressure, normal flow is selected as the Mixture
boundary condition, specify the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the outlet. Note that the
prescribed pressure should be consistent with the reference pressure level specified at
the interface level as well as consistent with present volume forces (including gravity).

Velocity
Select Velocity to specify the Velocity field, continuous phase uc0 (SI unit: m/s) together
with the Velocity field, dispersed phase ud (SI unit: m/s) at the outlet.

Degassing and Filtration

Selecting Degassing allows the dispersed phase to exit the domain but prevents the
continuous phase from exiting. This is achieved through a pressure (p0), no viscous
stress condition for the dispersed phase, in combination with a no penetration
condition for the continuous phase.

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 Selecting Filtration on the other hand allows the continuous phase to exit the domain
but prevents the dispersed phase from exiting. This is achieved through a pressure (p0),
no viscous stress condition for the continuous phase, in combination with a no
penetration condition for the dispersed phase.

Pressure, no viscous stress is the least constraining option and allows the
flow to exit the domain in non-normal directions.

Pressure, normal flow restricts the flow to be completely normal to the

outlet boundary. This option can influence the flow quite a bit upstream
of the inlet.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except

that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be
used to avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions on interior curves
and surfaces instead. Slip conditions and conditions for a moving wall can also be
prescribed. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flow. The conditions for each
phase are selected separately.

CONTINUOUS PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Continuous Phase Condition — No slip (the default), or Slip.

No Slip
A No slip condition models a wall where the velocity of the continuous phase relative
to the wall velocity is zero. For an interior stationary wall, it sets the velocity of the
continuous phase to zero on both sides of the wall:

uc = 0

For turbulent flows, wall functions are used to model the thin region near solid walls
with high gradients in the flow variables.

482 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Slip
Slip prescribes a no-penetration condition. For a stationary interior wall, u c ⋅ n = 0
on both sides.

DISPERSED PHASE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select a Dispersed velocity boundary condition — No slip (the default), or Slip. The
conditions prescribed for the velocity of the dispersed phase correspond to those
described for the continuous phase above.

Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition

The Dispersed phase boundary condition is set to No dispersed phase flux.

WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options.

• Wall
• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

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 Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been selected
for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

484 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

T he P ha s e T r a n sp ort In t erfac es
In this section:

• The Phase Transport Interface

• The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport and Phase
Transport in Porous Media Interfaces

The Phase Transport Interface

The Phase Transport (phtr) interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow
branch ( ), when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate the transport of
multiple immiscible phases either in free flow or in flow through a porous medium.
This interface solves for the averaged volume fractions (also called saturations in a
porous medium) of the phases, and does not track the interfaces between the different
phases, although microscopic interfacial effects are taken into account in the
macroscopic equations for phase transport in porous media through the capillary
pressure functions. The Phase Transport interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Phase and Transport Properties node, which provides an
interface for defining the phase material along with the transporting flow properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase and Transport Properties, No Flux (the default boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also
right-click the Phase Transport node to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 485

 The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is phtr.

PHASES
Select the volume fraction of the phase that this physics interface solves for using the
volume constraint in equation Equation 6-3 (that is, its value comes from the fact that
the sum of all volume fractions must equal 1). In the From volume constraint list, select
the volume fraction of the preferred phase. By default, the first volume fraction is used:

s1 = 1 –  si (6-3)
i=2

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and should
remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do not
perturb the original transport equation.

There is one inconsistent stabilization method: Isotropic diffusion. This method is

equivalent to adding a diffusion term to the equations in order to dampen the effect
of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by convection. By
default, the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected because this type of
stabilization adds artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. If
required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter as a scalar
positive value. The default value is 0.25. A higher value adds more isotropic diffusion.

GRAVITY EFFECTS
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the gravitational force is added to the phase transport
equations in porous domains. For more information, see Gravity.

QUADRATURE SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

These settings affect the numerical integration, and you do not normally need to
change them. The Use automatic quadrature settings check box is selected by default,
meaning that the settings are taken from the main equation in the interface.

486 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

If the check box is cleared, the following setting become available:

Integration Order
The Integration order specifies the desired accuracy of integration during
discretization. Polynomials of at most the given integration order are integrated
without systematic errors. For smooth constraints, a sufficient integration order is
typically twice the order of the shape function. For example, the default integration
order for linear elements is 2. The integration order is a positive integer.

The settings in this section currently only affect the integration order in the Phase and
Transport Properties and Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties domain features.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Pseudo Time Stepping

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant-Friedrichs-
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator. The Use pseudo time stepping for
stationary equation form option is enabled by default.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models in this guide and
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Mass Transport

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the volume fraction variables.
The default shape functions are Linear Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 487

 occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Add or remove volume fractions of different phases in the model and also change the
names of the dependent variables that represent the volume fractions.

Specify the Number of phases. There must be at least two phases. To add a single phase,
click the Add volume fraction button ( ) under the table. To remove a volume
fraction, select it in the list and click the Remove volume fraction button ( ) under
the table. Edit the names of the phases directly in the table.

The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface

The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow >
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ), is used to simulate the transport of
multiple phases either in free flow or in flow through a porous medium. The interface
is the same as the Phase Transport interface but it uses other defaults: a Phase and Porous
Media Transport Properties node is added by default, instead of a Phase and Transport
Properties node.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport of multiple immiscible phases in a

porous medium, taking into account their relative permeabilities and capillary
pressures.

The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties node, which
provides an interface for defining the phase materials along with the transporting
porous medium flow properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties, No Flux (the default
boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can
also right-click the Phase Transport in Porous Media node to select physics features from
the context menu.

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SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as for the Phase Transport interface.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport
and Phase Transport in Porous Media Interfaces
The Phase Transport and Phase Transport in Porous Media interfaces have the following
domain, boundary, edge, and point nodes (listed in alphabetic order) available from
the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux
users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

• Continuity • Outflow
• Gravity • Periodic Condition
• Initial Values • Phase and Porous Media Transport
• Interior Wall Properties

• Mass Flux • Phase and Transport Properties

• Mass Source • Porous Medium Discontinuity

• No Flux • Volume Fraction

• Open Boundary

Phase and Transport Properties

For this node, the Turbulent Mixing subnode is available from the context menu as
well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

VELOCITY FIELD
Specify the velocity field for each phase that is not computed from the volume
constraint. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a fluid flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the velocity
field list.

DENSITY
Enter the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) of each phase. The default value is 1000 kg/m3.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 489

 Turbulent Mixing
This subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Phase and Transport
Properties parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use this
node to account for the turbulent mixing caused by the eddy diffusivity. An example
is when the specified velocity field corresponds to a RANS solution.

TURBULENT MIXING PARAMETERS

Some physics interfaces provide the turbulent kinematic viscosity, and these appear as
options in the Turbulent kinematic viscosity νT list. The list always contains the User
defined option where any value or expression can be entered.

The default Turbulent Schmidt number ScT is 0.71 (dimensionless).

FURTHER READING
See the section About Turbulent Mixing in the CFD Module User’s Guide (this link
is available online or if you have the CFD Module documentation installed).

Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties

Use this node to model the transport of multiple phases through a porous medium.
The node contains functionality to include the effects of the relative permeabilities and
capillary pressures.

MODEL INPUT
Enter the absolute pressure field (SI unit: Pa) for the phase that is computed from the
volume constraint. The volumetric flux of this phase is computed using Darcy’s law,
and in many cases that pressure field will be computed for in a Darcy’s Law interface,
coupled to the Phase Transport interface using a Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
multiphysics coupling node.

The volumetric fluxes of the other phases are also computed using Darcy’s law, taking
into account the relative permeabilities and capillary pressures.

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Select a Capillary pressure model — User defined (the default), van Genuchten, Brooks
and Corey, or Capillary diffusion. The van Genuchten and Brooks and Corey options are
only available when there are not more than two phases present in the model.

• For User defined, enter an expression for the Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa) for
the phases that are not computed from the volume constraint. The pressure of the

490 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 corresponding phase is equal to the pressure of the phase computed from the
volume constraint (supplied in the Pressure input field) plus the capillary pressure
supplied for this phase.

• For van Genuchten, select the Wetting phase and enter an Entry capillary pressure pec
(SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and
Constitutive relations constant lvG (dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, select the Wetting phase and enter an Entry capillary pressure
pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore size distribution index λp (dimensionless).

• For Capillary diffusion, enter a capillary diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s) for
the phases that are not computed from the volume constraint.

PHASE PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for each phase. Select Domain material (the default) from the
Fluid list to use the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that
material’s properties.

Enter the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) and Relative
permeability κr (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for each phase. The defaults
for the Density and Dynamic viscosity are From material, and User defined for the Relative
permeability. For User defined, the default values are 1000 kg/m3, 0.001 Pa·s. and s i2 ,
respectively.

The Relative permeability input fields are only available when the Capillary pressure
model is set to User defined or Capillary diffusion. In the other cases (van Genuchten or
Brooks and Corey) the relative permeabilities are defined by the van Genuchten or Brooks
and Corey model. For the van Genuchten and Brooks and Corey model, specify the
Residual saturation sri (dimensionless, default value 0) for each phase.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material (the default) from
the Porous material list to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selected. For User defined the default is 0.5.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selected. For User defined the default is the Isotropic scalar value of
2
1e-9 m . To define a tensor value, select Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full, and enter values
or expressions in the matrix.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 491

 Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Gravity Effects settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Gravity vector value. Note that this feature only has an effect in porous domains.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector g . The default value is g_const which is
the physical constant having the value 9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the volume fraction of each phase.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial condition for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression in the field for the volume fraction of each phase except for
the one computed from the volume constraint.

Mass Source
In order to account for consumption or production of the different phases due to one
or more reactions or other physical processes, the Mass Source node adds source terms
to the right-hand side of the phase transport equations.

MASS SOURCE
Add an expression for the mass source for each individual phase present, except for the
one computed from the volume constraint. The net mass source of all phases together
is assumed to be zero, which means that the mass is transferred to or from the phase
that is computed from the volume constraint.

492 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Select the Mass transfer to other phases check box if mass is transferred from or to
phases not accounted for in the phase transport interface, for instance when mass is
released or absorbed by the solid part of the porous matrix. In this case the mass source
for the phase calculated from the volume constraint should also be specified. The net
mass transfer corresponds to the sum of the mass sources for all phases and should be
accounted for in the computation of the flow field.

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It represents
boundaries where no mass flows in or out of the boundaries. Hence, the total flux is
zero.

Volume Fraction
This node adds a boundary condition for the volume fractions of the different phases.
Set the volume fractions of all phases except the one computed from the volume
constraint. This ensures that the sum of the volume fractions is equal to one.

VOLUME FRACTION
Specify the volume fraction for each phase individually. Select the check box for the
phases to specify the volume fraction, and enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific phase, click to
clear the check box for the volume fraction of that phase.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can find details about the
different constraint settings in the section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Mass Flux
The Mass Flux node can be used to specify the total mass flux of a phase across a
boundary. Set the mass flux for all phases except the one computed from the volume
constraint. This ensures that the sum of the volume fractions is equal to one.

For modeling mass flux from very thin objects add a Line Mass Source or a Point Mass
Source node.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 493

 The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius. It is available for edges in 3D geometries or points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric
geometries.

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

MASS FLUX
Specify the inward mass flux for each phase individually. Select the check box for the
phase to prescribe a mass flux and enter a value or expression for the flux in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific phase, click to
clear the check box for the flux of that phase. Use a positive value for an inward flux.
The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)), Lines (SI
unit: kg/(m·s), and Points (SI unit: kg/s)).

Outflow
Set this condition at exterior boundaries where the phases are transported out of the
model domain by fluid motion. The outward mass flux for each phase is in this case set
to the normal outward phase velocity times the phase density.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up transport across boundaries where both convective inflow and
outflow occur. On the parts where fluid flows into the domain, an exterior species
concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where fluid flows out of the
domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Phase Transport interface.

The Open Boundary condition is only available for exterior boundaries adjacent to a
Phase Transport Properties domain and thus it is not applicable for exterior boundaries
adjacent to a porous domain.

EXTERIOR VOLUME FRACTION

Specify a value or expression for the Exterior volume fraction for each phase not
computed from the volume constraint.

494 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it

applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the volume
fraction across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-flux condition on interior curves and
surfaces instead.

Porous Medium Discontinuity

The Porous Medium Discontinuity boundary condition can only be applied on interior
boundaries, and only when on both sides of the boundary a Phase and Porous Media
Transport Properties domain condition is active. Set this condition at boundaries over
which the capillary pressure function is discontinuous in the phase saturations due to
the different properties of the porous matrix on both sides of the discontinuity.

POROUS MEDIUM DISCONTINUITY SETTINGS

This section is only available when only two phases are present in the physics interface.
Select the check box to use automatic settings in this case.

ENTRY CAPILLARY PRESSURE

This section is only available if the automatic settings are not used for the Porous
Medium Discontinuity Settings, or when the Porous Medium Discontinuity Settings section
is not available, which is the case if there are three or more phases present.

Specify on which side of the discontinuity the lower permeable medium is located
using the settings for the of the Location of lower permeable medium.

Specify the Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) for all phases, except the one
computed from the volume constraint. Make sure the values correspond to the settings
for the capillary pressure model in the adjacent domain conditions.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can find details about the
different constraint settings in the section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 495

 Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the volume fraction for each phase is continuous across the pair.

A No Flux subnode is added by default and it applies to the parts of the pair boundaries
where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination boundary and vice versa.
The No Flux feature can be overridden by any other boundary condition that applies to
exterior boundaries. By right-clicking the Continuity node, additional fallback feature
subnodes can be added.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings can be set
to Use pointwise constraints (default) or to Use DG constraints (if possible). This latter
option uses DG constraints as long as the selected boundaries are not adjacent to a
porous domain. If the boundary selection contains boundaries adjacent to a porous
domain, pointwise constraints are used instead. DG constraints are recommended on
pairs adjacent to a Phase and Transport Properties feature, especially when the mesh
nodes do not match across the pair or when the mesh is sliding.

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is available
for Use pointwise constraints.

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the phase transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the volume
fractions and mass fluxes between the “source” and “destination” side respectively.
Note that these names are arbitrary and do not influence the direction in which mass
is transported. It is dictated by the phase transport equations in the adjacent domains.

The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

496 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to add the Destination Selection
subnode, which is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as well
as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. With this subnode, the boundaries that
constitute the source and destination surfaces can be manually specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings can be set
to Use pointwise constraints (default) or to Use DG constraints (if possible). This latter
option uses DG constraints as long as the selected boundaries are not adjacent to a
porous domain. If the boundary selection contains boundaries adjacent to a porous
domain, pointwise constraints are used instead. DG constraints are recommended on
boundaries adjacent to a Phase and Transport Properties feature, especially when the
mesh nodes do not match across the source and destination boundaries.

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints (if possible)
is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is available
for Use pointwise constraints.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 497

 The Phase Transport Mixture Model
Interfaces
The Phase Transport Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow>Phase
Transport Mixture Model branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the
Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) and the Phase Transport
interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling feature Mixture Model.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with a

Laminar Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with
a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with a
Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with
a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with
a Turbulent Flow, SST interface.

498 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Phase Transport interface with
a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface.

Coupling Feature
The Mixture Model multiphysics coupling node is described in this section.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

PHASE TRANSPORT
The available physics features for The Phase Transport Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport and Phase
Transport in Porous Media Interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 499

 TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , R E A L I Z A B L E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SPALART-ALLMARAS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, V2-F

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

Mixture Model
Use the Mixture Model ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate the flow of liquids
containing one or more dispersed phases. The dispersed phases can be bubbles, liquid
droplets, or solid particles, which are assumed to travel always with their terminal
velocity.

500 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Phase Transport and the single-phase flow interface, which are coupled by the
Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, solve together for conservation of mass of the
dispersed phases and conservation of total mass and momentum of the mixture.

The Mixture Model multiphysics coupling provides the mixture density and viscosity to
the single-phase fluid flow interface. Since the density of the mixture depends on the
volume fractions and densities of the different phases, which in turn may depend on
pressure and temperature, it cannot be assumed that the density of the mixture is
constant. Therefore the Incompressible flow option is not available in the single-phase
flow interface that is coupled by the Mixture Model multiphysics coupling.

In the Phase Transport interface, it sets the Absolute pressure in the Model Input section
and defines the densities in the Density section of the Phase and Transport Properties
feature. In addition it determines and provides the velocity fields for the dispersed
phases in the Velocity Field section.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mfmm1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the mixture model, or select
All domains as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Phase
transport and Fluid flow lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 501

 The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Phase Transport
is deleted, then the Phase transport list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

MODEL INPUTS
The viscosity and density of each phase can be defined through user inputs, variables,
or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for example
temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to User defined. Alternatively, the
temperature field can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces
have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is
included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at
the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

502 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

PHYSICAL MODEL
Specify the characteristics of the dispersed phase(s), the model for the slip velocity, and
the mixture viscosity model.

Dispersed Phase
To characterize the Dispersed phase, select Solid particles (the default) or Liquid
droplets/bubbles.

Slip Model
To compute the slip velocity uslip,i (SI unit: m/s), select a Slip model — Homogeneous
flow (the default), Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann, Haider-Levenspiel, or User
defined.

• The Homogeneous flow model assumes that the velocities of the continuous and
dispersed phases are equal, that is, uslip,i = 0.
• In most cases there is a significant difference in the velocity fields due to the
buoyancy of the dispersed phase. Use one of the predefined slip models for such
cases.
• For User defined specify an arbitrary expression for the relative velocity. For example,
give a constant velocity based on experimental data. Enter the Slip velocity field
uslip,i (SI unit: m/s) in the Dispersed phase properties sections.

Mixture Viscosity Model

Select the Mixture viscosity model.

• When Solid particles is the Dispersed phase, select either User defined (the default) or
Krieger type (which is only available when there is only one dispersed phase present).
• When Liquid droplets/bubbles is the Dispersed phase, select User defined (the default),
Volume averaged, or Krieger type (which is only available when there is only one
dispersed phase present).

For User defined enter a value or expression for the Dynamic viscosity, mixture μ
(SI unit: Pa⋅s). The default expression is mfmm1.muc, which is the variable name for the

THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 503

 viscosity of the continuous phase. When using this option to enter an expression, make
sure to limit the viscosity to bounded positive values.

When Krieger type is selected, enter a value or expression for the Maximum packing
concentration φmax (dimensionless). The default is 0.62.

Select Krieger type to model the most generally valid expression for the mixture
viscosity:

φ d – 2.5φ max μ∗
μ = μ c  1 – ------------
 φ max

where φmax is the maximum packing concentration, which for solid particles is
approximately 0.62. The dimensionless parameter μ* = 1 for solid particles and

μ d + 0.4μ c
μ∗ = ---------------------------
μd + μc

for droplets and bubbles. When applying the Krieger type viscosity model, φd is
replaced by min(φd, 0.999φmax) for better robustness.

Select Volume averaged to model the mixture viscosity of liquid-liquid mixtures, which
uses the following equation for the viscosity:

μ =  si μi
i=1

The Mixture Model interfaces always employ the mixture viscosity in the particle
Reynolds number expression used to calculate the slip velocity, thereby accounting for
the increase in viscous drag due to particle-particle interactions.

Include Diffusion Stress in Momentum Equation

When the Include diffusion stress in momentum equation check box is selected (default),
the diffusion stress term is added to the momentum equation in the coupled fluid flow
interface. Deselect the check box to disregard this term.

Low Dispersed Phase Concentration

When the Low dispersed phase concentration check box is selected, the mixture density
in the continuity equation and in the inertial terms of the momentum equation is
replaced by the density of the continuous phase (see Equation 6-131 and
Equation 6-132 in the section Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model
Interfaces). This approximation is valid if the volume fraction of the dispersed phases

504 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

is small (less than a few percent) and if the density of the dispersed phases is not (much)
larger than the density of the continuous phase.

TURBULENT MIXING
This section is available whenever the coupled fluid flow interface is a turbulent flow
interface using a RANS turbulence model.

Enter a value or expression for the Turbulent Schmidt number ScT. The default value is
0.35 (dimensionless).

See the section About Turbulent Mixing in the CFD Module User’s Guide (this link
is available online or if you have the CFD Module documentation installed).

CONTINUOUS PHASE PROPERTIES

Select the fluid materials to use for the material properties. The default material used
for the Continuous phase is the Domain material.

The default Density, continuous phase ρc (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section). For User defined enter another value or expression. In
this case the default is 1000 kg/m3.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified in the
Model Input section.

The default Dynamic viscosity, continuous phase μc (SI unit: Pa·s), uses values From
material. It describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the shear rate in a
fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as
thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity. For User defined enter another value or
expression. In this case, the default is 0.001 Pa·s.

DISPERSED PHASE PROPERTIES

The number of Dispersed Phase Properties sections depends on the number of phases
defined in the coupled Phase Transport interface: the number of sections is equal to
the number of dispersed phases, which is in turn equal to the number of phases defined
in the coupled Phase Transport interface minus one.

The options in these sections are influenced by the selections made in the Physical
Model section.

Select the fluid materials to use for the material properties. The default material used
for the Phase is the Domain material.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 505

 The default Density, dispersed phase ρi (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section). For User defined enter another value or expression. In
this case, the default is 1000 kg/m3.

The density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref and Tref, which are specified in the
Model Input section.

If Liquid droplets/bubbles is selected from the Dispersed phase list in the Physical Model
section, then Dynamic viscosity, dispersed phase μi (SI unit: Pa·s) is also available. The
default uses values From material or select User defined to enter another value or
expression. In this case, the default is 0.001 Pa·s.

If one of the predefined slip models (Hadamard-Rybczynski, Schiller-Naumann, or

Haider-Levenspiel) is selected from the Slip model list in the Physical Model section, then
Diameter of particles/droplets di (SI unit: m) is also available. The default is 10−3 m
(1 mm). If Haider-Levenspiel is selected for the Slip model under Physical Model, enter a
value between 0 and 1 for the Sphericity (dimensionless). The default is 1.

If a Schiller-Naumann or a Haider-Levenspiel slip model is selected from the Slip model

list in the Physical Model section, enter an initial value for the Squared slip velocity
slipvel0,i (SI unit: m2/s2). The default is 0 m2/s2.

When a User defined Slip model is selected in the Physical Model section, specify an
arbitrary expression for the slip velocity uslip,i (SI unit: m/s). For example, give a
constant velocity based on experimental data.

• See Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Phase transport or Fluid flow lists. This is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

506 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model
Interfaces
The Nonisothermal Mixture Model, Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Multiphase
Flow>Nonisothermal Mixture Model branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows,
one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow), the Phase Transport
interface, and the Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling features Nonisothermal Flow, Mixture Model, and Nonisothermal
Mixture Model.

The Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Laminar Flow interface with a Phase
Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow,
Algebraic yPlus with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL
interface with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface
with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow,
Realizable k-ε interface with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface
with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, SST interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, SST interface
with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.

THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 507

 • The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, Low Re
k-ε interface with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow,
Spalart-Allmaras interface with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface.

• The Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface ( ) combines a Turbulent Flow, v2-f interface
with a Phase Transport interface and a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface.

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings may not be automatically included.

For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids, Phase Transport, and Laminar Flow
interfaces are added, COMSOL Multiphysics adds an empty Multiphysics node. When
you right-click this node, you can add the Nonisothermal Flow, Mixture Model, or
Nonisothermal Mixture Model coupling features, but the modified settings are not
included. To get all the modified settings presented below automatically, you may

508 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

instead right-click the component node, select Add Multiphysics, and add Nonisothermal
Mixture Model from the Add Multiphysics window.

TABLE 6-8: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES.

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Fluid Flow Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
The Compressibility option of the fluid flow
interface is set to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3).
The Temperature, T (Model Input section) is
automatically set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling
feature.
Phase Transport The Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section)
and the Velocity field, u (Velocity field section)
are automatically set to the variables from the
Mixture Model multiphysics coupling feature.
Temperature, T (Model Input section) is
automatically set to the variables from the
Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics
coupling feature.
Heat Transfer in Fluids Discretization order from temperature Lagrange
shape function is 1.
The Absolute pressure, pA (Model Input section)
and the Velocity field, u (Heat Convection
section) are automatically set to the variables
from the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics
coupling feature.
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are
preselected.
The Specifiy density and Specify reference
temperature settings are set to From fluid flow
interface.
Mixture Model The Phase Transport and Fluid Flow interfaces
are preselected.
Nonisothermal Mixture Model The Phase Transport and Heat transfer
interfaces are preselected.

THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 509

 Coupling Features
Three coupling features are added: The Nonisothermal Flow, the Mixture Model, and
the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics couplings.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

PHASE TRANSPORT
The available physics features for The Phase Transport Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport and Phase
Transport in Porous Media Interfaces.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, ALGEBRAIC YPLUS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, L-VEL

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

510 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , R E A L I Z A B L E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SPALART-ALLMARAS

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Spalart–Allmaras Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, V2-F

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, v2-f Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

HEAT TRANSFER IN FLUIDS

The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in the
section The Heat Transfer in Solids and Fluids Interface. Also see Fluid for details
about that feature.

Nonisothermal Mixture Model

Use the Mixture Model ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate heat transfers in fluids
containing one or more dispersed phases.

THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 511

 The Phase Transport and the Heat Transfer in Fluids interface, which are coupled by
the Nonsiothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling, solve together for conservation
of mass of the dispersed phases and heat transfer in the mixture.

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling provides the mixture

thermal conductivity, heat capacity at constant pressure, and ratio of specific heats to
the heat transfer interface.

In the Phase Transport interface, it sets the Temperature in the Model Input section.
When the Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling is used together with
a Mixture Model multiphysics coupling that couples the Phase Transport interface with
a single-phase flow interface (laminar or turbulent), it also sets the Temperature in the
Model Input section of the Mixture Model coupling.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitmm1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the mixture model, or select
All domains as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Phase
transport and Heat Transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

512 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Phase Transport
is deleted, then the Phase transport list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

MODEL INPUTS
The thermal conductivity, heat capacity at constant pressure, and ratio of specific heats
of each phase can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by selecting a material.
For the latter option, additional inputs, for example temperature or pressure, may be
required to define these properties.

Temperature
This input appears when a material requires the temperature as a model input. By
default, the Temperature model input is set from the Heat Transfer interface.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. The Absolute Pressure model input is per default
computed from the Heat Transfer interface. If the Heat Transfer interface is coupled
to a single-phase flow (laminar or turbulent) interface using the Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling, the absolute pressure will be taken from the single-phase flow
interface.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

CONTINUOUS PHASE PROPERTIES

Select the fluid materials to use for the material properties of the continuous phase.
The default material used for the Continuous phase is the Domain material.

Heat conduction
The default Thermal conductivity kc (SI unit: W/(m·K)) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section for the Continuous Phase Properties). For User defined
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter values or expressions f or the thermal conductivity or its
components. For Isotropic enter a scalar which will be used to define a diagonal tensor.

THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 513

 In this case the default is 0 W/(m·K). For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

Fluid Material
Both the heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,c and ratio of specific heats γc of the
continuous phase can be defined.

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,c (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), uses values From
material. It describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass. For User defined enter another value or expression.
In this case, the default is 0 J/(kg·K).

The default Ratio of specific heat γc (SI unit: 1), uses values From material. It is the ratio
of the heat capacity at constant pressure of the phase, Cp,c, to the heat capacity at
constant volume, Cv,c. For User defined enter another value or expression. In this case,
the default is 1. For common diatomic gases such as air, γ = 1.4 is the standard value.
Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has γ = 1.0. γ is used in the streamline
stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total energy fluxes.

DISPERSED PHASE PROPERTIES

The number of Dispersed Phase Properties sections depends on the number of phases
defined in the coupled Phase Transport interface: the number of sections is equal to
the number of dispersed phases, which is in turn equal to the number of phases defined
in the coupled Phase Transport interface minus one.

Select the fluid materials to use for the material properties of the phase. The default
material used for the Phase is the Domain material.

Heat conduction
The default Thermal conductivity kd (SI unit: W/(m·K)) uses values From material (as
selected in the Materials section for the Dispersed Phase Properties). For User defined
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter values or expressions for the thermal conductivity or its
components. For Isotropic enter a scalar which will be used to define a diagonal tensor.
In this case the default is 0 W/(m·K). For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

Fluid Material
Both the heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,d and ratio of specific heats γd of the
phase can be defined.

514 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,d (SI unit: J/(kg·K)), uses values
From material. It describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass. For User defined enter another value or expression.
In this case, the default is 0 J/(kg·K).

The default Ratio of specific heat γd (SI unit: 1), uses values From material. It is the ratio
of the heat capacity at constant pressure of the phase, Cp,d, to the heat capacity at
constant volume, Cv,d. For User defined enter another value or expression. In this case,
the default is 1. For common diatomic gases such as air, γ = 1.4 is the standard value.
Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has γ = 1.0. γ is used in the streamline
stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total energy fluxes.

• See Theory for the Nonisothermal Mixture Model Interfaces

• See Theory for the Phase Transport Mixture Model Interfaces
• See Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Phase transport or Fluid flow lists. This is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 515

 Theory for the Two-Phase Flow
Interfaces
The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field interfaces can be used to model the
flow of two different, immiscible fluids, where the exact position of the interface
between the two fluids is of interest. The fluid-fluid interface is tracked using an
auxiliary function on a fixed mesh. These methods account for differences in the two
fluids’ densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension and gravity.

The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces theory is described in this
section:

• Level Set and Phase Field Equations

• Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations
• Phase Initialization
• Numerical Stabilization
• References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

Level Set and Phase Field Equations

By default, the Level Set and Phase Field interfaces use the incompressible formulation
of the Navier–Stokes equations:

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – p I + μ ( ∇u + ∇u ) ] + F g + F st + F ext + F (6-4)
∂t

∇⋅u = 0 (6-5)

Note that Equation 6-4, and Equation 6-5 are solved in the contained interface,
Laminar Flow or Turbulent Flow interface. Note that the form of the continuity
equation, appropriate for high density difference mixtures, differs from the definition
in Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces.

USING THE LEVEL SET METHOD

If the level set method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equation:

516 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂-----φ- ∇φ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (6-6)
∂t  ∇φ 

where γ is the reinitialization parameter (set to 1 by default), and ε is the interface

thickness controlling parameter (set to hmax/2 where hmax is the maximum element
size in the component). The density is a function of the level set function. Let ρ1 and
ρ2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. Here, Fluid 1
corresponds to the domain where φ < 0.5 , and Fluid 2 corresponds to the domain
where φ > 0.5 . When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density is defined
as,

ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )φ

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

φ – 0.5
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )H  -----------------
lρ

where H is a smooth step function and lρ is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
ρ = -----------------------------------------------
( 1 – φ ) ⁄ ρ1 + φ ⁄ ρ2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )φ

Heaviside function,

φ – 0.5
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )H  -----------------
lμ

Harmonic volume average,

1
μ = -----------------------------------------------
( 1 – φ ) ⁄ μ1 + φ ⁄ μ2

Mass average,

ρ 1 ( 1 – φ )μ 1 + ρ 2 φμ 2
μ = -----------------------------------------------------
ρ

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 517

 or Harmonic mass average,

ρ
μ = ------------------------------------------------------------
ρ1 ( 1 – φ ) ⁄ μ1 + ρ2 φ ⁄ μ2

where μ1 and μ2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, μ1,2 is replaced by μapp1,2 in the previous expressions.
Further details of the theory for the level set method are in Ref. 1.

USING THE PHASE FIELD METHOD

If the phase field method is used to track the interface, it adds the following equations:

∂φ γλ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = ∇ ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ (6-7)
∂t ε

ε ∂f ext
2
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(6-8)
 λ  ∂φ

where the quantity λ (SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a
capillary width that scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are
related to the surface tension coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- ---
3 ε

and γ is the mobility parameter which is related to ε through γ = χε2 where χ is the
mobility tuning parameter (set to 1 by default). The volume fractions of Fluid 1 and
Fluid 2 are computed as

V f, 2 = min ( max ( [ ( 1 + φ ) ⁄ 2 ], 0 ), 1 ), V f, 1 = 1 – V f, 2

where the min and max operators are used so that the volume fractions have a lower
limit of 0 and an upper limit of 1. Let ρ1 and ρ2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1
and Fluid 2, respectively. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density
is defined as,

ρ = ρ 1 V f, 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

V f, 2 – 0.5
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )H  -------------------------
 lρ 

518 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where H is a smooth step function and lρ is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
ρ = ------------------------------------------------
V f, 1 ⁄ ρ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ ρ 2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

μ = V f, 1 μ 1 + μ 2 V f, 2

Heaviside function,

V f, 2 – 0.5
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )H  -------------------------
lμ

Harmonic volume average,

1
μ = ------------------------------------------------
V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

Mass average,

ρ 1 V f, 1 μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 μ 2
μ = ------------------------------------------------------
ρ

or Harmonic mass average,

ρ
μ = -------------------------------------------------------------
ρ 1 V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

where μ1 and μ2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively. For
inelastic non-Newtonian fluids, μ1,2 are replaced by μapp1,2 in the previous
expressions.

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) can be computed by entering the following
expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

where G is the chemical potential defined as:

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 519

 2
φ ( φ – 1 ) ∂f
G = λ  – ∇2φ + ----------------------
- + ------
 ε 2  ∂φ

Details of the theory for the phase field method are found in Ref. 2.

FORCE TERMS
The four forces on the right-hand side of Equation 6-4 are due to gravity, surface
tension, a force due to an external contribution to the free energy (using the phase field
method only), and a user-defined volume force.

The Surface Tension Force for the Level Set Method

For the level set method, the surface tension force acting on the interface between the
two fluids is:

F st = σδκn + δ∇ s σ

where σ is the surface tensions coefficient (SI unit: N/m), n is the unit normal to the
interface, and κ = – ∇ ⋅ n is the curvature. δ (SI unit: 1/m) is a Dirac delta function
located at the interface. ∇ s is the surface gradient operator

T
∇ s = ( I – nn )∇

The δ-function is approximated by a smooth function according to

δ = 6 ∇φ φ ( 1 – φ )

The Surface Tension Force for the Phase Field Method

The surface tension force for the phase field method is implemented as a body force

∂f
F st =  G – ------ ∇φ
 ∂φ

where G is the chemical potential (SI unit: J/m3) defined in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method and ∂f ⁄ ∂φ is a user-defined source of free energy. When Shift
surface tension force to the heaviest phase is selected the surface-tension force is added
as,

V f,1 – 0.5 V f,2 – 0.5 ∂f

F st = ------------------  ρ 1 H  ------------------------ + ρ 2 H  ------------------------   G – ------ ∇φ
2
ρ1 + ρ2 d s, Fst d s, Fst ∂φ

520 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where ds,Fst is a smoothing factor. This can be used to avoid unphysical acceleration
of a light phase near a phase interface caused by the smearing of the phase interface
across a few mesh cells.

If Include surface tension gradient effects in surface tension force is selected, extra terms
are added to account for the Marangoni effect due to gradients in the surface tension
coefficient (see Ref. 6):

2
∂f  ∇φ 2 ( φ 2 – 1 ) 
F st =  G – ------ ∇φ +  ------------- + ---------------------- ∇λ – ( ∇λ ⋅ ∇φ )∇φ
∂φ  2 ∂φ 4ε 2 

The Gravity Force

The gravity force is Fg = ρg where g is the gravity vector. Add this as a Gravity feature
to the fluid domain.

The User-Defined Volume Force

When using a Phase Field interface, a force arising due to a user-defined source of free
energy is computed according to:

∂f
F ext =   ∇φ
 ∂ φ

This force is added when a φ -derivative of the external free energy has been defined in
the External Free Energy section of the Fluid Properties feature.

Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations

When the velocity field is divergence free, you can use either the conservative or the
nonconservative formulation of the level set or phase field equation. The conservative
form perfectly conserves the mass of each fluid, but the computational time is generally
longer.

When the Level Set or Phase Field interface are coupled to a fluid flow interface by
means of The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature or The Two-Phase Flow,
Phase Field Coupling Feature, improved conservation of the integral of the level set or
phase field variable is obtained using the nonconservative form provided that the
discretization order of the level set or phase field variable is equal to or lower than the
order of the pressure.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 521

 Phase Initialization
If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
or phase field variable is automatically initialized. For this study, two study steps are
created, Phase Initialization and Time Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves
for the distance to the initial interface, Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the
initial condition for the level set function according to the following expression:

1
φ 0 = -----------------------
D ⁄ε
-
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 1 and

1
φ 0 = -------------------------
–D ⁄ ε
-
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 2.

Correspondingly, for the phase field method the following expressions are used:

D wi
φ 0 = – tanh  ----------
2ε

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
φ 0 = tanh  ----------
 2ε

522 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

in Fluid 2. The initial condition for the help variable is ψ0 = 0. These expressions are
based on the analytical solution of the steady state solution of Equation 6-6,
Equation 6-7, and Equation 6-8 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 and the
other Specify phase: Fluid 2. The initial fluid-fluid interface is then
automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both phases. Note
that when the value of Level set variable or Phase field variable is set to
User defined, arbitrary user defined initial values have to be provided. In
this case, the smooth initialization is not used, and a Time Dependent
study should be used instead of Time Dependent with Phase
Initialization.

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Phase Initialization in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Numerical Stabilization
Three types of stabilization methods are available for the flow (Navier–Stokes),
turbulence, and interface (level set or phase field) equations. Two are consistent
stabilization methods — Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion — and one is
inconsistent — Isotropic diffusion.

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

• The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

• Selection Information in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces

1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow”,
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 523

 2. P. Yue, J.J. Feng, C. Liu, and J. Shen, “A Diffuse-interface Method for Simulating
Two-phase Flows of Complex Fluids”, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 515, pp. 293–317, 2004.

3. B. Lafaurie, C. Nardone, R. Scardovelli, S. Zaleski, and G. Zanetti “Modelling

Merging and Fragmentation in Multiphase Flows with SURFER.”, J. Comput. Phys.,
vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 134–147, 1994.

4. Y. D. Shikhmurzaev, “The Moving Contact line on a Smooth Solid Surface”,

Int. J. Multiph. Flow, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 589–610, 1993.

5. J. F. Gerbeau and T. Lelièvre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for surface tension”,
Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng, vol. 198, no. 5-8, pp. 644–656, 2009.

6. C. Liu, J. Shen, J. J. Feng, and P. Yue, “Variational Approach in Two-Phase Flows

of Complex Fluids: Transport and Induced Elastic Stress”, Chapter 11 in
Mathematical Models and Methods in Phase Transitions, Alan Miranville, ed, Nova
Publishers, pp. 259–278, 2005.

524 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

T he o r y f o r t he Two- Ph ase Th i n - Fi l m
Flow, Phase Field Interfaces
The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field interfaces can be used to model the flow
of two different, immiscible fluids in thin, narrow channels, where the exact position
of the interface between the two fluids is of interest. The fluid-fluid interface is tracked
using an auxiliary function on a fixed mesh. These methods account for differences in
the two fluids’ densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension.

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces’ theory is described in this
section:

• Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Equations

• Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations
• Phase Initialization
• References for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Equations

The phase field method, used to track the interface, adds the following equations:

∂φ γλ
+ u ⋅ ∇ t φ = ∇ t ⋅ -----2- ∇ t ψ (6-9)
∂t ε

ε ∂f ext
2
ψ = – ∇ t ⋅ ε ∇ t φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(6-10)
 λ  ∂φ

where the quantity λ (SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a
capillary width that scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are
related to the surface tension coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- ---
3 ε

and γ is the mobility parameter which is related to ε through γ = χε2 where χ is the
mobility tuning parameter (set to 1 by default). The volume fractions of Fluid 1 and
Fluid 2 are computed as

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 525
 V f, 2 = min ( max ( [ ( 1 + φ ) ⁄ 2 ], 0 ), 1 ), V f, 1 = 1 – V f, 2

where the min and max operators are used so that the volume fractions have a lower
limit of 0 and an upper limit of 1. Let ρ1 and ρ2 be the constant densities of Fluid 1
and Fluid 2, respectively. When Density averaging is set to Volume average, the density
is defined as,

ρ = ρ 1 V f, 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2

switching to Heaviside function, the density is defined as,

V f, 2 – 0.5
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )H  -------------------------
lρ

where H is a smooth step function and lρ is a mixing parameter defining the size of the
transition zone. When the Harmonic volume average is selected,

1
ρ = ------------------------------------------------
V f, 1 ⁄ ρ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ ρ 2

Similarly, the dynamic viscosity can be defined by setting Viscosity averaging to Volume
average,

μ = V f, 1 μ 1 + μ 2 V f, 2

Heaviside function,

V f, 2 – 0.5
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )H  -------------------------
lμ

Harmonic volume average,

1
μ = ------------------------------------------------
V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

Mass average,

ρ 1 V f, 1 μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 μ 2
μ = ------------------------------------------------------
ρ

or Harmonic mass average,

526 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρ
μ = -------------------------------------------------------------
ρ 1 V f, 1 ⁄ μ 1 + ρ 2 V f, 2 ⁄ μ 2

where μ1 and μ2 are the dynamic viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2, respectively.

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) can be computed by entering the following
expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

where G is the chemical potential defined as:

2
φ ( φ – 1 ) ∂f
G = λ  – ∇ t φ + ----------------------
2
- + ------
 ε 2  ∂φ

Details of the theory for the phase field method are found in Ref. 2.

FORCE TERMS
The forces applied on the right-hand side of the momentum equation are due to
surface tension and a user-defined volume force.

The Surface Tension Force for the Phase Field Method

The surface tension force for the phase field method is implemented as a body force

∂f
F st =  G – ------ ∇ t φ
∂φ

where G is the chemical potential (SI unit: J/m3) defined in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method and ∂f ⁄ ∂φ is a user-defined source of free energy.

The User-Defined Volume Force

When using a Phase Field interface, a force arising due to a user-defined source of free
energy is computed according to:

∂f
F ext =   ∇ t φ
∂φ

This force is added when a φ -derivative of the external free energy has been defined in
the External Free Energy section of the Fluid Properties feature.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 527
 Conservative and Nonconservative Formulations
When the velocity field is divergence free, you can use either the conservative or the
nonconservative formulation of the phase field thin-film flow equation. The
conservative form perfectly conserves the mass of each fluid, but the computational
time is generally longer.

When the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interface are coupled to a Thin-Film Flow
interface by means of or The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling
Feature, improved conservation of the integral of the phase field variable is obtained
using the nonconservative form provided that the discretization order of the phase
field variable is equal to or lower than the order of the film pressure.

Phase Initialization
If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the phase field
variable is automatically initialized. For this study, two study steps are created, Phase
Initialization and Time Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance
to the initial interface, Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition
for the level set function according to the following expression:

1 -
φ 0 = -----------------------
D ⁄ε
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 1 and

1
φ 0 = -------------------------
–D ⁄ ε
-
1 + e wi

in domains initially filled with Fluid 2.

Correspondingly, for the phase field method the following expressions are used:

D wi
φ 0 = – tanh  ----------
2ε

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
φ 0 = tanh  ----------
2ε

528 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

in Fluid 2. The initial condition for the help variable is ψ0 = 0. These expressions are
based on the analytical solution of the steady state solution of Equation 6-9, and
Equation 6-10 for a straight, nonmoving interface.

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 and the
other Specify phase: Fluid 2. The initial fluid-fluid interface is then
automatically placed on all interior boundaries between both phases. Note
that when the value of Phase field variable is set to User defined, arbitrary
user defined initial values have to be provided. In this case, the smooth
initialization is not used, and a Time Dependent study should be used
instead of Time Dependent with Phase Initialization.

• The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces

• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Phase Initialization in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

References for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

See References for the Level Set and Phase Field Interfaces.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE THIN-FILM FLOW, PHASE FIELD INTERFACES | 529
 Theory for the Three-Phase Flow
Interface
The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface can be used to model the flow and
interaction of three different, immiscible fluids, when the exact positions of the
interfaces separating the fluids are of interest. The fluid-fluid interfaces are tracked
using a ternary phase field formulation which account for differences in the fluids’
densities and viscosities and include the effects of surface tension.

The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Interfaces theory is described in the
following sections:

• Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

• Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

Governing Equations of the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

LAMINAR FLOW EQUATIONS

The Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field interface is used to study the evolution of three
immiscible fluid phases denoted by fluid A, fluid B, and fluid C. The interface solves
the Navier–Stokes equations governing conservation of momentum and mass. The
momentum equations solved correspond to

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – p I + μ ( ∇u + ∇u ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u ) I + F st + F (6-11)
∂t 3

where Fst is the surface tension force. The physics interface assumes that the density
of each phase is constant. The density may however vary between the phases. In order
to accurately handle systems where density of the phases are significantly different, as
well as systems with phases of similar density, the following fully compressible
continuity equation is solved by the interface

∂--------------
log ρ-
+ ∇ ⋅ u + u ⋅ ∇ log ρ = 0 (6-12)
∂t

530 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

TERNARY PHASE-FIELD EQUATIONS
In order to track the interfaces between three immiscible fluids, a ternary phase field
model based on the work of Boyer and co-workers in Ref. 1 is used. The model solves
the following Cahn–Hilliard equations

∂φ M
--------i + ∇ ⋅ ( uφ i ) = ∇ ⋅  -------0- ∇η i
∂t  Σi 
(6-13)
4Σ T 1  ∂F ∂F   3
 ----
η i = ----------
ε  - -------- – -------- – --- εΣ ∇ 2 φ i
 Σ j  ∂φ i ∂φ j  4 j
j≠i

governing the phase field variable, φ i , and a generalized chemical potential, ηi, of each
phase i = A, B, C. The phase field variables vary between 0 and 1 and are a measure
of the concentration of each phase. The phase field variable for phase A is one in
instances containing only this phase, and zero where there is no phase A. Since the
fluids are immiscible, variations in the phase field variable occur, and define the
interface separating two phases. At each point the phase field variables satisfy the
following constraint

 φi = 1 (6-14)
i = A , B, C

The density of each phase is assumed to be constant which implies that the phase field
variable corresponds to the volume fraction of the phase in question. In order to satisfy
Equation 6-14, two sets of the equations shown in Equation 6-13 are solved, namely
those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable, and correspondingly the mass
fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 6-14.

The density and viscosity of the fluid mixture used in Equation 6-4 and 6-5 are defined
as:

ρ = ρA φA + ρB φB + ρC φC
(6-15)
μ = μA φA + μB φB + μC φC

Free Energy
The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACE | 531

 2 2 2 2 2 2
F = σ AB φ A φ B + σ AC φ A φ C + σ BC φ B φ C +
(6-16)
2 2 2
φ A φ B φ C ( Σ A φ A + Σ B φ B + Σ C φ C ) + Λφ A φ B φ C

Here the σij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters Σi are defined for each phase in the manner of:

Σ A = σ AB + σ AC – σ BC
Σ B = σ AB + σ BC – σ AC (6-17)
Σ C = σ BC + σ AC – σ AB

Λ in the free energy is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk
energy of the system. By default Λ is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy
in Equation 6-16 represents the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two
phases (where two phase field variables varies between the limiting values) contributes
to the free energy.

Ternary Phase Field Parameters

In Equation 6-13, ε (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter ΣT is defined
as

3 1 1 1
------ = ------- + ------- + ------- (6-18)
ΣT ΣA ΣB ΣC

When using the interface it is recommended that the parameter ε is given a value in the
same order as the elements in the regions passed by the fluid-fluid interfaces. The
mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and must be large
enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness, but small enough to avoid damping
the convective transport. In order to ensure that the mobility is in the correct range,
it is recommended to a apply a mobility parameter such that the following holds
approximately

–2
M 0 = L c U c ε ⋅ 10 (6-19)

where Lc and Uc are the characteristic length and velocity scales of the system at hand.

SURFACE TENSION
The surface tension force applied in the momentum equations (Equation 6-4) as a
body force computed from the generalized chemical potentials:

532 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 F st =  η i ∇φ i (6-20)
i = A, B , C

Reference for the Three-Phase Flow, Phase Field Interface

1. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard,
“Cahn-Hilliard/Navier-Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

THEORY FOR THE THREE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACE | 533

 Theory for the Two-Phase Flow,
Moving Mesh Interface
The Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface can be used to model the flow
of two different, immiscible fluids, when the exact position of the interface is of
interest. The interface position is tracked by a moving mesh, with boundary conditions
that account for surface tension and wetting, as well as mass transport across the
interface.

In this section:

• Domain Level Fluid Flow

• About the Moving Mesh
• About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
• Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
• References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

Domain Level Fluid Flow

Two Phase Flow Moving Mesh interface is a predefined physics interface coupling
between a Single-Phase Flow interface and the Moving Mesh interface. Within the
domains corresponding to individual phases the fluid flow is solved using the
Navier-Stokes equations as in the Laminar Flow interface. The general form for the
isothermal Navier-Stokes equations is:

∂ρ-
----- + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F
∂t

where:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

534 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa).
For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress tensor, τ, is given by:

2
τ = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (6-21)
3

The dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is allowed to depend on the thermodynamic
state but not on the velocity field.

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

About the Moving Mesh

The mesh within the fluid flow domain is deformed to account for the movement of
the interface between the two fluids. The software perturbs the mesh nodes so they
conform with the moving interface and with other moving or stationary boundaries in
the model. The boundary displacement is propagated throughout the domain to
obtain a smooth mesh deformation everywhere. This is done by solving equations for
the mesh displacements (a Laplace, Winslow, or hyperelastic smoothing equation).
Taking two dimensions as an example, a location in the deformed mesh with
coordinates (x, y) can be related to its coordinates in the original undeformed mesh
(X,Y) by a function of the form:

x = x ( X, Y, t ), y = y ( X, Y, t )

The original, undeformed, mesh is referred to as the material frame (or reference
frame) whilst the deformed mesh is called the spatial frame. COMSOL Multiphysics
also defines geometry and mesh frames, which are coincident with the material frame
for this physics interface.

The fluid flow equations (along with other coupled equations such as electric fields or
chemical species transport) are solved in the spatial frame in which the mesh is
perturbed. The movement of the phase boundary is therefore accounted for in these
interfaces.

Deformed Geometry and Moving Mesh in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 535

 About the Fluid Interface Boundary Conditions
The interfaces between phases are tracked with specific boundary conditions for the
mesh displacement and the fluid flow. Two options are available — Free Surface and
Fluid-Fluid Interface. The Free Surface boundary condition is appropriate when the
viscosity of the external fluid is negligible compared to that of the internal fluid. In this
case the pressure of the external fluid is the only parameter required to model the fluid
and the flow is not solved for in the external fluid. For a fluid-fluid interface the flow
is solved for both phases.

FLUID-FLUID INTERFACE
The boundary conditions applied at an interface between two immiscible fluids, fluid 1
and fluid 2 (see Figure 6-2), are given by (Ref. 1):

u 1 = u 2 +  ------ – ------  M f n i
1 1
(6-22)
ρ1 ρ2

n i ⋅ τ 2 = n i ⋅ τ 1 + f st (6-23)

Mf
u mesh =  u 1 ⋅ n i – --------- n i (6-24)
 ρ1 

where u1 and u2 are the velocities of the fluids 1 and 2 respectively, umesh is the
velocity of the mesh at the interface between the two fluids, ni is the normal of the
interface (outward from the domain of fluid 1), τ1 and τ2 are the total stress tensors in
domains 1 and 2 respectively, fst is the force per unit area due to the surface tension
and Mf is the mass flux across the interface (SI unit: kg/(m2s)).

Figure 6-2: Definition of fluid 1 and fluid 2 and the interface normal.

536 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The tangential components of Equation 6-22 enforce a no-slip condition between the
fluids at the boundary. In the absence of mass transfer across the boundary,
Equation 6-22 and Equation 6-24 ensure that the fluid velocity normal to the
boundary is equal to the velocity of the interface. When mass transfer occurs these
equations result from conservation of mass and are easily derived in the frame where
the boundary is stationary.

The components of the total stress tensor, τuv, represent the uth component of the
force per unit area perpendicular to the v direction. n·τ=nv τuv (using the summation
convention) is therefore interpreted as the force per unit area acting on the boundary
- in general this is not normal to the boundary. Equation 6-23 therefore expresses the
force balance on the interface between the two fluids.

Two boundary conditions (Equation 6-22 and Equation 6-23) are

necessary to couple the two domains as there are two separate sets of
Navier-Stokes equations, one set for each of the domains.

The force due to the surface tension is given by the following expression:

f st = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n i – ∇ s σ (6-25)

where ∇s is the surface gradient operator (∇s = (I − ni niT)∇ where I is the identity
matrix) and σ is the surface tension at the interface.

In the two dimensional case it is straightforward to see the physical origin of

Equation 6-25. Consider an element of the surface of unit depth into the page as
shown in Figure 6-3. The normal force per unit area Fn on the element in the limit
δs → 0 is:

F n δs = ( σ + δσ ) sin ( δθ ) → σδθ

Because Rδθ → δs in the limit,

σ
F n = ----
R

The quantity ∇s·ni in the first term on the right-hand side of Equation 6-25 is related
to the mean curvature, κ, of the surface by the equation κ=−∇s·ni. In two dimensions
the mean curvature κ = −1/R so ∇s·ni = 1/R. The first term in Equation 6-25 is
therefore the normal force per unit area acting on the boundary due to the surface
tension.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 537

 The tangential force per unit area, Ft, acting on the interface in Figure 6-3 can be
obtained from the force balance along the direction of δs in the limit δs → 0:

F t δs = ( σ + δσ ) cos ( δθ ) – σ → ( σ + δσ ) – σ

( σ + δσ ) – σ
F t → -----------------------------
δs

This is equivalent to the second term on the right of Equation 6-25.

To obtain additional insight into the boundary condition, it is helpful to re-write

Equation 6-23 as

T T
n i ⋅ ( ( p 1 – p 2 )I – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) + μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) ) = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n i – ∇ s σ

assuming Newtonian fluids with viscosities μ1 and μ2 for fluids 1 and 2, respectively,
and that p1 and p2 are the pressures in the respective fluids adjacent to the boundary.
This equation expresses the equality of two vector quantities. It is instructive to
consider the components perpendicular and tangential to the boundary. In the
direction of the boundary normal

T T
p 1 – p 2 + n i ⋅ ( μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) ) ⋅ n i = σ ( ∇ s ⋅ n i )n(6-26)
i

whereas in the tangential direction, ti,

T T
n i ⋅ ( μ 2 ( ∇u 2 – ( ∇u 2 ) ) – μ 1 ( ∇u 1 – ( ∇u 1 ) ) ) ⋅ t i = ∇ s σ (6-27)

538 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Figure 6-3: Diagrammatic representation of the forces acting on an element of a
two-dimensional curved surface.

For the case of a static interface, Equation 6-26 expresses the pressure difference across
the interface that results from its curvature. For a moving interface, the surface tension
balances the difference in the total normal stress on either side of the interface.

Equation 6-27 involves only velocity gradients and the gradient of the surface tension.
The implication of this is that surface tension gradients always drive motion; this is
known as the Marangoni effect.

FREE SURFACE
It is often the case that the viscosity of fluid 1 is significantly greater than that of fluid 2
(for example for a liquid-vapor interface). In this case, the viscosity terms in the total
stress from fluid 2 can be neglected and Equation 6-23 becomes:

n i ⋅ τ 1 = – p ext n i + f st (6-28)

The outer fluid (fluid 2) now enters the equation system only through the pressure
term and the system can be represented by a domain consisting solely of the fluid 1
domain with an expression (or constant value) for the external pressure, pext, in the
fluid 2 domain. Since the velocity in fluid 2 does not affect fluid 1, fluid 2 does not
need to be explicitly modeled and Equation 6-22 can be dropped.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 539

 Contact Angle Boundary Conditions
At a three-phase boundary, it is necessary to add force terms on the boundary to ensure
that the fluid maintains a consistent contact angle. Additionally the Wall boundary
condition with the Navier Slip option must be used on the walls. The forces acting on
the contact point are applied to the model by the Contact Angle node.

Figure 6-4: Forces per unit length acting on a fluid-fluid interface at a three phase
boundary with a solid wall. The surface tension force per unit length, σ, is balanced by a
reaction force per unit length at the surface, Fn, and by the forces generated by the surface
energies of the two phases at the interface: γs1 and γs2.

In equilibrium, the surface tension forces and the normal restoring force from the
surface are in balance at a constant contact angle (θc), as shown in Figure 6-4. This
equilibrium is expressed by Young’s equation, which considers the components of the
forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ c ) + γ s1 = γ s2 (6-29)

where σ is the surface tension force between the two fluids, γs1 is the surface energy
density on the fluid 1 — solid interface and γs2 is the surface energy density on the
fluid 2 — solid interface.

There is still debate in the literature as to precisely what occurs in nonequilibrium

situations (for example, drop impact) when the physical contact angle deviates from
the contact angle specified by a simple application of Young’s equation. A simple
approach is to assume that the unbalanced part of the in plane Young Force acts on the
fluid to move the contact angle toward its equilibrium value (Ref. 2). COMSOL

540 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Multiphysics employs this approach as it is physically motivated and is consistent with
the allowed form of the boundary condition from thermodynamics (Ref. 3 and
Ref. 4).

The normal force balance at the solid surface is handled by the wall boundary
condition, which automatically prevents fluid flow across the solid boundary by the
application of a constraint force. The contact angle feature applies a force on the fluid
at the interface, fwf, with magnitude:

f wf = σ ( cos ( θ c ) – cos ( θ ) )m s

where θ is the actual contact angle and ms is the binormal to the solid surface, as
defined in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5: Diagram showing normal and tangential vectors defined on the interface
between two fluids and a solid surface in 3D (left) and 2D (right). The following vectors
are defined: ni, the fluid-fluid interface unit normal; ns, the solid surface unit normal;
tc, the tangent to the three-phase contact line; and mi and ms, the two unit binormals,
which are defined as mi=tc×ni and ms=tc×ns, respectively.

References for the Two-Phase Flow, Moving Mesh Interface

1. R. Scardovell and S. Zalesk, “Direct Numerical Simulation of Free Surface and
Interfacial Flow,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., vol. 31, pp. 567–60, 1999.

2. J. Gerbeau and T. Lelievre, “Generalized Navier Boundary Condition and

Geometric Conservation Law for Surface Tension,” Computer Methods In Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 198, pp. 644–656, 2009.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE FLOW, MOVING MESH INTERFACE | 541

 3. W. Ren and E. Weinan, “Boundary Conditions for the Moving Contact Line
Problem”, Physics of Fluids, vol. 19, p. 022101, 2007.

4. W. Ren and D. Hu, “Continuum Models for the Contact Line Problem”, Physics of
Fluids, vol. 22, p. 102103, 2010.

542 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Bubbly Flow
Interfaces
The Bubbly Flow interfaces are suitable for macroscopic modeling of mixtures of
liquids and gas bubbles. These physics interfaces solve for the averaged volume fraction
occupied by each of the two phases, rather than tracking each bubble in detail. Each
phase has its own velocity field.

In this section:

• The Bubbly Flow Equations

• Turbulence Modeling in Bubbly Flow Applications
• References for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces

The Bubbly Flow Equations

The two-fluid Euler-Euler Model is a general, macroscopic model for two-phase fluid
flow. It treats the two phases as interpenetrating media, tracking the averaged
concentration of the phases. One velocity field is associated with each phase. A
momentum balance equation and a continuity equation describe the dynamics of each
of the phases. The bubbly flow model is a simplification of the two-fluid model, relying
on the following assumptions:

• The gas density is negligible compared to the liquid density.

• The motion of the gas bubbles relative to the liquid is determined by a balance
between viscous drag and pressure forces.
• The two phases share the same pressure field.

Based on these assumptions, the momentum and continuity equations for the two
phases can be combined and a gas phase transport equation is kept in order to track
the volume fraction of the bubbles. The momentum equation is

∂u l
φl ρl + φ l ρ l u l ⋅ ∇u l =
∂t
(6-30)
= – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ φ l ( μ l + μ T )  ∇u l + ∇u l – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u l )I + φ l ρ l g + F
T 2
3

THEORY FOR THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 543

 In Equation 6-30, the variables are as follows:

• ul is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)

• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• φ is the phase volume fraction (SI unit: m3/m3)
• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• g is the gravity vector (SI unit: m/s2)
• F is any additional volume force (SI unit: N/m3)
• μl is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid (SI unit: Pa·s), and
• μT is the turbulent viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)

The subscripts “l” and “g” denote quantities related to the liquid phase and the gas
phase, respectively.

The continuity equation is

∂ ρ
( φ + ρg φg ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρl φl ul + ρg φg ug ) = 0 (6-31)
∂t l l

and the gas phase transport equation is

∂ρ g φ g
--------------- + ∇ ⋅ ( φ g ρ u g ) = – m gl (6-32)
∂t g

where mgl is the mass transfer rate from the gas to the liquid (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)).

For low gas volume fractions ( φ g ∼ 0.01 ), you can replace the momentum equations,
Equation 6-30, and the continuity equation, Equation 6-31, by

∂u l
ρl + ρ l u l ⋅ ∇u l =
∂t (6-33)
T
= – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ [ ( μ l + μ T ) ( ∇u l + ∇u l ) ] + φ l ρ l g + F

ρl ∇ ⋅ ul = 0 (6-34)

By default, the Laminar Bubbly Flow interface uses Equation 6-33 and 6-34. To
switch to Equation 6-30 and 6-31, click to clear the Low gas concentration check box
under the Physical Model section.

The physics interface solves for ul, p, and

544 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρ̃ g = ρ g φ g

the effective gas density. The gas velocity ug is the sum of the following velocities:

u g = u l + u slip + u drift (6-35)

where uslip is the relative velocity between the phases and udrift is a drift velocity (see
Turbulence Modeling in Bubbly Flow Applications). The physics interface calculates
the gas density from the ideal gas law:

( p + p ref )M
ρ g = ------------------------------
RT

where M is the molecular weight of the gas (SI unit: kg/mol), R is the ideal gas
constant (8.314472 J/(mol·K)), pref a reference pressure (SI unit: Pa), and T is
temperature (SI unit: K). pref is a scalar variable, which by default is 1 atm (1
atmosphere or 101,325 Pa). The liquid volume fraction is calculated from

φl = 1 – φg

When there is a drift velocity, it has the form

∇φ g
u drift = – D gc ---------- (6-36)
φg

where

μT
D gc = ------------
ρl σT

Here, μT is the turbulent viscosity, and σT is the turbulent Schmidt number.

Inserting Equation 6-36 and Equation 6-35 into Equation 6-32 gives

∂ρ g φ g
--------------- + ∇ ⋅ ( φ g ρ ( u l + u slip ) ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D gc ρ g ∇φ g ) – m gl
∂t g

That is, the drift velocity introduces a diffusive term in the gas transport equation. This
is how the equation for the transport of the volume fraction of gas is actually
implemented in the physics interface.

The bubbly-flow equation formulation is relatively simple, but it can display some
nonphysical behavior. One is artificial accumulation of bubbles, for example, beneath

THEORY FOR THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 545

 walls where the pressure gradient forces the bubbles upward, but the bubbles have no
place to go and there is no term in the model to prevent the volume fraction of gas
from growing. To prevent this from happening, μ̃ is set to μl in the laminar case. The
only apparent effect of this in most cases where the bubbly-flow equations are
applicable is that nonphysical accumulation of bubbles is reduced. The small effective
viscosity in the transport equation for φ g has beneficial effects on the numerical
properties of the equation system.

MASS TRANSFER AND INTERFACIAL AREA

It is possible to account for mass transfer between the two phases by specifying an
expression for the mass transfer rate from the gas to the liquid mgl (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)).

The mass transfer rate typically depends on the interfacial area between the two phases.
An example is when gas dissolves into a liquid. In order to determine the interfacial
area, it is necessary to solve for the bubble number density (that is, the number of
bubbles per volume) in addition to the phase volume fraction. The Bubbly Flow
interface assumes that the gas bubbles can expand or shrink but not completely vanish,
merge, or split. The conservation of the number density n (SI unit: 1/m3) then gives

∂n
+ ∇ ⋅ ( n ( u l + u slip ) ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D gc ∇n )
∂t

The number density and the volume fraction of gas give the interfacial area per unit
volume (SI unit: m2/m3):

1⁄3 2⁄3
a = ( 4nπ ) ( 3φ g )

SLIP MODEL
The simplest possible approximation for the slip velocity uslip is to assume that the
bubbles always follow the liquid phase; that is, uslip = 0. This is known as
homogeneous flow.

A better model can be obtained from the momentum equation for the gas phase.
Comparing size of different terms, it can be argued that the equation can be reduced
to a balance between the viscous drag force, fD and the pressure gradient (Ref. 3), a so
called pressure-drag balance:

φ l ∇p = f D (6-37)

546 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Here fD can be written as

3 ρl
f D = – C d --- ------ u slip u slip (6-38)
4 db

where in turn db (SI unit: m) is the bubble diameter, and Cd (dimensionless) is the
viscous drag coefficient. Given Cd and db, Equation 6-37 can be used to calculate the
slip velocity. In practice, Equation 6-37 is multiplied by φ l to reduce the slip velocity
for large values of φ g .

Schwarz and Turner (Ref. 4) proposed a linearized version of Equation 6-38

appropriate for air bubbles of 1–10 mm mean diameter in water:

kg-
f D = – C W u slip C W = 5 ⋅ 10 4 --------- (6-39)
m3 s

The Hadamard-Rybczynski model is appropriate for small spherical bubbles with

diameter less than 2 mm, and bubble Reynolds number less than one. The model uses
the following expression for the drag coefficient (Ref. 5):

16 d b ρ l u slip
C d = ---------- , Re b = ---------------------------
Re b μl

For bubbles with diameter larger than 2 mm, the model suggested by Sokolichin,
Eigenberger, and Lapin (Ref. 1) is a more appropriate choice:

0.622
C d = -----------------------------
1
------- + 0.235
Eö

where Eö is the Eötvös number

2
gρ l d b
Eö = ---------------
σ

Here, g is the magnitude of the gravity vector and σ the surface tension coefficient.

Turbulence Modeling in Bubbly Flow Applications

For most bubbly flow applications the flow field is turbulent. In that case, use a
turbulence model and solve for the averaged velocity field. The Bubbly Flow,
Turbulent Flow interfaces include the turbulence models described in Theory for the

THEORY FOR THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 547

 Turbulent Flow Interfaces, but the material properties of the liquid phase are used. In
addition to the options of the single-phase flow model, in The Bubbly Flow, k-ε
Interface, The Bubbly Flow, Realizable k-ε Interface, The Bubbly Flow, k-ω Interface,
The Bubbly Flow, SST Interface, and The Bubbly Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface it is also
possible to account for bubble-induced turbulence — that is, extra production of
turbulence due to relative motion between the gas bubbles and the liquid. The
transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, includes a source term Sk which
accounts for bubble-induced turbulence and is given by

S k = – C k φ g ∇p ⋅ u slip

The transport equation for the turbulent energy’s dissipation rate, ε, includes the
following source term:

ε
C ε S k ---
k

The following source term is added to the transport equation for the specific
dissipation rate, ω:

ω
α ω S k ----
k

Suitable values for the model parameters Ck, Cε, and αω are not as well established as
the parameters for single-phase flow. In the literature, values within the ranges
0.01 < Ck < 1, 1 < Cε < 1.92 have been suggested (Ref. 1), and αω can be defined as
αω = Cε – 1 .

The turbulent viscosity appears in the momentum equation and when adding a drift
term to the gas velocity:

∇φ g
u drift = – D gc ----------
φg

Using a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, together with
a gas concentration that is not assumed to be low, the stress tensor contains an extra
contribution, and the momentum equations becomes

∂u l
φl ρl + φ l ρ l u l ⋅ ∇u l =
∂t
(6-40)
= – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ φ l ( μ l + μ T )  ∇u l + ∇u l – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u l )I – --- φ l ρ l kI + φ l ρ l g + F
T 2 2
 3  3

548 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

References for the Bubbly Flow Interfaces
1. A. Sokolichin, G. Eigenberger, and A. Lapin, “Simulations of Buoyancy Driven
Bubbly Flow: Established Simplifications and Open Questions”, AIChE Journal,
vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 24–49, 2004.

2. D. Kuzmin and S. Turek, Efficient Numerical Techniques for Flow Simulation in

Bubble Column Reactors, Institute of Applied Mathematics, University of Dortmund,
2000.

3. D. Kuzmin, S. Turek, and H. Haario, Finite Element Simulation of Turbulent

Bubbly Flows in Gas-liquid Reactors, Ergebnisberichte Angew, Math, 298, University
of Dortmund, 2005.

4. M.P. Schwarz and W.J. Turner, “Applicability of the Standard k-ε Turbulence Model
to Gas-stirred Baths”, Applied Mathematical Modelling, vol. 12, pp. 273–279, 1988.

5. C. Crowe, M. Sommerfeld, and Y. Tsuji, Multiphase Flows with Droplets and

Particles, CRC Press, 1998.

THEORY FOR THE BUBBLY FLOW INTERFACES | 549

 T he o r y f o r the Mi xt u re Mod el
Interfaces
The mixture model is a macroscopic two-phase flow model, in many ways similar to
the bubbly flow model. It tracks the averaged phase concentration, or volume fraction,
and solves a single momentum equation for the mixture velocity. It is suitable for
mixtures consisting of solid particles or liquid droplets immersed in a liquid.

The Mixture Model interface theory is described in this section:

• The Mixture Model Equations

• Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations
• Turbulence Modeling in Mixture Models
• Slip Velocity Models
• References for the Mixture Model Interfaces

The Mixture Model Equations

In the Mixture Model interfaces the particle-fluid combination is regarded as a single
flowing continuum with macroscopic properties such as density and viscosity. The two
phases consist of one dispersed phase and one continuous phase. The mixture model
is valid if the continuous phase is a liquid, and the dispersed phase consists of solid
particles, liquid droplets, or gas bubbles. For gas bubbles in a liquid, however, the
bubbly flow model is preferable. The mixture model relies on the following
assumptions:

• The density of each phase is approximately constant.

• Both phases share the same pressure field.
• The particle relaxation time is short compared to the time-scales of the macroscopic
flow.

The mixture density is given by

ρ = φc ρc + φd ρd

550 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where

• φ c and φ d denote the volume fractions of the continuous phase and the dispersed
phase (SI unit: m3/m3), respectively
• ρc is the continuous phase density (SI unit: kg/m3), and
• ρd is the dispersed phase density (SI unit: kg/m3).

The volume flux for each phase is

jd = φd ud

jc = φc uc

where uc and ud (SI unit: m/s) are the continuous and the dispersed phase velocity
vectors, respectively.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4, see

Mass-Averaged Mixture Velocity), the mixture velocity used was the mass-averaged
mixture velocity u (SI unit: m/s), defined as

φc ρc uc + φd ρd ud
u = -------------------------------------------- (6-41)
ρ

The mixture velocity used here is the volume-averaged flux density, or

volume-averaged mixture velocity j (SI unit: m/s), defined as

j = jd + jc

The continuity equation for the mixture is

ρ t + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (6-42)

In the Mixture Model interfaces it is assumed that the densities of both phases, ρc and
ρd, are constant, and therefore the following alternative form of the continuity
equation for the mixture is used

∇ ⋅ j = m dc  ----- – ------
1 1
(6-43)
 ρ c ρ d

The momentum equation for the mixture is

THEORY FOR THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 551

 ρj t + ρ ( j ⋅ ∇ )j + ρ c ε ( j slip ⋅ ∇ )j = – ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ τ Gm + ρg + F
T
– ∇ ⋅ [ ρ c ( 1 + φ c ε )u slip j slip ]

– ρ c ε ( j ⋅ ∇ )j slip + ( ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇φ d ) )j + j slip m dc  ----- – ------

1 1
 ρ c ρ d

where:

• j is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• ε is the reduced density difference (SI unit: kg/kg)
• uslip is the slip velocity vector between the two phases (SI unit: m/s)
• jslip is the slip flux (SI unit: m/s)
• τGm is the sum of the viscous and turbulent stresses (SI unit: kg/(m·s2))
• Dmd is a turbulent dispersion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• mdc is the mass transfer rate from the dispersed to the continuous phase (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s))
• g is the gravity vector (SI unit: m/s2), and
• F is any additional volume force (SI unit: N/m3)

The slip flux is defined for convenience as,

j slip = φ d φ c u slip (6-44)

Here, uslip (SI unit: m/s) denotes the relative velocity between the two phases. For
different available models for the slip velocity, see Slip Velocity Models.

The reduced density difference ε is given by

ρd – ρc
ε = -----------------
ρc

The sum of the viscous and turbulent stresses is

T 2 2
τ Gm = ( μ + μ T ) [ ∇j + ∇j ] – --- ( μ + μ T ) ( ∇ ⋅ j )I – --- ρkI (6-45)
3 3

552 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is the mixture viscosity, μT (SI unit: Pa·s) the turbulent viscosity,
and k (SI unit: m2/s2) is the turbulent kinetic energy, when available. If no turbulence
model is used, μT and k equal zero

The transport equation for φ d , the dispersed phase volume fraction, is

∂ φ
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( φ d ρ d u d ) = ∇ ⋅ ( ρ d D md ∇φ d ) – m dc (6-46)
∂t d d

where mdc (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is the mass transfer rate from the dispersed to the
continuous phase and Dmd is a turbulent dispersion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s) (see
Turbulence Modeling in Mixture Models), accounting for extra diffusion due to
turbulent eddies. When a turbulence model is not used, Dmd is zero. Assuming
constant density for the dispersed phase and using Equation 6-43, Equation 6-46 can
be rewritten as

∂ φ m dc ρ
( ) + j ⋅ ∇φ d + ∇ ⋅ ( j slip ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇φ d ) – -------------- (6-47)
∂t d ρd ρc

The continuous phase volume fraction φ c is

φc = 1 – φd

MASS TRANSFER AND INTERFACIAL AREA

It is possible to account for mass transfer between the two phases by specifying an
expression for the mass transfer rate from the dispersed phase to the continuous mdc
(SI unit: kg/(m3·s)).

The mass transfer rate typically depends on the interfacial area between the two phases.
An example is when gas dissolves into a liquid. In order to determine the interfacial
area, it is necessary to solve for the dispersed phase number density (that is, the number
of particles per volume) in addition to the phase volume fraction. The Mixture Model
interface assumes that the particles can increase or decrease in size but not completely
vanish, merge, or split. The conservation of the number density n (SI unit: 1/m3) then
gives

∂n
+ j ⋅ ∇n + ∇ ⋅ ( nφ c u slip ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇n ) – nm dc  ----- – ------
1 1
∂t  ρ c ρ d

The number density and the volume fraction dispersed particles give the interfacial area
per unit volume (SI unit: m2/m3):

THEORY FOR THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 553

 1⁄3 2⁄3
a = ( 4nπ ) ( 3φ d )

MASS-AVERAGED MIXTURE VELOCITY

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics (prior to version 5.4), the mixture
velocity used was the mass-averaged mixture velocity u (SI unit: m/s), see
Equation 6-41. The continuity equation was

m dc
( ρ c – ρ d ) ∇ ⋅ ( φ d ( 1 – c d )u slip – D md ∇φ d ) + ---------- + ρ c ( ∇ ⋅ u ) = 0 (6-48)
ρd

and the transport equation for φ d was

∂ (φ ) + ∇ ⋅ (φ u ) m dc
d
----------
d d = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇φ d ) – ρ (6-49)
∂t d

The dispersed phase velocity vector ud and the mass fraction of the dispersed phase cd
are given by

u d = u + ( 1 – c d )u slip

φd ρd
c d = ------------
ρ

The continuity equation Equation 6-48 is incompatible with the no-penetration

condition of u at the walls, and u is not divergence-free. The volume-averaged velocity
j is solenoidal and Equation 6-43 is compatible with the no-penetration condition at
the walls (as long as there is no mass transfer or the densities of the two phases are
equal).

Dispersed Phase Boundary Condition Equations

In addition to the boundary conditions for the mixture, specify boundary conditions
for the dispersed phase on Wall, Inlet, and Outlet nodes. For these boundary types, the
boundary condition’s Settings window contains a Dispersed Phase Boundary
Condition section.

DISPERSED PHASE CONCENTRATION

This is the default for the Inlet node. Specify the dispersed phase volume fraction:

φ d = φ d0

554 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Enter the Dispersed phase volume fraction (dimensionless) in the φ d0 field.

If Solve for interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model section, the dispersed
phase number density is also specified. The dispersed phase number density can be
specified directly,

n = n0

or, when Diameter of particles/droplets is selected, computed from the diameter of

particles and droplets dd:

φ d0
n = 6 ---------3-
πd d

DISPERSED PHASE OUTLET

This is the default for the Outlet node. This boundary condition is appropriate for
boundaries where the dispersed phase leaves the domain with the dispersed phase
velocity ud. No condition is imposed on the volume fractions at the boundary.

A corresponding flux condition is also applied for the number density equation (when
Solve for interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model section).

DISPERSED PHASE FLUX

Using this boundary condition, specify the dispersed phase flux through the boundary:

–n ⋅ ( φd ud ) = Nφd

Enter the Dispersed phase flux (SI unit: m/s) in the N φ d field.

If Solve for interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model section, the number
density flux through the boundary is also specified:

– n ⋅ ( nu d ) = N n d

SYMMETRY
This boundary condition, which is useful on boundaries that represent a symmetry line
for the dispersed phase, sets the dispersed phase flux through the boundary to zero:

n ⋅ ( φd ud ) = 0

A corresponding flux condition is also applied for the number density equation (when
Solve for interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model section).

THEORY FOR THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 555

 NO DISPERSED FLUX
This is the default for the Wall node. This boundary condition represents boundaries
where the dispersed phase flux through the boundary is zero:

n ⋅ ( φd ud ) = 0

In the case of moving Wall and Interior Wall, the dispersed flux through the boundary
is:

n ⋅ ( φd ud ) = n ⋅ ( φd j )

This implies that the flux, relative to the boundary motion, is zero. A corresponding
flux condition is also applied for the number density equation (when Solve for
interfacial area is selected under the Physical Model section).

Turbulence Modeling in Mixture Models

Turbulence modeling is particularly relevant for dilute flows, that is, for flows with a
low dispersed phase volume fraction. For dense flows, the mixture viscosity usually
becomes high. In such cases, the flow is laminar and no turbulence modeling is
necessary.

The Mixture Model, Turbulent Flow interfaces include the turbulence models
described in Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.

The turbulence must be accounted for in the calculation of the dispersed phase volume
fraction. This is accomplished by introducing a turbulent dispersion coefficient Dmd
(SI unit: m2/s) in Equation 6-47 as

μT
D md = ----------
ρσ T

where σT is the turbulent particle Schmidt number (dimensionless). The particle

Schmidt number is usually suggested a value ranging from 0.35 to 0.7. In the physics
interface the default value is 0.35. The so-called drift velocity is included in
Equation 6-47 as a diffusion term

∂ φ m dc ρ
( ) + j ⋅ ∇φ d + ∇ ⋅ ( j slip ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇φ d ) – --------------
∂t d ρd ρc

Similarly, the number density equation (used to compute the interfacial area) for
turbulent flow corresponds to

556 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂n
+ j ⋅ ∇n + ∇ ⋅ ( nφ c u slip ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇n ) – nm dc  ----- – ------
1 1
∂t  ρ c ρ d

The inclusion of the drift velocity in Equation 6-47 modifies the flux of the dispersed
phase. The effective dispersed phase flux jd,eff and velocity ud,eff are given by

j d, eff = j d – D md ∇φ d

D md
u d, eff = u d – ------------ ∇φ d
φd

jd,eff and ud,eff are available in the physics interface as mm.jdEff and mm.udEff.

Slip Velocity Models

The Mixture Model interfaces contain three predefined models for the relative velocity
between the two phases uslip (SI unit: m/s):

• The Schiller-Naumann model

• The Haider-Levenspiel model
• The Hadamard-Rybczynski model

All three models use the following relation for the slip velocity:

C ( ρ – ρd ) 
----
3 - – j – ( j ⋅ ∇ )j + g + F
--- ------d- u slip u slip = – ------------------- (6-50)
4 dd ρc  t ρ

where Cd (dimensionless) is the particle drag coefficient. Essentially, interpret the

relation as a balance between viscous drag and buoyancy forces acting on the dispersed
phase.

The Schiller-Naumann model models the drag coefficient according to

 24- 0.687
 --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p ) Re p < 1000
Cd =  Re p

 0.44 Re p > 1000

where Rep is the particle Reynolds number

d d ρ c u slip
Re p = ---------------------------
μ

THEORY FOR THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 557

 Note that this definition of the particle Reynolds number uses the viscosity of the
mixture and not the viscosity of the continuous phase, as would be customary for a
single particle in a pure fluid with viscosity μc. This choice incorporates the hindrance
effect of the other particles on the slip velocity, see Ref. 4.

Because the particle Reynolds number depends on the slip velocity, an implicit
equation must be solved to obtain the slip velocity. Therefore, the Mixture Model
interfaces add an additional equation for

2
u slip

when the Schiller-Naumann slip model is used. The Schiller-Naumann model is

particularly well-suited for solid particles in a liquid.

The Haider-Levenspiel model is applicable to nonspherical particles. It models the

drag coefficient according to

B ( Sp ) C ( Sp )
C d = ----------  1 + A ( S p )Re p  + ----------------------------------------
24 -
Re p   1 + D ( S p ) ⁄ Re p

where A, B, C, and D are empirical correlations of the particle sphericity. The sphericity
is defined as the ratio of the surface area of a volume equivalent sphere to the surface
area of the considered nonspherical particle

A sphere
0 < S p = ------------------ ≤ 1
A particle

The correlation coefficients are given by

2.3288-6.4581S p + 2.4486S p2
A ( Sp ) = e
B ( S p ) = 0.0964+0.5565S p
4.905-13.8944S p + 18.4222S p2 – 10.2599S p3
C ( Sp ) = e
1.4681 + 12.2584S p – 20.7322S p2 + 15.8855S p3
D ( Sp ) = e

The diameter used in the particle Reynolds number is that of the volume equivalent
sphere. The equation for the squared slip velocity is also added when the
Haider-Levenspiel slip model is used.

558 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law is valid for particle Reynolds numbers less than
1, for particles, bubbles, and droplets. The drag coefficient for liquid droplets or
bubbles is

 2 μ c-
 1 + --3- -----μ d
C d = ----------  --------------------
24
Re p  μ 
 1 + -----c- 
 μd 

which yields the following explicit expression for the slip velocity

 μc 
1 + ------ 
ρ d )d d 
2
(ρ – μd
= – ---------------------------  --------------------  – j t – ( j ⋅ ∇ )j + g + ----
F
u slip
18μ μ ρ
1 + 2 --- -----c-
 3 μ d

For solid particles, the slip velocity is given by

2
( ρ – ρ d )d d
u slip = – ---------------------------  – j t – ( j ⋅ ∇ )j + g + ----
F
18μ  ρ

when Rep < 1. For very small gas bubbles, the drag coefficient is observed to be closer
to the solid-particle value. This is believed to be caused by surface-active impurities
collecting on the bubble surface.

References for the Mixture Model Interfaces

1. M. Manninen, V. Taivassalo, and S. Kallio, On the Mixture Model for Multiphase
Flow, VTT Publications, 288, VTT Energy, Nuclear Energy, Technical Research
Center of Finland (VTT), 1996.

2. C. Crowe, M. Sommerfeld, and Y. Tsuji, Multiphase Flows with Droplets and

Particles, CRC Press, 1998.

3. M.S. Nigam, “Numerical Simulation of Buoyant Mixture Flows,” Int. Jour. of

Multi. Flow., vol. 29, pp. 983–1015, 2003.

4. M. Ungarish, Hydrodynamics of suspensions, Springer-Verlag, 1993.

THEORY FOR THE MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 559

 Theory for the Euler-Euler Model
Interfaces
The Euler–Euler Model interfaces are based on averaging the Navier–Stokes equations
for each present phase over a volume that is small compared to the computational
domain but large compared to the dispersed phase (particles, droplets, or bubbles).
The two phases, the continuous and the dispersed phase, are assumed to behave as two
continuous and interpenetrating fluids, and the physics interface solves one set of
momentum equations for each phase.

In this section:

• The Euler–Euler Model Equations

• Some Notes on Boundary Conditions
• Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling
• References for the Euler–Euler Model Interfaces

The Euler–Euler Model Equations

MASS BALANCE
The following continuity relations hold for the continuous and dispersed phases
(Ref. 3):

∂ (ρ φ ) + ∇ ⋅ (ρ φ u ) = m
dc (6-51)
∂t c c c c c

∂ ρ
( φ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ d φ d u d ) = – m dc (6-52)
∂t d d

Here φ (dimensionless) denotes the phase volume fraction, ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the
density, u (SI unit: m/s) the velocity of each phase, and mdc is the mass transfer rate
from the dispersed to the continuous phase (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The subscripts c and
d denote quantities relating to the continuous and the dispersed and phase,
respectively. The following relation between the volume fractions must hold

φc = 1 – φd

560 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Both phases are considered to be incompressible, in which case Equation 6-51 and
Equation 6-52 can be simplified as:

∂φ c m dc
+ ∇ ⋅ ( φ c u c ) = ---------- (6-53)
∂t ρc

∂φ d m dc
+ ∇ ⋅ ( φ d u d ) = – ---------- (6-54)
∂t ρd

If Equation 6-54 and Equation 6-53 are added together, a continuity equation for the
mixture is obtained:

∇ ⋅ ( φ d u d + u c ( 1 – φ d ) ) = m dc  ----- – ------
1 1
(6-55)
 ρ c ρ d

In order to control the mass balance of the two phases, the Euler–Euler Model
interfaces solves Equation 6-54 together with Equation 6-55. Equation 6-54 is used
to compute the volume fraction of the dispersed phase, and Equation 6-55 is used to
compute the mixture pressure.

MOMENTUM BALANCE
The momentum equations for the continuous and dispersed phases, using the
nonconservative forms (see for example Ref. 3 or Ref. 9), are:

∂
ρc φc ( u ) + uc ∇ ⋅ ( uc ) =
∂t c (6-56)
– φ c ∇p + φ c ∇ ⋅ τ c + φ c ρ c g + F m,c + φ c F c + m dc ( u int – u c )

∂
ρd φd ( u ) + ud ∇ ⋅ ( ud ) =
∂t d (6-57)
– φ d ∇p + φ d ∇ ⋅ τ d + φ d ρ d g + F m,d + φ d F d – m dc ( u int – u d )

Here p (SI unit: Pa) is the mixture pressure, which is assumed to be equal for the two
phases. In the momentum equations the viscous stress tensor for each phase is denoted
by τ (SI unit: Pa), g (SI unit: m/s2) is the vector of gravitational acceleration, Fm
(SI unit: N/m3) is the interphase momentum transfer term (that is, the volume force
exerted on each phase by the other phase), F (SI unit: N/m3) is any other volume
force term, and u int is the interphase velocity (SI unit: m/s).

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 561

 In these equations, the influence of surface tension in the case of liquid phases has been
neglected, and the potential size distribution of the dispersed particles or droplets is
not considered.

For fluid-solid mixtures where ρ d » ρ c , Equation 6-57 is modified in the manner of

Enwald (Ref. 5)

∂
ρd φd ( u ) + ud ∇ ⋅ ( ud ) =
∂t d (6-58)
– φ d ∇p – ∇p s + φ d ρ d g + F m,d + φ d F d – m dc ( u int – u d )

where ps (SI unit: Pa) is the solid pressure.

The fluid phases in the above equations are assumed to be Newtonian and the viscous
stress tensors are defined as

τ c = μ cm  ∇u c + ( ∇u c ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u c )I
T 2
3

τ d = μ dm  ∇u d + ( ∇u d ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u d )I
T 2
 3 

where μ cm and μ dm (SI unit: Pa·s) are the dynamic viscosity model of the respective
phase. Observe how the viscous terms in equation Equation 6-56 and Equation 6-57
appear with their volume fractions outside the divergence operators. The equations can
also be derived so that the terms read ∇ ⋅ ( φ c τ c ) and ∇ ⋅ ( φ d τ d ) instead (see for
example Ref. 4 or Ref. 5). It depends on exactly how the derivation is carried out.
formulation in Equation 6-56 and Equation 6-57 are so that the momentum equation
can be divided by φ c and φ d respectively as described below.

In order to avoid singular solutions when the volume fractions tend to zero, the
governing equations above are divided by the corresponding volume fraction. The
implemented momentum equation for the continuous phase is:

∂ F m,c m dc
ρ c (u c) + ρ c u c ∇ ⋅ ( u c ) = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ c + ρ c g + ----------- + F c + ---------- ( u int – u c )
∂t φc φc

The implemented momentum equations for the dispersed phase in the case of
dispersed liquid droplets or bubbles is:

562 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂
ρd ( u ) + ud ∇ ⋅ ( ud ) =
∂t d
(6-59)
F m,d m dc
– ∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ d + ρ d g + ------------ + F d – ---------- ( u int – u d )
φd φd

and in the case of dispersed solid particles:

∂
ρd ( u ) + ud ∇ ⋅ ( ud ) =
∂t d
(6-60)
∇p s F m,d m dc
– ∇p – --------- + ρ d g + ------------ + F d – ---------- ( u int – u d )
φd φd φd

VISCOSITY MODELS
The Newtonian viscosities of interpenetrating media are not readily available. Instead
empirical and analytical models for the dynamic viscosity of the two-phase mixture
have been developed by various researchers, usually as a function of the dispersed
volume fraction. Using an expression for the mixture viscosity, the default values for
the dynamic viscosities of the two interpenetrating phases are taken to be:

μ cm = μ dm = μ mix (6-61)

A simple mixture viscosity covering the entire range of particle concentrations is the
Krieger type model (Ref. 5):

φ d – 2.5φ d,max
μ mix = μ c  1 – --------------- (6-62)
 φ d,max

Here φ d,max is the maximum packing limit, by default 0.62 for solid particles.
Equation 6-62 can be applied when μ c « μ d . An extension of Equation 6-62 can be
applied for liquid droplets/bubbles:

μ d + 0.4μ c
– 2.5φ d,max -------------------------
-
φd μd + μc
μ mix = μ c  1 – --------------- (6-63)
 φ d,max

For liquid droplets/bubbles the default value of φ d,max is 1.

For fluid-fluid systems, the simple relation

μ mix = φ c μ c + φ d μ d (6-64)

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 563

 can sometimes be applied or the viscosity for each individual phase can be applied to
the respective momentum equation.

An alternative to mixture viscosity for dispersed solid particles, that is particles in gas
flow, is to model the particle interface with a solid pressure instead (see Solid Pressure).
A small viscosity is however necessary for numerical robustness and Gidaspow (Ref. 6)
suggested to use

μ dm = 0.5max ( φ d, φ d,res ) (6-65)

This is consistent with the requirement that μ dm → 0 when φ d → 0 (Ref. 9), but in
practice it can suffice with any small enough, nonzero value.

INTERPHASE MOMENTUM TRANSFER

In all the equations, Fm denotes the interphase momentum transfer, that is the force
imposed on one phase by the other phase. Considering a particle, droplet, or bubble
in a fluid flow, it is affected by a number of forces, for example, the drag force, the
added mass force, the Basset force, and the lift force. The most important force is
usually the drag force, especially in fluids with a high concentration of dispersed solids,
and hence this is the predefined force included in the Euler–Euler model. The drag
force added to the momentum equation is defined as:

·
F drag,c = – F drag,d = βu slip (6-66)

where β is a drag force coefficient and the slip velocity is defined as

u slip = u d – u c

The drag force on the dispersed phase is equal to the one on the
continuous phase but is working in the opposite direction.

The drag force coefficient, β, is for solid particles often written as (Ref. 2)

3
β = ---------- φ d C D ρ c u slip (6-67)
4d d

For fluid-fluid system, Equation 6-67 is regularized to read (Ref. 12)

3
β = ---------- φ d φ c C D ρ c u slip (6-68)
4d d

564 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

which is consistent with a vanishing β if φ c → 0 . All drag force models except
Gidaspow are based on Equation 6-67 for solid particles and on Equation 6-68 for
bubbles and droplets.

Gidaspow
For dense particle flows with a high concentration of the dispersed phase — for
example, in fluidized bed models — the Gidaspow model (Ref. 6) for the drag
coefficient can be used. It combines the Wen and Yu (Ref. 7) fluidized state expression:

For φ c > 0.8

3φ c φ d ρ c C d – 2.65
β = ---------------------------- u slip φ c (6-69)
4d d

with the Ergun (Ref. 8) packed bed expression:

For φ c < 0.8

2
μc φd φd ρc
β = 150 -----------2- + 1.75 ----------- u slip (6-70)
φ d dd
c d

In the above equations, dd (SI unit: m) is the dispersed particle diameter, and Cd is the
drag coefficient for a single dispersed particle. The drag coefficient is in general a
function of the particle Reynolds number

d d ρ c u slip
Re p = --------------------------
μc

No universally valid expression for the drag coefficient exists. Using the implemented
Gidaspow model, Cd is computed using the Schiller-Naumann relation.

Schiller-Naumann
The Schiller-Naumann model describes the drag coefficient in Equation 6-67 and
Equation 6-68 for a single rigid sphere (see for example Ref. 3)

 24- 0.687
 --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p ) Re p < 1000
Cd =  Re p (6-71)

 0.44 Re p > 1000

It is valid for particle Reynolds numbers up to some critical Reynolds number,

approximately equal to 2.5·105 where drag crisis occurs.

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 565

 The Schiller-Naumann model is appropriate for diluted flows since the correlation in
Equation 6-71 is based on a single particle and does not take particle-particle
interaction into account.

The Schiller-Naumann model can be applied to small fluid particles since they do not
deform significantly.

Hadamard-Rybczynski
The Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law is valid for dilute flows with particle Reynolds
number less than one for particles, bubbles, and droplets and is defined as:

 2 μ c-
 1 + --3- -----μ d
C d = ----------  --------------------
24
Re p  μ 
 1 + -----c- 
 μ d 

for bubbles and droplets and as

24
C d = ----------
Re p

for solid particles (the Stokes limit). For very small gas bubbles, the drag coefficient is
observed to be closer to the solid-particle value. This is believed to be caused by
surface-active impurities collecting on the bubble surface.

Ishii-Zuber
The Ishii-Zuber model (Ref. 10) can for solid particles be regarded as a generalization
of the Schiller-Naumann model. For solid particles it can be formulated as

 24 1 + 17.67f ( φ d ) 6 / 7 
0.75 ], 0.45 ----------------------------------------------
C D = max  ----------- [ 1 + 0.1Re m  (6-72)
 Re m 18.67f ( φ d ) 

where

f ( φd ) = φc ( μc ⁄ μm ) (6-73)

and Rem is a Reynolds number based on the mixture viscosity

d d ρ c u slip
Re m = -------------------------- (6-74)
μm

566 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Ishii-Zuber model is formulated with the assumption that μ m is described by a
Krieger type model (Equation 6-62 for solids or Equation 6-63 for droplets and
bubbles). The dependence on μ m means that the Ishii-Zuber model is valid also for
dense suspensions.

For bubbles and droplets, Ishii and Zuber identifies three regimes. At low Reynolds
numbers, bubbles and droplets behave in the same way as solid particles and the drag
coefficient can be described by

24
C D, visc = ----------- [ 1 + 0.1Re m
0.75 ] (6-75)
Re m

When the Reynolds number becomes higher, bubbles and droplets start to deform in
such a way that the drag coefficient increases linearly with diameter but is independent
of viscosity. Ishii and Zuber refer to this as the distorted particle regime and suggest
the following correlation for this regime:

2 1 + 17.67f ( φ d ) 6 / 7
C D, dist = --- Eo ---------------------------------------------- (6-76)
3 18.67f ( φ d )

where Eo is the Eötvös number

g ρ c – ρ d d d2
Eo = ------------------------------- (6-77)
σ

where in turn g is the gravitational constant and σ is the surface tension coefficient.
The Eötvös number relates surface tension forces to gravitational forces. The second,
“distorted” regime ends when hydrodynamic instabilities prevents the drag from
increasing further and the distorted regime is capped by the following value:

8
C D, cap = --- φ c2 (6-78)
3

The complete model for bubbles and droplets can hence be written:

 C D, visc if C D, visc ≥ C D, dist

CD =  (6-79)
 min ( C
 D, dist, C D, cap ) if C D, visc < C D, dist

Haider-Levenspiel
The Haider-Levenspiel model is applicable to dilute flows with nonspherical solid
particles. It models the drag coefficient according to

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 567

 B ( Sp ) C ( Sp )
C d = ----------  1 + A ( S p )Re p  + ----------------------------------------
24
-
Re p  1 + D ( S p ) ⁄ Re p

where A, B, C, and D are empirical correlations of the particle sphericity (see Slip
Velocity Models for further details).

Tomiyama et al.
The Tomiyama et al. (Ref. 11) provided three correlations for diluted bubbles and
droplets. The correlation for purified fluids read

 16 48 8 Eo 
C D = max  min --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p0.687 ), --------- , --- -----------------  (6-80)
 Re p Re p 3 Eo + 4 

Fluid pure enough for Equation 6-80 to be valid is typically only achievable in
laboratory environments. Even small amounts of surface-active impurities can collect
at the droplet/bubble interface and cause a surface tension gradient which resists
surface movement. The correlation for slightly contaminated fluids therefore prescribe
a slightly higher drag coefficient:

 24 72 8 Eo 
C D = max  min --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p0.687 ), --------- , --- -----------------  (6-81)
 Re p Re p 3 Eo + 4 

This correlation is the default one and applies to droplets and bubbles in fluids of
contamination levels comparable to ordinary tap water.

When the contamination level is high, the impurities effectively prevent all motion
within the droplet or bubble and the following correlation is suggested:

 24 8 Eo 
C D = max  min --------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p0.687 ), --- -----------------  (6-82)
 Re p 3 Eo + 4 

SOLID PRESSURE
For fluid-solid mixtures where ρ d » ρ c , for example solid particles in gas flow, a model
for the solid pressure, ps in Equation 6-60, is needed. The solid pressure models the
particle interaction due to collisions and friction between the particles. The solid
pressure model implemented uses a gradient diffusion based assumption:

∇p s = – G ( φ c )∇φ c

568 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where the empirical function G can be though of as a modulus of elasticity or powder
modulus. A common form for G is (Ref. 5)

B1 φc + B2
G ( φ c ) = 10 (6-83)

The available predefined models (all defined in Ref. 5) are those of Gidaspow and
Ettehadieh,

-8.76φ c + 5.43
G ( φ c ) = 10 (6-84)

Ettehadieh,

-10.46φ c + 6.577
G ( φ c ) = 10 (6-85)

and Gidaspow,

-10.5φ c + 9.0
G ( φ c ) = 10 (6-86)

Observe that the solid pressure term theoretically replaces the stress term in the
dispersed phase momentum equation. A small viscosity is however necessary for
numerical robustness. The Gidaspow formulation or a small constant value is
appropriate. The viscosity for the continuous phase, μ cm , can be taken as the single
phase value, that is μ cm = μ c .

NOTES ON THE IMPLEMENTATION

There are several equations with potentially singular terms and expressions such as the
term

F m,d
------------
φd

in Equation 6-59. Also, φ d is a degree of freedom and can therefore, during

computations, obtain nonphysical values in small areas. This can, in turn, lead to
nonphysical values of material properties such as viscosity and density. To avoid these
problems, the implementation uses the following regularizations:

• 1/ φ k, k=c,d is replaced by1/ φ k,pos where

φ k, pos = max ( φ k, φ k,res )

The residue volume fractions are per default set to 10−4 but can be changed in the
Advanced Settings section of the interface settings.

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 569

 • When appropriate, for example when evaluating drag models and mixture
viscosities, φ k, k=c,d are replaced by
φ k, reg = min ( max ( φ k, 0 ), 1 )

Note however that the continuity equation, Equation 6-55, uses φ k without
regularization in order to guarantee mass conservation.

Some Notes on Boundary Conditions

An effect of dividing the momentum equations with φ c and φ d respectively is that for
example ud obtains a value even if φ d = 0 . In many cases ud will tend to uc in lack of
a dispersed phase. So on inlets where φ d = 0 , it is appropriate to set ud=uc.

A fixed value for φ d should only be prescribed if there is no transport of φ d toward

the inlet. If, for example, a cloud of dispersed phase with higher φ d than the prescribed
value somehow reaches the inlet, φ d will actually be “consumed”.

When specifying a dispersed phase flux, make sure to specify an appropriate velocity to
go with the flux to avoid nonphysical concentrations of φ d close to the boundary.

At walls, where it is possible to prescribe a wall leakage, the continuous phase normal
velocity is set to

·
mc
uc ⋅ n = – -------------------
-
ρ c φ c, pos

For a dispersed phase leakage:

 ·
 md ·
 – --------------------------------- if ( m d > 0 )
 ρ d ( 1 – φ c , res )
ud ⋅ n = 
 · ·
 mc if ( m d < 0 )
 – ---------------------
ρ d φ d, pos


That is, dispersed phase is injected with a low velocity and transported out with a
velocity that is consistent with the specified flux. Wall leakage for one phase works best
if combined with slip condition for the other phase so that the mixture is given
maximum freedom to react to the leakage.

570 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Turbulent Two-Phase Flow Modeling
When the characteristic Reynolds number of the two-phase mixture under
investigation becomes high, the flow transitions and becomes turbulent. The influence
of the turbulence on the flow characteristics (mixing, particle dispersion, pressure
drop, and so on) are usually significant and warrants the use of a turbulence model.

In order to model fluid flow turbulence, the Euler–Euler Model, Turbulent Flow
interface uses the k-ε turbulence model. This is realized by solving transport equations
for the kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2) and the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic
energy ε (SI unit: m2/s3).

The interface includes the possibility to model the turbulent flow of the two-phase
mixture, or to solve for turbulent flow of each phase separately. In the former case, one
set of k-ε equations are solved, while in the latter two sets of k-ε equations are solved
for, one for each phase.

MIXTURE TURBULENCE
Mixture turbulence assumes that the turbulence effects on both the continuous and
dispersed phase can be modeled by solving for the turbulence of the resulting
two-phase mixture. Here this is done using a two-equation k-ε model where the
transport of turbulence quantities is based on based on the mass-averaged mixture
velocity

φc ρc um + φd ρd um
u m = ----------------------------------------------- ,
ρ

and a volume-averaged mixture viscosity

μ m = φ c μ cm + φ d μ dm

This implies that the model is appropriate for flows where the relaxation time of the
dispersed particles (the time scale on which particles react to changes in the carrier fluid
velocity) is not significantly different to the time scale of the turbulence. It is also
appropriate for stratified flows, where the mixture mainly consists of one of the phases.

Setting the Two-phase turbulence interface property to Mixture, the turbulence of the
two-phase flow is modeled by solving the following k and ε equations:

∂k μT
ρ ------ + ρ u m ⋅ ∇k = ∇ ⋅   μ m + ------ ∇k + P k – ρε (6-87)
∂t  σk 

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 571

 ∂ε μT ε ε2
ρ ----- + ρ u m ⋅ ∇ε = ∇ ⋅   μ m + ------ ∇ε + C ε1 --- P – C ε2 ρ ----- (6-88)
∂t   σε   k k k

The equations correspond to the standard two-equation k-ε model including

realizability constraints.

The production term is defined accordingly as

P k = μ T  ∇u m : ( ∇u m + ( ∇u m ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u m ) 2 – --- ρk∇ ⋅ u m

2 2
3 3

and the resulting turbulent viscosity is defined as

k2
μ T = ρC μ ------
ε

where Cμ is a model constant. The viscous stress tensors for the phases are hence
defined as

τ c = ( μ cm + μ T )  ∇u c + ( ∇u c ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u c )I – --- ρ c kI ,

T 2 2
 3  3

τ d = ( μ dm + μ T )  ∇u d + ( ∇u d ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u d )I – --- ρ d kI .

T 2 2
3 3

Assuming mixture turbulence, the transport equation for the volume fraction is:

∂ φ
( ) + ∇ ⋅ ( φ d u d ) = ∇ ⋅ ( D md ∇φ d ) (6-89)
∂t d

Here the dispersion of the particulate phase by the turbulent fluctuations is modeled
using a gradient based hypothesis. The turbulent dispersion coefficient is defined from
the turbulent viscosity of the two-phase mixture in the manner of

μT
D md = ----------
ρσ T

where σT is a turbulent particle Schmidt number (dimensionless).

572 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The default values of the dimensionless parameters using the Mixture Two-phase
turbulence model are:

CONSTANT VALUE

Cμ 0.09
Cε1 1.44
Cε2 1.92
σk 1.0
σε 1.3
Kv 0.41
B 5.2
σΤ 0.35

PHASE SPECIFIC TURBULENCE

The phase specific Two-phase turbulence model assumes that the turbulent flow of the
continuous and dispersed phase can be modeled by solving for the turbulence of each
phase separately by using two sets of k-ε equations. The model implies that the time
scales of the turbulent flow of each phase can differ, but it is also computationally more
expensive than assuming solving one set of k-ε equations for the mixture.

Setting the Two-phase turbulence interface property to Phase specific, the turbulent flow
of the two phases is modeled by solving two sets of k and ε equations, one for each
phase. For the continuous phase, the transport equations for k and ε are

∂k c μ T,c
ρ c -------- + ρ c u c ⋅ ∇k c = ∇ ⋅   μ cm + ---------- ∇k c + P k, c – ρ c ε c (6-90)
∂t  σ k, c

∂ε c μ T,c εc ε d2
ρ c ------- + ρ c u c ⋅ ∇ε c = ∇ ⋅   μ cm + ---------- ∇ε c + C ε1,c ----- P k, c – C ε2,c ρ ------ (6-91)
∂t   σ ε, c   kc kd

while for the dispersed phase the corresponding equations are

∂k d μ T,d
ρ d --------- + ρ d u d ⋅ ∇k d = ∇ ⋅   μ dm + ----------- ∇k d + P k, d – ρ d ε d (6-92)
∂t  σ k, d

∂ε d μ T,d εd ε d2
ρ d -------- + ρ d u d ⋅ ∇ε d = ∇ ⋅   μ dm + ---------- ∇ε d + C ε1,d ------ P k, d – C ε2,d ρ ------ (6-93)
∂t  σ ε, d kd kd

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 573

 The equations for each phase correspond to the standard two-equation k-ε model
including realizability constraints.

The production terms are defined as

P k, c = μ T,c  ∇u c : ( ∇u c + ( ∇u c ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u c ) 2 – --- ρ c k d ∇ ⋅ u c

2 2
 3  3

P k, d = μ T,d  ∇u d : ( ∇u d + ( ∇u d ) T ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u d ) 2 – --- ρ d k d ∇ ⋅ u d

2 2
 3  3

The resulting turbulent viscosity, applied individually in the momentum equations of

the continuous and the dispersed phases, are

k c2 k d2
μ T, c = ρ c C μ, c ------ , μ T, d = ρ d C μ, d ------ (6-94)
εc εd

where Cμ,c and Cμ,d are model constants. The viscous stress tensors for the phases are
hence defined as

τ c = ( μ cm + μ T, c )  ∇u c + ( ∇u c ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u c )I – --- ρ c k c I ,

T 2 2
3 3

τ d = ( μ dm + μ T, d )  ∇u d + ( ∇u d ) – --- ( ∇ ⋅ u d )I – --- ρ d k d I .

T 2 2
 3  3

As in the case of mixture turbulence, the dispersion of the particulate phase by the
turbulent fluctuations is modeled using a gradient based hypothesis (Equation 6-89).
For phase-specific turbulence the dispersion coefficient is modeled as a volume average
of the respective turbulent diffusivity of each phase

μ T, c μ T, d
D md = -----------  φ c ----------- + φ d -----------
1
σ T, d  ρc ρd 

using a turbulent particle Schmidt number σT,d (dimensionless).

574 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The default values of the turbulence model parameters for phase specific turbulence are

CONTINUOUS VALUE DISPERSED VALUE

PHASE PHASE
CONSTANTS CONSTANTS

Cμ,c 0.09 Cμ,d 0.09

Cε1,c 1.44 Cε1,d 1.44
Cε2,c 1.92 Cε2,d 1.92
σk,c 1.0 σk,d 1.0
σε,c 1.3 σε,d 1.3
Kv,c 0.41 Kv,d 0.41
Bc 5.2 Bd 5.2
σΤ,d 0.35

References for the Euler–Euler Model Interfaces

1. M.J.V. Goldschmidt, B.P.B. Hoomans, and J.A.M. Kuipers, “Recent Progress
Towards Hydrodynamic Modelling of Dense Gas-Particle Flows”, Recent Research
Developments in Chemical Engineering, Transworld Research Network, India, pp.
273–292, 2000.

2. M. Ishii and T. Hibiki, “Thermo-Fluid Dynamics of Two-Phase Flow”, Springer

US, 2006.

3. C. Crowe, M. Sommerfeld, and Y Tsuji, Multiphase Flows with Droplets and

Particles, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998.

4. B.G.M. van Wachem, J.C. Schouten, C.M. van den Bleek, R. Krishna, and J.L.
Sinclair, “Comparative Analysis of CFD Models of Dense Gas-Solid Systems”, AIChE
Journal, vol. 47, no. 5, pp. 1035–1051, 2001.

5. H. Enwald, E. Peirano, and A.-E. Almstedt, “Eulerian Two-Phase Flow Theory

Applied to Fluidization”, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol. 22, pp. 21–66, 1996.

6. D. Gidaspow, Multiphase Flow and Fluidization, Academic Press, San Diego,

1994.

7. C.Y. Wen and Y.H. Yu, “Mechanics of Fluidization”, Chemical Engineering

Progress Symposium Series, vol. 62, pp. 100–110, 1966.

8. S. Ergun, “Fluid Flow Through Packed Columns”, Chemical Engineering

Progress, vol. 48, pp. 89–94, 1952.

THEORY FOR THE EULER-EULER MODEL INTERFACES | 575

 9. M. Ungarish, Hydrodynamics of Suspensions, Springer-Verlag, 1993.

10. M. Ishii and N. Zuber, “Drag Coefficient and Relative Velocity in Bubbly, Droplet
or Particulate Flows”, AIChE Journal, vol. 25, no. 5, 1979.

11. A. Tomiyama, I. Kataoka, I. Zun and T. Sakaguchi, “Drag coefficients of single

bubbles under normal and micro gravity conditions”, JSME International Journal,
series B. Vol. 41, pp. 472–479, 1998.

12. P.J. Oliveira and R.I. Issa, “Numerical aspects of an algorithm for the Eulerian
simulation of two-phase flows”, Int. J. Numer. Meth. Fluids, vol. 43, pp. 1177–1198,
2003.

576 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Phase Transport
Interfaces
The Phase Transport and Phase Transport in Porous Media interfaces are intended for
studying the transport of multiple immiscible fluid, gas, or (dispersed) solid phases
either in free flow or in flow through a porous medium. The interfaces solve for the
averaged volume fractions (also called saturations in a porous medium) of the phases,
and does not track the interfaces between the different phases. Both interfaces are
based on the macroscopic mass conservation equations of each phase. In a porous
medium the effects of the microscopic (or pore scale) interfaces between the phases
can be taken into account via the capillary pressure functions.

In this section:

• Phase Transport in Free Flow

• Turbulent Mixing
• Phase Transport in Porous Media
• Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models
• Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition
• References for the Phase Transport Interfaces

Phase Transport in Free Flow

Suppose the fluid consists of a mixture of i = 1,…,N immiscible phases. The following
mass conservation equation describes the transport for an individual phase:

∂
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi si ui ) = Qi (6-95)
∂t i i

where ρi denotes the density (SI unit: kg/m3), si denotes the volume fraction
(dimensionless), and ui denotes the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s) of phase i. In
addition, the term Qi denotes a mass source for phase i (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). It is
assumed that the sum of the volume fractions of the phases equals 1:

 si = 1 (6-96)
i=1

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 577

 This means that N − 1 phase volume fractions are independent and are possible to solve
for using Equation 6-120. The volume constraint Equation 6-121 is used to reduce
the number of dependent variables: one volume fraction, let us say of phase ic (to be
specified in the main node of the Phase Transport interface), is expressed using the
other volume fractions:

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(6-97)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

Turbulent Mixing
A flow field obtained using a turbulence model does not explicitly contain the small
eddies. These unresolved eddies still have a profound effect on the species transport,
an effect known as turbulent mixing.

The Phase Transport interface supports the inclusion of turbulent mixing via the
gradient-diffusion hypothesis. In this case it adds a diffusion term proportional to the
turbulent kinematic viscosity to the phase transport Equation 6-120, which then
becomes

∂ νT
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ i s i u i ) – ∇ ⋅  ρ i --------- ∇s i = Q i for i ≠ i c (6-98)
∂t i i  Sc T 

Phase Transport in Porous Media

In a porous domain, the mass conservation equation for each phase is given by:

∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi ui ) = Qi (6-99)
∂t p i i

Here εp (dimensionless) is the porosity, and the vector ui should now be interpreted
as the volumetric flux of phase i (SI unit m3/(m2·s) or m/s). The volumetric fluxes
are determined using the extended Darcy’s law (Ref. 2)

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) (6-100)
μi

where κ denotes the permeability (SI unit: m2) of the porous medium, g the
gravitational acceleration vector (SI unit m/s2), and μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit:

578 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit: Pa), and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively.

One phase pressure can be chosen independently, which in the Phase Transport in
Porous Media interface is chosen to be the phase pressure, p i c , of the phase computed
from the volume constraint, and the other phase pressures are defined by the following
N − 1 capillary pressure relations:

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (6-101)
i

Substituting Equation 6-100 into Equation 6-99, and using the volume constraint in
Equation 6-121, we arrive at the following N − 1 equations for the phase volume
fractions si, (i ≠ ic) that are solved in the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface:

∂ κ
( ε ρ s ) – ∇ ⋅  ρ i κ ri ----- ( ∇ ( p ic + p ci ) – ρ i g ) = Q i for i ≠ i c (6-102)
∂t p i i  μi 

The remaining volume fraction is computed from

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(6-103)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models

The capillary pressure functions p c i can be supplied as user defined expressions, or, in
case there are only two phases present in the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface,
the capillary pressure function can be derived from van Genuchten (Ref. 1) or Brooks
and Corey (Ref. 2) models. When either of these predefined models is used, the user
has to specify which phase is the wetting phase. If the wetting phase is the same as the
phase computed from the volume constraint, then

pi = p ic + p ci for i ≠ i c (6-104)

otherwise

p i = p ic – p ci for i ≠ i c (6-105)

For the van Genuchten model, the expression for the capillary pressure as a function
of saturation follows the curve

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 579

  1  1 – m vG
p c = p ec  ------------------------ – 1 (6-106)
 ( s ) 1 ⁄ m vG 
w

where pec is the entry capillary pressure and mvG is a constitutive constant, and where
s w denotes the effective saturation of the wetting phase. The effective saturation of
each phase is defined as

N
 
 s rj
s i = ( s i – s ri ) ⁄  1 –  (6-107)
 j=1 

where srj denotes the residual saturation of phase j. For the Brooks and Corey model,
the capillary pressure curve depends on saturation as

1 -
p c = p ec --------------------
1 ⁄ λp
(6-108)
( sw )

where λp is the pore distribution index.

When the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey capillary pressure model is selected, the
relative permeabilities are also determined by these predefined models. For the van
Genuchten model, the relative permeabilities are given by

1 ⁄ m vG m vG 2
κ rsw = ( s w )  1 – ( 1 – ( s w ) 
l vG
) (6-109)


l vG 1 ⁄ m vG 2m vG
κ rs n = ( s n ) ( 1 – ( 1 – s n ) ) (6-110)

where mvG and lvG are constitutive constants, and where sn denotes the volume
fraction of the nonwetting phase. For the Brooks and Corey model, the relative
permeabilities are given by

( 3 + 2 ⁄ λp )
κ rsw = ( s w ) (6-111)

2 ( 1 + 2 ⁄ λp )
κ rsn = s n ( 1 – ( 1 – s n ) ) (6-112)

where λp is again the pore distribution index.

580 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

When the capillary diffusion option is selected for the capillary pressure model, it is
assumed that the capillary effects are small, and all phase pressures are taken to be
equal:

p i = p ic for i ≠ i c (6-113)

However, it is still assumed that the capillary effects induce a (small) diffusive flux in
the mass conservation equations for the different phases:

∂ κ
( ε ρ s ) – ∇ ⋅  ρ i κ ri ----- ( ∇p i c – ρ i g ) + ρ i D ci ∇s i = Q i for i ≠ i c (6-114)
∂t p i i  μi 

where D ci denotes the capillary diffusion coefficient for phase i. The volumetric flux
for the phases not computed from the volume constraint is in this case given by

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) – D ci ∇s i (6-115)
μi

Furthermore it is assumed that the capillary effects do not influence the equation for
conservation of the total mass, so that this equations becomes

N
   N  N
∂ κ
εp ρi si – ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ i κ ri ----- ( ∇p ic – ρ i g ) =
  Qi (6-116)
∂t   μi 
 i=1  i = 1  i=1

Defining the volumetric flux of the phase computed from the volume constraint as
follows

N
κ ri 1
u ic = – --------c κ ( ∇p ic – ρ ic g ) + ------
μic ρic  ρ i D c ∇s i
i
(6-117)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

results again in the following usual form of the equation for the conservation of the
total mass

N
   N  N
∂
εp ρi si – ∇ ⋅ 
  ρ i u i =
  Qi (6-118)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1  i=1

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 581

 Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition
Over a boundary between a more permeable and a less permeable porous domain, the
macroscopic saturation of the different phases is often discontinuous. The Porous
Medium Discontinuity boundary condition implements the following condition on such
an interior boundary:

 l h h l
l l  p ec, i if p ci ( s i ) ≤ p ec, i
p ci ( si ) =  for i ≠ i c (6-119)
 p hc ( s hi ) if
h h l
p ci ( s i ) > p ec, i
 i

where the superscript l is used to indicate the saturation and capillary pressure on the
low permeable side of the boundary, and the superscript h indicates the high
permeable side. The first case implements the condition that if the capillary pressure
on the more permeable side is lower than the entry capillary pressure on the less
permeable side, then the saturation of phase i on the less permeable side equals 0 (or
the residual saturation), and the second case implements the condition that if the
capillary pressure on the more permeable side is higher than the entry capillary
pressure on the less permeable side, the phase i is present on both sides of the interface,
and that in this case the capillary pressure is continuous over the interface.

The additional conditions are continuity of the fluxes for all phases and continuity of
the pressure of the phase ic computed from the volume constraint. Note that this last
condition assumes that this phase is present on both sides of the porous medium
discontinuity boundary. In addition, this boundary condition assumes that the phase
ic computed from the volume constraint is the wetting phase and it is necessary that
the settings for the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey capillary pressure model
match this assumption.

When the automatic settings are used for the Porous Medium Discontinuity boundary
condition and if in one or both of the adjacent domains none of the predefined
capillary pressure models is selected (van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey), the entry
capillary pressure in that domain is determined by substituting 0 for saturation of the
phase which is not computed from the volume constraint into the user defined
expression for the capillary pressure.

Also note that if in one or both of the adjacent domains the Capillary diffusion model
is selected, the Porous Medium Discontinuity boundary condition is not applicable as the
entry capillary pressure in this case is not known on both sides of the boundary.

582 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

References for the Phase Transport Interfaces
1. M.Th. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic
Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

2. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACES | 583

 Theory for the Phase Transport
Mixture Model Interfaces
The model equations that are solved in the Phase Transport Mixture Model interfaces
are based on the mass conservation of each phase and on conservation of momentum.
The mass conservation equation for each (immiscible) phase i = 1, …, N is given by:

∂
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi si ui ) = Qi (6-120)
∂t i i

where ρi denotes the density (SI unit: kg/m3), si denotes the volume fraction
(dimensionless), and ui denotes the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s) of phase i. In
addition, the term Qi denotes a mass source for phase i (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). It is
assumed that the sum of the volume fractions of the phases equals 1:

 si = 1 (6-121)
i=1

This means that N − 1 phase volume fractions are independent and are possible to solve
for using Equation 6-120. The volume constraint Equation 6-121 is used to reduce
the number of dependent variables: one volume fraction, let us say of phase ic (to be
specified in the main node of the coupled Phase Transport interface), is expressed using
the other volume fractions:

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(6-122)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

In the Mixture Model multiphysics coupling feature, it is assumed that the phase ic is the
continuous phase.

Furthermore, the mass averaged mixture velocity um is defined as:

N
1
u m = ---
ρ  si ρi ui (6-123)
i=1

Here ρ is the mixture density (SI unit: kg/m3) given by:

584 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 N

ρ =  si ρi (6-124)
i=1

Summing the mass conservation equations for all phases gives the following continuity
equation for the mixture

N
∂
∂t
ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu m ) =  Qi (6-125)
i=1

The velocity ui of phase i is defined as:

N
1 D md
ui = u m + u slip,i – ---
ρ  ρ j s j u slip,j – ------------ ∇s i
si
for i ≠ ic (6-126)
j = 1, j ≠ i c

where the slip velocity uslip,i (SI unit: m/s) is given by one of the slip velocity models
discussed below, and where the last term accounts for the turbulent effects, with Dmd
(SI unit: m2/s) a turbulent dispersion coefficient given by

μT
D md = ----------
ρσ T

where σT is the turbulent particle Schmidt number (dimensionless). The particle

Schmidt number is usually suggested a value ranging from 0.35 to 0.7.

Using the expression above for the velocity ui of phase i, the conservation equation for
the dispersed phases can be written as

∂
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ i s i ( u m – u r + u slip,i ) – ρ i D md ∇s i ) = Q i (6-127)
∂t i i

Here the velocity field ur is the mass average of all slip velocities:

N
1
u r = ---
ρ  ρ i s i u slip,i (6-128)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

With the previous definitions, the velocity of the continuous phase u i c can be written
in terms of the mixture velocity um and the slip velocities uslip,i as follows:

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 585

 N
1
u ic = u m – u r + ------------
ρic sic  ρ i D md ∇s i (6-129)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

The momentum equation for the mixture is

N
 
 ρ i s i u slip,i u slip,i – ρ u r u r 

T T
ρu mt + ρ ( u m ⋅ ∇ )u m + ∇ ⋅
  (6-130)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 
= – ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ τ Gm + ρg + F

Here τGm is the sum of the viscous and turbulent stresses (SI unit: kg/(m·s2)). The
last term between parenthesis on the first line of Equation 6-130 is called the diffusion
stress.

When the Low dispersed phase concentration check box is selected (see The Phase
Transport Mixture Model Interfaces), the momentum equation, Equation 6-130, and
continuity equation, Equation 6-125, are replaced by

N
 
ρ ic u mt + ρ ic ( u m ⋅ ∇ )u m + ∇ ⋅   ρ i s i u slip,i u slip,i – ρ ic u r u r 
T T
  (6-131)
 i = 1, i ≠ ic 
= – ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ τ Gm + ρg + F

and

N
∂
ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρic um ) =
∂ t ic  Qi (6-132)
i=1

Mixture Viscosity Models

The Newtonian viscosities of interpenetrating media are not readily available. Instead
empirical and analytical models for the dynamic viscosity mixture have been developed,
usually as a function of the dispersed volume fraction.

A simple mixture viscosity model, which is only available when there is one dispersed
phase covering the entire range of particle volume fractions sd is the Krieger type
model (Ref. 1):

586 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 s d –2.5φ d,max
μ = μ c  1 – --------------- (6-133)
 φ d,max

Here φ d,max is the maximum packing limit, by default 0.62. An extension of

Equation 6-62 can be applied for liquid droplets/bubbles:

μ d + 0.4μ c
– 2.5φ d,max -------------------------
-
sd μd + μc
μ = μ c  1 – --------------- (6-134)
 φ d,max

where μc and μd are the viscosities of the continuous and dispersed phase, respectively.

For fluid-fluid systems, the volume averaged viscosity defined by

μ =  si μi (6-135)
i=1

is also available.

Slip Velocity Models

The Mixture Model multiphysics coupling contains three predefined models for the slip
velocity between a dispersed phase and the continuous phase uslip,i:

• The Schiller-Naumann model

• The Haider-Levenspiel model
• The Hadamard-Rybczynski model

All three models use the following relation for the slip velocity:

C d,i ( ρ – ρi ) 
----
3
--- --------- - – u mt – ( u m ⋅ ∇ )u m + g + F
- u slip,i u slip,i = – ------------------ (6-136)
4 di ρic  ρ

where Cd,i (dimensionless) is the particle drag coefficient and di is the particle
diameter of phase i.

The Schiller-Naumann model models the drag coefficient according to

 24 0.687
 ------------- ( 1 + 0.15Re p, i ) Re p,i < 1000
C d,i =  Re p,i

 0.44 Re p,i > 1000

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 587

 where Rep,i is the particle Reynolds number

d i ρ ic u slip,i
Re p,i = ------------------------------
μ

Note that this definition of the particle Reynolds number uses the viscosity of the
mixture and not the viscosity of the continuous phase, as would be customary for a
single particle in a pure fluid with viscosity μc. This choice incorporates the hindrance
effect of the other particles on the slip velocity, see Ref. 2.

Because the particle Reynolds number depends on the slip velocity, an implicit
equation must be solved to obtain the slip velocity. Therefore, the Mixture Model
multiphysics coupling feature adds an additional equation for

2
u slip,i

when the Schiller-Naumann slip model is used. The Schiller-Naumann model is

particularly well-suited for solid particles in a liquid.

The Haider-Levenspiel model is applicable to nonspherical particles. It models the

drag coefficient according to

24 B(S ) C ( Si )
C d,i = ------------- ( 1 + A ( S i )Re p,i i ) + -------------------------------------------
Re p,i 1 + D ( S i ) ⁄ Re p,i

where A, B, C, and D are empirical correlations of the particle sphericity Si. The
sphericity is defined as the ratio of the surface area of a volume equivalent sphere to
the surface area of the considered nonspherical particle

A sphere
0 < S i = ------------------ ≤ 1
A particle

The correlation coefficients are given by

2.3288-6.4581S i + 2.4486S i2
A ( Si ) = e
B ( S i ) = 0.0964+0.5565S i
4.905-13.8944S i + 18.4222S i2 – 10.2599S i3
C ( Si ) = e
1.4681 + 12.2584S i – 20.7322S i2 + 15.8855S i3
D ( Si ) = e

588 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The diameter used in the particle Reynolds number is that of the volume equivalent
sphere. The equation for the squared slip velocity is also added when the
Haider-Levenspiel slip model is used.

The Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law is valid for particle Reynolds numbers less than
1, for particles, bubbles, and droplets. The drag coefficient for liquid droplets or
bubbles is

 2 μ i-c
 1 + --3- -----μi 
= -------------  --------------------
24
C d,i
Re p,i  μ 
 1 + -----i-c 
 μi 

which yields the following explicit expression for the slip velocity

 μic 
2 1 + ------ 
( ρ – ρ i )d i  μi
= – --------------------------  --------------------  – u mt – ( u m ⋅ ∇ )u m + g + ----
F
u slip,i
18μ 2 μic ρ
 1 + --- ------
 3 μi 

For solid particles, the slip velocity is given by

2
( ρ – ρ i )d i
= – --------------------------  – u mt – ( u m ⋅ ∇ )u m + g + ----
F
u slip,i
18μ  ρ

when Rep,i < 1. For very small gas bubbles, the drag coefficient is observed to be closer
to the solid-particle value. This is believed to be caused by surface-active impurities
collecting on the bubble surface.

Coupled Interfaces: Equations and Coupled Quantities

The equations for the volume fractions of the dispersed phases (Equation 6-120) are
solved in the Phase Transport interface. The momentum equation and the continuity
equation for the mixture velocity and pressure (Equation 6-125 and Equation 6-130)
are solved in the coupled laminar or turbulent single-phase flow interface. The Mixture
Model multiphysics coupling feature supplies the mixture density ρ and viscosity μ to
the single-phase flow interface, and the convective dispersed phase velocities
u ic + u slip,i to the Phase Transport interface. In addition it adds the diffusion stress
term to the momentum equation (see Equation 6-130, when the Include diffusion
stress in momentum equation check box is selected), and the diffusive term to the

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 589

 transport equations for the dispersed phases (see Equation 6-120). In case there are
mass sources in the Phase Transport interface, the Mixture Model multiphysics feature
adds the right-hand side to the mixture continuity equation (Equation 6-125).

References
1. H. Enwald, E. Peirano, and A.-E. Almstedt, “Eulerian Two-Phase Flow Theory
Applied to Fluidization”, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, vol. 22, pp. 21–66, 1996.

2. M. Ungarish, Hydrodynamics of suspensions, Springer-Verlag, 1993.

590 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Nonisothermal
M i xt ur e M o de l In t erfac es
The model equations that are solved in the Nonisothermal Mixture Model interfaces are
a combination of the Phase Transport Mixture Model interfaces and Nonisothermal Flow.
The equations solved are the mass conservation of each phase, conservation of
momentum of the mixture, and the temperature equation. For more information, see
Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces and Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow
and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces.

Mixture Material Properties for Heat Transfer

The Nonisothermal Mixture Model multiphysics coupling provides the thermal
conductivity k, heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, and ratio of specific heats γ of the
mixture to the heat transfer interface.

The thermal conductivity of the mixture k is volume-averaged over all the phases:

k =  si ki
i=1

The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp of the mixture is obtained from

mass-averaging:

 s i ρ i C p, i
i=1
C p = -------------------------------
ρ

The ratio of specific heats γ is obtained as the ratio of Cp respect to Cv:

Cp
 s i ρ i C p, i
i=1
γ = ------- = -------------------------------
N
-
Cv
C p, i
s i ρ i -----------
γi
i=1

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL MIXTURE MODEL INTERFACES | 591

 Note that Cv is obtained from a mass-averaging across the phases.

592 | CHAPTER 6: MULTIPHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 7

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Interfaces
This chapter discusses physics interfaces under the Fluid Flow>Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ). The section Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface
Flow helps you choose the best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

• The Darcy’s Law Interface
• The Brinkman Equations Interface
• The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface
• The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
• The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
• Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface

593
 Modeling Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow
In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• The Porous Media Flow Interface Options
• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) included with the CFD Module
has a number of subbranches to describe momentum transport. These can be added
either singularly or in combination with other physics interfaces modeling mass and
energy transfer, and even chemical reactions.

Different types of flow require different equations to describe them. If the flow type
to model is known, then select it directly. However, when you are not certain of the
flow type, or when it is difficult to obtain a solution, you can instead start with a
simplified model and add complexity as you build the model. Then you can
successively advance forward, comparing models and results. For porous media flow,
the Darcy’s Law interface is a good place to start if this is the case.

In other cases, you might know exactly how a fluid behaves and which equations,
models, or physics interfaces best describe it, but because the model is so complex it is
difficult to reach convergence. Simplifying assumptions can be made to solve the
problem, and other physics interfaces can be better at fine-tuning the solution process
for the more complex problem. The next section gives you an overview of each of the
physics interfaces to help you choose.
TABLE 7-1: THE POROUS MEDIA FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT PORE SIZE

INTERFACE LABEL INERTIAL TERM

Darcy's Law dl n/a n/a Low porosity and low

permeability, slow flow
Two-Phase tpdl n/a n/a Low porosity and low
Darcy’s law permeability, slow flow

594 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 7-1: THE POROUS MEDIA FLOW DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS NAME COMPRESSIBILITY NEGLECT PORE SIZE

INTERFACE LABEL INERTIAL TERM

Brinkman br Incompressible Yes - High permeability and

Equations flow Stokes-Brink porosity, faster flow
man
Free and Porous fp Incompressible Not selected High permeability and
Media Flow flow porosity, fast flow
Figure 7-1 is an example of the Settings window for Brinkman Equations where you can
select either Compressible or Incompressible flow, and either normal or Stokes
Brinkman flow.

The Porous Media Flow Interface Options

DARCY’S LAW
The Darcy’s Law Interface ( ) is used for modeling fluid movement through
interstices in a porous medium by homogenizing the porous and fluid media into a
single medium. Together with the continuity equation and equation of state for the
pore fluid (or gas) this physics interface can be used to model low velocity flows, for
which the pressure gradient is the major driving force. The penetration of reacting
gases into a tight catalytic layer, such as a washcoat or membrane, is a classic example
for the use of Darcy’s Law.

Darcy’s law can be used in porous media where the fluid is mostly influenced by the
frictional resistance within the pores. It applies to very slow flows, or media where the
pore size is very small.

BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
Where the size of the interstices are larger, and the fluid is also influenced by internal
shear or shear stresses on boundaries, the viscous shear within the fluid must be
considered. This is done in the Brinkman Equations interface. Fluid penetration of
filters and packed beds are applications for this mode. The Brinkman Equations
Interface ( ) is used to model incompressible flow. You can also choose to model
compressible flow at speeds less than Mach 0.3, but you have to maintain control over
the density and any of the mass balances that are deployed to accomplish this.
Furthermore, you can select the Stokes-Brinkman flow feature to reduce the influence
of inertial effects (see Figure 7-1).

MODELING POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW | 595

 Figure 7-1: The Settings window for the Brinkman Equations interface. You can model
compressible or incompressible flow as well as Stokes-Brinkman flow. Combinations are also
possible.

The Brinkman equations extend Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of

momentum by viscous shear, similar to the Navier-Stokes equation. Consequently,
they are well suited to model transitions between slow flow in porous media, governed
by Darcy’s law, and fast flow in channels described by the Navier-Stokes equations.

The Brinkman Equations interface also includes the possibility to add a Forchheimer
drag term, which is a viscous drag on the porous matrix proportional to the square of
the flow velocity. This term accounts for an inertial turbulent drag effect that comes

596 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

into play for fast flows through large pores. Adding the Forchheimer term takes into
account all drag contributions that the Ergun equation covers.

FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW

The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface ( ) is useful for modeling equipment
that contains domains with both free flow and porous media flow, such as packed-bed
reactors and catalytic converters. It should be noted that if the porous medium is large
in comparison with the free channel, and you are not primarily interested in results in
the vicinity of the interface, you can always couple a Fluid Flow interface to a Darcy’s
Law interface, to make your overall model computationally cheaper.

The Free and Porous Media Flow interface is used on at least two different domains;
a free channel and a porous medium. The physics interface adds functionality that
allows the equations to be optimized according to the definitions of the material
properties of the relevant domain. For example, you can select the Stokes-Brinkman
flow feature to reduce the dependence on inertial effects in the porous domain, or just
the Stoke’s flow feature to reduce the dependence on inertial effects in the free
channel.

Compressible flow is also possible to model in this physics interface at speeds less than
Mach 0.3, but you have to maintain control over the density and any of the mass
balances that are deployed to accomplish this. You can also choose to model
incompressible flow, and simplify the equations to be solved.

As always, the physics interface gives you provides you with options to define, either
by constants or expressions, the material properties that describe the porous media
flow. This includes the density, dynamic viscosity, permeability, porosity, and matrix
properties.

TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface ( ) has the equations and boundary
conditions for modeling two-phase fluid movement through interstices in a porous
medium using Darcy’s law. The two fluids are considered immiscible, and in general,
have different densities and viscosities.

As for the single phase Darcy's Law, the total velocity field is determined by the total
pressure gradient and the structure of the porous medium, but the average viscosity
and average density are calculated from the saturation of each immiscible phase and
their fluid properties. An extra equation is computed — the fluid content of one phase
— in order to calculate the saturation transport.

MODELING POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW | 597

 Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
Often, you are simulating applications that couple fluid flow in porous or subsurface
media to another type of phenomenon described in another physics interface. This can
include chemical reactions and mass transport, as described in Chemical Species
Transport Interfaces, or energy transport in porous media described in the Heat
Transfer and Nonisothermal Flow Interfaces chapter.

More extensive descriptions of modeling chemical reactions and mass transport are
found in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module. Furthermore, some applications
that involve electrochemical reactions and porous electrodes, particularly in
electrochemical power source applications, are supported in the Battery Design
Module.

Fluid flow is an important phenomenon for cooling in electromagnetic applications,

such as heat created through induction and microwave heating, which are simulated in
the AC/DC Module and RF Module, respectively. Other applications can involve the
effect of fluid-imposed momentum on structural applications; poroelasticity. The
Structural Mechanics Module and Subsurface Flow Module have interfaces specifically
for these multiphysics applications.

The following sections list all the physics interfaces and the features associated with
them under the Porous Media Subsurface Flow branch. The descriptions follow a
structured order as defined by the order in the branch. Because many of the physics
interfaces are integrated with each other, some features described also cross reference
to other physics interfaces. At the end of this section is a summary of the theory for
the physics interfaces under the Porous Media Subsurface Flow branch.

598 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid flow through
interstices in a porous medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media
where the permeability and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient
is the major driving force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance
within the pores. Set up multiple Darcy's Law interfaces to model multiphase flows
involving more than one mobile phase. The Darcy’s Law interface can be used for
stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Porous Medium Properties node, which provides interfaces for
defining the fluid material and the porous matrix properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Darcy's Law to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
By default there are no gravity effects added to Darcy’s Law interface. Select the check
box Include gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. When this check box is
selected a global Gravity feature node is shown in the interface model tree.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 599

 Enter a value for the acceleration of gravity. The default value g_const is the
predefined standard acceleration of gravity on Earth.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the

functionality available in each product, visit https://www.comsol.com/
products/specifications/.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is not activated by default. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

Also, the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a better behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

600 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Pressure. The name can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Species Transport in the Gas Diffusion Layers of a PEM: Application

Library path Fuel_Cell_and_Electrolyzer_Module/Fuel_Cells/
pem_gdl_species_transport_2d
• Steam Reformer: Application Library path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Porous_Catalysts/
steam_reformer
• Terzaghi Compaction: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Flow_and_Solid_Deformation/
terzaghi_compaction

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface has the following domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes, these nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 601

 DOMAIN

• Porous Medium • Mass Source

• Gravity • Thickness
• Cross Section • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Initial Values • Unsaturated Porous Medium

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

BOUNDARY, EDGE, AND POINT

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are available on exterior boundaries:

• Atmosphere/Gauge • Outlet
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Pervious Layer
• Flux Discontinuity • Point Mass Source
• Fracture Flow • Precipitation
• Hydraulic Head • Pressure
• Inlet • Pressure Head
• Interior Wall • 1
• Line Mass Source • Symmetry
• Mass Flux • Thin Barrier
• No Flow
1
This node is described for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/)!

The relevant physics interface condition at interior boundaries is continuity:

n ⋅ ( ρ1 u1 –ρ2 u2 ) = 0

The continuity boundary condition ensures that the pressure and mass flux are
continuous. In addition, the Pressure boundary condition is available on interior
boundaries.

602 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The continuity boundary condition provides continuity for the pressure and mass flux.
In addition, the following boundary conditions are available on interior boundaries:

• Pressure • Pervious Layer

• Pressure Head • Flux Discontinuity
• Hydraulic Head • Fracture Flow
• Interior Wall • Thin Barrier

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the equations for modeling flow through porous
domains. By default these are Equation 7-1 and Equation 7-2 (excluding any mass
sources).

∂
( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (7-1)
∂t p

κ
u = – --- ∇p (7-2)
μ

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 603

 For a steady-state problem the first term in Equation 7-1 disappears. When Gravity is
active Equation 7-2 is of the following form:

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p + ρg ) (7-3)
μ

The Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where
the fluid density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined
and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity
εp (dimensionless) are specified.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship using Equation 7-1 and
Equation 7-2.
• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship using Equation 7-1 and

μ
∇p = – --- u – βρ u u
κ

where the nonlinear parameter β (SI unit: 1/m) is further specified in the Porous
Matrix subfeature.

STORAGE MODEL
Equation 7-1 can also be formulated with respect to a storage term.

∂p κ
ρS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m (7-4)
∂t μ

604 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The storage coefficient S can be interpreted as the weighted compressibility of the
porous material and the fluid. Define the time dependent storage term by selecting one
of the following options from the drop-down menu:

• From density and porosity (default), uses the formulation of Equation 7-1
• Linearized storage, where the following linear equation is used to define the storage:
S = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

• Poroelastic storage, where S = εpχf

• Quasistatic, where the storage term is set to zero
• User defined to directly specify the storage coefficient S

Note that the option to choose a different Flow model and Storage model is only
available in some modules. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each
product, visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

• Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide
• Storage Model in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium or
Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node. The fluid can be specified as general gas or
liquid or as an ideal gas.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The available options for the Fluid type are Gas/Liquid (default) or Ideal gas. The
selection determines how the density and compressibility of the fluid are set. The latter
is only required if a poroelastic or linearized storage model has been selected in the
parent Porous Medium node. For all fluid types specify the dynamic viscosity μ (SI
unit: Pa·s).

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 605

 Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density and the Compressibility for a general gas or liquid.

Ideal Gas
For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. In this case, specify the
thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs (the
default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

If required by a Storage Model, the Compressibility of the ideal gas is calculated as

χ f = 1 ⁄ p A with the absolute pressure pA (Pa).

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium or Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. In a Porous Material
node, the porosity is defined as follows:

εp = 1 –  θsi – θimfi
i i

where θsi and θimfi are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node. See Porous Material in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual for more information.

Select User defined to enter a value or expression for εp.

If required by a Storage model in the parent node, specify the Effective compressibility
–4
of the porous matrix. The default value is χ p = 10 Pa .

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Which options are available depends on the Flow model setting in the parent node.

606 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Note that for the Unsaturated Porous Medium parent node only the Darcian Flow
models are available.

Darcian Flow
If Darcian flow is selected in the parent Porous medium node, select between the
following options for the Permeability model:

• Select Permeability (default) to define the permeability of the porous matrix. The
default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal
or Symmetric to define a tensor value.
• Select Hydraulic conductivity or define a combination of fluid permeability and
dynamic viscosity. For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to
define a scalar value or Diagonal or Symmetric to define a tensor value. The default is
2.94·10−4 m/s.
• Select Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter. Enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value is
0.5 mm.

Non-Darcian Flow
Select between the following options for the Permeability model:

• For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material, as defined by the Porous material list. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.
• If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).
• For Burke–Plummer, specify the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).
• For Klinkenberg, the default Permeability κ∞ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From
material. Enter the Klinkenberg parameter bK. Its default value is 1e3 Pa.

Note that some options are only available in some modules. For a detailed overview of
the functionality available in each product, visit https://www.comsol.com/products/
specifications/.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 607

 RETENTION MODEL
For an Unsaturated Porous Medium select between the following options for the
retention model:

• van Genuchten, to specify the retention model using the van Genuchten relationship.
Enter the constitutive relation constants α (default is 1, and the SI unit is 1/m), n
(default is 2), and l (default is 0.5). The constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n.
• Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to the Brooks and Corey
relationships.
• User defined to use a different retention model. Enter user defined expressions for
the Effective saturation Se, the Liquid volume fraction θl. The default is εp (the
porosity variable). Specify the Specific moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). The
default is 0 (1/m). Enter an expression for th Relative permeability κr. The default
is 1.

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a a value between 0 and 1 for the Residual liquid volume fraction θr. The default
value is 0.

Retention and Permeability Relationships in the Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source Qm, which appears on the right-hand side of
the Darcy’s Law equation (Equation 7-1).

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu )
= Qm (7-5)
∂t

For — which is available for the Subsurface Flow Module and the Porous Media Flow
Module — the mass source is applicable to the right-hand side of (where it is
multiplied with the fracture thickness).

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Mass source Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is
0 kg/(m3·s).

608 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

If you have the Subsurface Flow Module licensed, you can specify the pressure either
directly or as an expression for the pressure head, Hp, or the hydraulic head, H; the
hydraulic head and the pressure head relate to the pressure p as

p
H p = ------ ; H = Hp + D
ρg

where ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3); g denotes the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit: m/s2); and D is the elevation (SI unit: m).

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa.

In case the Subsurface Flow Module is available, click the Pressure head button to enter
a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m. Click the Hydraulic head
button to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

FRACTURE FLOW
For the Fracture Flow Interface, enter a value or expression for the Fracture thickness
df (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 m.

Flow in a Fractured Reservoir: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/fractured_reservoir_flow

Unsaturated Porous Medium

The Unsaturated Porous Medium node adds the Richards’ equation (Equation 7-6) for
flow in variably saturated porous media.

Cm ∂p κr κ
ρ  -------- + S e S p ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ  – -------- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = Q m (7-6)
ρg ∂t μ

The Unsaturated Porous Medium feature has two default subfeatures — the Fluid
subfeature where the fluid density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 609

 defined and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2)and
porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified as well as the retention model.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

Select a coordinate system from the Coordinate system list for the interpretation of
directions in anisotropic material properties. The default is the Global coordinate
system, and the list contains any additional orthonormal coordinate system (except
boundary coordinate systems) added under the Definitions node.

The subnodes inherit these coordinate system settings. In particular, the Permeability
or Hydraulic conductivity (in the Porous Matrix subnode) should be set according to
the coordinate system selected in this section.

STORAGE MODEL
With this option, define the time storage term Sp in Equation 7-6.

• From density and porosity

• Linearized storage (default)
• User defined

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Gravity
The Gravity node is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at interface
level in the Darcy’s Law settings and it is active in all domains in which the Darcy’s Law
interface is applied.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. It can be used when
prescribing the direction of the gravitational forces.

GRAVITY
Specify either the acceleration vector or — in case you have a Subsurface Flow Module
license — the elevation.

610 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

When Acceleration is selected from the list, enter the components of the Gravity vector
g. The default value is g_const which is the physical constant having the value
9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

When Elevation is selected from the list, specify the Elevation D (SI unit: m). Select the
check box Specify reference position to define a reference elevation.

Select the acceleration of gravity from either the Darcy’s Law interface Settings
(default), or specify a user defined value. When the check box Include gravity is not
selected in the Darcy’s Law interface Settings, the elevation D is set equal to zero.

Cross Section
Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross-sectional
area than the global one that is used in the interface Physical Model section. In 1D
geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and Darcy’s
Law accounts for that.

CROSS SECTION
Enter values for the Cross-sectional area Ac to set the cross section of the domain in the
plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

Thickness
Use this node with 2D and 1D axisymmetric components to model domains with
another thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the interface Physical
Model section. In 2D geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). In 1D
axisymmetric geometries the thickness represents the z direction.

THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dz of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 611

 Porous Electrode Coupling
Use the Porous Electrode Coupling node to define a mass source based on the volumetric
current densities of one or multiple Porous Electrode Reaction nodes in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The source (or sink) is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species,
the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as
defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available fields for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use the Electrode Surface Coupling node to define a combined wall and inflow/outflow
boundary condition based on current densities of one or multiple Electrode Reaction
nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flow is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species, the current
densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as defined by
summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available field for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

612 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to specify the pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa). Enter a relative pressure
value in p0 (SI unit: Pa).

For the Subsurface Flow Module, the Pressure node provides the pressure P0 as a
condition on edges in 3D models. Then select the edges under Edge Selection.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Pressure constraint on edges are available for use with the Fracture Flow boundary
condition (which is available in the Subsurface Flow Module). This boundary
condition needs constraints on the edges surrounding the fracture-flow boundary. In
other cases, pressure constraints on edges are not implemented.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux. D
is the elevation head which is set to zero for other than Subsurface Flow Module
applications.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0. A positive value of N0
represents an inward mass flux whereas a negative value represents an outward mass
flux. The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 613

 Line Mass Source
The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis
3D Edges

LINE MASS SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(m·s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the line into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

POINT MASS SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

614 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has three options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity. A negative value represents an outflow
velocity. The inlet velocity boundary condition is implemented as;

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow. D is the elevation head which is set to zero for
other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

PRESSURE
Use the Pressure option to specify the inlet pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example. Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa).

MASS FLOW
If you select Mass flow as the inlet condition, specify the total Mass flow rate M0(SI unit:
kg/s), or the Pointwise mass flux N0(SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

With Mass flow rate boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

–  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = M0
∂Ω

where M0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

Pointwise mass flux boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 615

 where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary. The following condition
implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow divide:

κ
n ⋅ --- ∇p = 0
μ

κ
n ⋅ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

No Flow
The No Flow node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impermeable boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

where n is the vector normal to the boundary. D is the elevation head which is set to
zero for any other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

Flux Discontinuity
Use the Flux Discontinuity node to specify a mass flux discontinuity through an interior
boundary. The condition is represented by the following equation:

– n ⋅ ( ρu 1 – ρ u 2 ) = N 0

In this equation, n is the vector normal (perpendicular) to the interior boundary, ρ is

the fluid density, u1 and u2 are the Darcy velocities in the adjacent domains (as defined
in Equation 7-7) and N0 is a specified value or expression for the flux discontinuity.

616 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ∇p (7-7)
μ

For this boundary condition, a positive value of N0 corresponds to a flow discontinuity

in the opposite direction to the normal vector of the interior boundary.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents a mass flux discontinuity in the opposite direction to the normal
vector of the interior boundary.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow (or inflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has different options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal outflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an outflow velocity whereas a negative value represents an
inflow velocity.

κ
– n ⋅ ρ --- ∇p = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the outward (or inward) Darcy velocity.

PRESSURE
Similar to the inlet Pressure option, the outlet pressure on a boundary can be specified.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa).

DISCHARGE
Enter a value or expression for the discharge QD to specify the volumetric flow rate
through the boundary. The mass flux ρu is related to the discharge as follows:

 ρu ⋅ ds = ρQD . (7-8)
∂Ω

The mean normal outflow velocity at the boundary can then be calculated as Uout =
QD/A, where A is the cross sectional area of the boundary.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 617

 Note that this option is only available for Porous Media Flow and Subsurface Flow
modules. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Precipitation
Enter a value or expression for the Precipitation rate which then contributes to the mass
flux at the boundaries selected. If the boundary is inclined, a Slope correction can be
applied.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and pressure
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and surfaces
instead.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition models interior permeable walls, membranes,
geotextiles, or perforated plates as thin permeable barriers. The Thin Barrier boundary
condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Thickness db (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m) and
for the Permeability κb (SI unit: m2). The default Permeability κb uses the value From
material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the field or
matrix.

618 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Pressure Head
Use the Pressure Head node to specify the pressure head (instead of the pressure) on a
boundary. It adds this boundary condition for the pressure head Hp= Hp0, where Hp0
is a known pressure head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example. The dimension of the pressure head is length (SI unit: m).

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

PRESSURE HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure head Hp0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Hydraulic Head
Use the Hydraulic Head node to specify the hydraulic head (instead of the pressure) on
a boundary. This adds the Dirichlet condition for the hydraulic head H = H0 where H0
is a known hydraulic head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

HYDRAULIC HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Atmosphere/Gauge
The Atmosphere/Gauge node specifies an atmospheric pressure or gauges the pressure
to the atmospheric value. This means that the total hydraulic potential reduces to the
gravitational pressure at the free surface. At a free surface, such as a spring or a seepage
face, the pressure is atmospheric. If the pressures in the model is gauged to the

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 619

 atmospheric value (p = 0), the total hydraulic potential reduces to the gravitational
potential at the free surface — for example, the height of the free surface multiplied by
the fluid weight, or ρf gD. This boundary condition sets the pressure at the boundary
to zero and p = 0.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Pervious Layer
The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

The Pervious Layer node provides a boundary condition that describes a mass flux
through a semi-pervious layer connected to an external fluid source at different
pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic head. The model domain might connect to a
larger body of water through the semi-pervious layer. This condition is represented
with the following boundary condition:

κ ( pb – p )
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρR b -------------------- + ( D b – D ) (7-9)
μ ρg

In this equation, pb (SI unit: Pa) and Db (SI unit: m) are the pressure and the elevation
of the distant fluid source, respectively, and Rb (SI unit: 1/s) is the conductance of
materials between the source and the model domain (conductance to flow in the
semi-pervious layer adjacent to the boundary). Typically Rb = K'/B', where K' is the
hydraulic conductivity (SI unit: m/s) of the layer and B' (SI unit: m) is its thickness.
Using logical relationships, it is possible to activate these expressions at different times
or under various flow conditions.

When the pressure head Hp is specified instead of the pressure, the boundary condition
is the following:

n ⋅ ρK∇ ( H p + D ) = ρR b [ ( H pb – H p ) + ( D b – D ) ] (7-10)

Hpb is the pressure head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

620 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

When the hydraulic head H is specified instead of the pressure head, the boundary
condition becomes:

n ⋅ ρK∇H = ρR b [ H b – H ] (7-11)

Hb is the hydraulic head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

K in Equation 7-10 and Equation 7-11 is the hydraulic conductivity.

At a free surface, such as a water table or seepage face, the pressure is atmospheric (here
taken to be zero), so the total hydraulic potential equals gravitational potential, which
is defined on D.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

PERVIOUS LAYER
Specify the material properties whether to specify an external pressure, pressure head,
or hydraulic head.

Select an External variable to specify — Pressure and elevation to specify the external
pressure, Pressure head and elevation to specify the external pressure head, or Hydraulic
head. For all selections, enter a value for the Conductance Rb (SI unit: 1/s).

• For Pressure and elevation enter an External pressure pb (SI unit: Pa) and External
elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Pressure head and elevation enter an External pressure head Hpb (SI unit: m), Hpb
(SI unit: m) and External elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Hydraulic head enter the Hydraulic head Hb (SI unit: m).

Well
The Well feature is intended to model injection or production wells and is available
with the Subsurface Flow Module.

WELL
Enter a value or expression for the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m).
Select the Well type from the list, Production or Injection well.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 621

 Specify either the Pressure (SI unit: Pa), Pressure head (SI unit: m), Hydraulic head (SI
unit: m), or the Mass flow. If you select Mass flow, specify the total Mass flow rate (SI
unit: kg/s), the Mass flow rate per unit length (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) or the Mass flux (SI
unit: kg/(m2·s)).

Fracture Flow
The Fracture Flow node adds fracture flow on boundaries using tangential derivatives
to define the flow along interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous
medium. It is implemented through . Additional subnodes are available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

622 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Brinkman Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations (br) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow
regime. The physics interface extends Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the
kinetic energy by viscous shear, similar to the Navier–Stokes equations. Fluids with
varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a
fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. To simplify the
equations, select the Stokes–Brinkman flow feature to reduce the dependence on
inertial effects when the Reynolds number is significantly less than 1. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main node is the Porous Medium feature, which adds the Brinkman equations and
provides interfaces for defining the fluid material and the porous matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, Wall (the default boundary type, using No slip as the
default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add
other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.
You can also right-click Brinkman Equations to select physics features from the context
menu.

The boundary conditions are essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface.
Differences exist for the following boundary types: Outlet, Symmetry, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress where the viscous part of the stress is divided by the
porosity to appear as

1-  T 2 
---- μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I 
ε p  3 

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization,
and Advanced Settings sections, all accessed by clicking the Show button ( ) and
choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to open
the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 623

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is br.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Brinkman Equations interface, which describe
the overall type of fluid flow model.

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. Alternatively, from the
Compressibility list select Weakly compressible flow which should be used when the
pressure dependency of the density can be neglected, or Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) to
solve for the full compressible flow of which, however, the Mach number must be
below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric models, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component u ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While u ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction.

Note that this feature is only available for specific modules. See https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes–Brinkman Flow)

The Neglect inertial term (Stokes–Brinkman) check box is selected by default to model
flow at low Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term can be neglected. This results
in the linear Stokes–Brinkman equations.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes

624 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on Wall boundaries and Interior Wall boundaries
adjacent to Porous Medium should be treated. The options are Standard no slip
formulation (default) and Porous slip. The latter option provides a unified treatment
when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when it is under resolved ensuring
a smooth transition between regions with different resolutions; see No Slip under Wall
in the The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation
Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

Reference Temperature Level

Enter a Reference temperature level Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes). If turbulent flow is activated, one of the
following Turbulence models can be chosen: Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and k-ε, and Wall
functions are preset for Wall treatment. For more information about turbulence
modeling, see Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 625

 up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time
Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman

Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface has the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

These nodes are described in this section:

• Porous Medium • Volume Force

• Initial Values • Fluid Properties
• Mass Source

626 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface :

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition

• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Boundary Stress • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wall
• Open Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations: Equation 4-25 and
Equation 4-26 (excluding any mass sources). It has two default subfeatures — the
Fluid subfeature where the fluid density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI
unit: Pa·s) are defined and the Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI
unit: m2) and porosity εp (dimensionless) are specified.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship.

• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to turbulence or inertial
effects.

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 627

 MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

628 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the
field or matrix.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source (or mass sink) Qm to the right-hand side of
the continuity equation: Equation 7-12. This term accounts for mass deposit and/or
mass creation in porous domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass
exchange occurs at zero velocity.

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (7-12)
∂t p

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only Porous Matrix domains are available.

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Source term Qbr (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 629

 Volume Force
Use the Volume Force node to specify the force F on the right-hand side of
Equation 7-13. It then acts on each fluid element in the specified domains.

ρ-  ∂u u
---- + ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
εp  ∂ t εp
(7-13)
1 T 2   –1 Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ μ + -------
- u + F
εp  3   ε p2 

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and the Pressure
p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations to solve for
free flow in nonporous domains. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs — for
example, temperature or pressure — may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the single-phase flow interfaces are set to model isothermal flow. Hence,
the Temperature is User defined and defaults to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer interface
is included in the component, the temperature may alternatively be selected from this
physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a

630 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht)
option is available.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier–Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the
physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a gauge
pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be set to
0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

FLUID PROPERTIES
If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the computations,
the flow must be set to compressible.

The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 631

 kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

632 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Free and Porous Media Flow
Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow (fp) interface ( ) is found under the Porous Media
and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface. It is used to
compute fluid velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow where free flow is
connected to porous media. The Free and Porous Media Flow interface is used over at
least two different domains: a free channel and a porous medium. The physics interface
is well suited for transitions between slow flow in porous media, governed by the
Brinkman equations, and fast flow in channels described by the Navier–Stokes
equations. Fluids with varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3.
Also the viscosity of a fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids.
The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add a Porous Medium node to be used on the domain selection corresponding
to the porous media, or add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Free and Porous Media Flow to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fp.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the Navier–
Stokes and Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. If required, select
Weakly compressible flow from the Compressibility list, to account for small variations in

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 633

 the density, which are only dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow) or
Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) for fully compressible flow. However, for the flow modeled
with this physics interface, the Mach number must be below 0.3.

Swirl Flow
For 2D axisymmetric components, select the Swirl flow check box to include the swirl
velocity component, that is the velocity component u ϕ in the azimuthal direction.
While u ϕ can be nonzero, there can be no gradients in the ϕ direction. Note that this
feature is only available for specific modules. Visit https://www.comsol.com/
products/specifications/ for a detailed overview.

Neglect Inertial Term

Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box if the inertial forces are small
compared to the viscous forces. This is typical for creeping flow, where Re « 1 .

Enable porous media domains

The Enable porous media domains check box is selected by default to solve the
Brinkman equations in porous domains. If it is unchecked, the Porous Medium node is
no longer available in this interface.

Include Gravity
Gravity is not included by default. Select the Include gravity check box to activate the
acceleration of gravity. This automatically adds a global Gravity feature node to the
interface model tree, and the buoyancy force is included in the Equations.

Also, when the Include gravity check box is selected, the Use reduced pressure option
changes the pressure formulation from using the total pressure (default) to using the
reduced pressure. This option is suitable for configurations where the density changes
are very small; otherwise, the default formulation can be used. For more information,
see Gravity.

Porous Treatment of No Slip Condition

Choose how the No Slip condition on internal boundaries should be treated. The
options are Standard no slip formulation (default) and Porous slip. The latter option
provides a unified treatment when the porous matrix is fully resolved as well as when
it is under resolved ensuring a smooth transition between regions with different
resolutions; see No Slip under Wall in the The Creeping Flow, Laminar Flow,
Turbulent Flow, and Large Eddy Simulation Interfaces section.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

634 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Reference Temperature
Enter a Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

Reference Position
If Include gravity is selected, a Reference position rref (SI unit: m) can be specified which
is then used for the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow can be simulated by changing the Turbulence model type to RANS
(Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) or Large Eddy Simulation (which is only available
in 3D). If turbulent flow is activated, you can choose from different Turbulence models
and options for Wall treatment. For a description of the different turbulence models,
wall treatment options, and turbulence model parameters see Theory for the
Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface has the following domain, boundary,
point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 635

 • Fluid Properties • Porous Medium
• Gravity • Mass Source
• Initial Values • Volume Force
• Wall

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• No Viscous Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition
• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Outlet • Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
Use the Fluid Properties node to define the fluid material, density, and dynamic
viscosity.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

636 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 Pa·s.

Porous Medium
The Porous Medium node adds the Brinkman equations (excluding any mass sources)
to the interface. It has two default subfeatures — the Fluid subfeature where the fluid
density ρ(SI unit: kg/m3) and dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) are defined and the
Porous Matrix subfeature where the permeability κ (SI unit: m2) and porosity εp
(dimensionless) are specified.

FLOW MODEL
Define if the flow follows a linear or nonlinear pressure-velocity relationship.

• Darcian flow (default) defines a linear relationship.

• Non-Darcian flow defines a nonlinear relationship due to turbulence or inertial
effects.

Fluid
This node defines the material properties of the fluid of the Porous Medium parent
node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

FLUID PROPERTIES
Specify the Density ρ and the Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) of the fluid. The
defaults use values From material, for User defined enter a value or expression.

The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship between the shear stresses and the
shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often
described as thick, such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 637

 Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity and material properties of the solid matrix of the Porous
Medium parent node.

MODEL INPUT
This section contains fields and values that are inputs for expressions defining material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material. For User defined the default value is 1 which is equivalent to free flow.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Depending on the Flow model selection in the parent Porous Medium feature node
you can choose between the following options:

• Permeability (the default) to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean Particle
diameter for Darcian flow or
• Forchheimer or Ergun for Non-Darcian flow.

Note that some of these options are only available for certain modules. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product, visit https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the
field or matrix.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

In case a Non-Darcian flow model is chosen in the parent node, Forchheimer is the
default selection for the Permeability model. For Forchheimer, the default Permeability
κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material. Furthermore, the dimensionless
Forchheimer parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

638 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 2-4 in the Porous Media Flow
Module User’s Guide.

• About Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow

Module User’s Guide
• Permeability Models in the Porous Media Flow Module User’s Guide

Mass Source
Enter a value or expression for an optional mass source (or sink) Source term Qm (SI
unit: kg/(m3·s)). This term accounts for mass deposit or mass creation within porous
domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass exchange occurs at zero velocity.

Effective Mass Transport Parameters

A correction factor (Bruggeman, No Correction, or User defined) to the mass transport
parameters (defined in the Transport Properties node) can be applied for the porous
domain. Species diffusivities and mobilities are automatically adjusted by the porous
media corrections. For User defined enter a value or expression for the Conversion factor
feff. The default is 1. Species diffusivities and mobilities are automatically adjusted by
the porous media corrections.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the force F on the right-hand side of the Navier–
Stokes or Brinkman equations, depending on whether a Fluid Properties or Porous
Medium node is active on the domain. It then acts on each fluid element in the
specified domains.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 639

 INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and for the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, a text field for the Turbulent Schmidt number
appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

Microfluidic Wall Conditions

Use the Microfluidic Wall Conditions node to add boundary conditions to the moving
wall and specify whether to use viscous slip or thermal creep.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The default Boundary condition for the wall is Slip velocity. Enter values or expressions
for the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s).

Use Viscous Slip

Select the Use viscous slip check box to define the slip length:

• The default is User defined. Enter a value for Ls (SI unit: m). The default is 1e-7 m.
• Select Maxwell’s model to calculate it from:

640 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 2 – αv
L s =  --------------- λ
 αv 

• Then enter values or expressions for the Tangential momentum accommodation

coefficient (TMAC) av (dimensionless) (the default is 0.9) and the Mean free path λ
(SI unit: m) (the default is 1e-6 m).

Use Thermal Creep

Select the Use thermal creep check box to activate the thermal creep component of the
boundary condition. Enter the fluid’s Temperature T (SI unit: K) and the Thermal slip
coefficient σT. The default temperature is 293.15 K and the default thermal slip
coefficient is 0.75.

If you also have a license for the MEMS Module, an additional Boundary condition
option Electroosmotic velocity is available. This is described in the MEMS Module
User’s Guide.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip1 • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and SST, Low Re k-ε, Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and Spalart-Allmaras turbulence
models). The condition prescribes u = 0; that is, the fluid at the wall is not moving.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n=0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 641

 Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

642 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law (tpdl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid
flow through interstices in a porous medium. It solves Darcy’s law for the total
pressure and the transport of the fluid content for one fluid phase. The physics
interface can be used to model low velocity flows or media where the permeability and
porosity are very small, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force and
the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluids and Matrix Properties node, which provides an interface
for defining the two immiscible fluids properties along with the porous medium
properties. The physics interface is available in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluids and Matrix Properties, No Flow (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Two-Phase
Darcy’s Law to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tpdl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Pressure and Fluid content 1. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a component.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 643

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and
Crosswind diffusion. Streamline diffusion is active by default. The Residual setting applies
to both the consistent stabilization methods. Approximate residual is the default setting
and it means that derivatives of the capillary diffusion tensor components are
neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and computationally faster. If
required, select Full residual instead.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure and fluid content
variables solved by the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions
are P2+P1 Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options from the Show More Options dialog box.

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface has these domain, boundary, and pair nodes,
listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

644 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Fluid and Matrix Properties • Mass Flux
• Inlet • No Flux
• Initial Values • Outlet
• Symmetry • Pressure and Saturation
• Interior Wall

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Fluid and Matrix Properties

The Fluids and Matrix Properties node adds Equation 7-14 and Equation 7-15 and
defines properties including density, dynamic viscosity, relative permeability, and
porosity.

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (7-14)
∂t

∂ c
( ε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c 1 u ) = ∇ ⋅ D c ∇c 1 (7-15)
∂t 1 p

CAPILLARY MODEL
The list defaults to Capillary diffusion or choose Capillary pressure.

For Capillary diffusion, choose Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full
to enter a tensor, and then enter values or expressions in the Dc (SI unit: m2/s) field
or fields.

For Capillary pressure, select a Pressure model — van Genuchten (the default), Brooks
and Corey, or User defined.

• For van Genuchten, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive
relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and Constitutive relations constant IvG
(dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore
size distribution index λp (dimensionless).
• For User defined, enter a Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa).

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 645

 FLUID 1 PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for Fluid 1. Select Domain material (the default value) to use
the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that material’s
properties.

Define the properties for Fluid 1:

The default Density ρ1 (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid 1
selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is 0 kg/m3.

Select a Dynamic viscosity μ1 (SI unit: Pa·s). The default uses values From material as
defined by the Fluid 1 selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The
default is 0 Pa·s.

Select the Relative permeability κr1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for
fluid 1. The default is 1.

FLUID 2 PROPERTIES
The settings to define the properties for Fluid 2 are similar as for Fluid 1.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material (the default) from
the Porous material list to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selection. For User defined enter another value
or expression The default is 0.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selection. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal,
Symmetric or Full to enter a tensor and enter other values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and the saturation of fluid 1
(that is, the fraction of that fluid inside the pore space) that can serve as initial
conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

646 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa. Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default value is 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

No Flux
The No Flux node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impervious boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

n ⋅ ρu = 0

where n is the vector normal to the boundary.

Also, the No Flux boundary enforces a zero gradient condition for the fluid content
across the selected boundary

n ⋅ ∇c 1 = 0

Pressure and Saturation

Use the Pressure and Saturation node to specify the pressure and fluid volume fractions
on a boundary. In many cases the distribution of pressure and saturation are known as
numbers, distributions, or expressions involving time, t, for example.

PRESSURE AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and for the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default values are 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain

– n ⋅ ρu = N 0

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 647

 where N0 is a value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s flux that is
specified.

MASS FLUX AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents an inward mass flux, whereas a negative value represents an
outward mass flux.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1) in the mass flux. The default value is 0.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary:

– n ⋅ ρu = ( s 1 ρ 1 + s 2 ρ 1 )U 0

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow.

INLET
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity, whereas a negative value represents an
outward velocity.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1). The default value is 0.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow perpendicular (normal) to
the boundary:

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

where Dc is the capillary diffusion (SI unit: m2/s) and c1 = s1ρ1 is the fluid 1 content
(SI unit: kg/m3). This means that the normal gradient of fluid saturation does not
change through this boundary.

648 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p. The default value is 0. If the reference
pressure pref, defined at the physics interface level is 0, enter the absolute pressure.
Otherwise, enter the relative pressure.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary where there is no tangential flow.
The following condition implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow
divide:

– n ⋅ ρu = 0

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it

applies on both sides of an internal boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and
pressure across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and
surfaces instead.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Interior Wall boundary available on interior boundaries except that
it allows pressure and concentration gradients across the boundary. The Thin Barrier
boundary condition can be used to avoid meshing thin permeable structures by
applying flux condition on interior curves and surfaces instead.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 649

 T he M ulti pha s e Fl ow i n Porou s Med i a
Interface
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface ( ) combines the Darcy’s Law interface
with the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface to model the flow and transport of
multiple immiscible phases in a porous medium.

When a predefined Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is added from Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window,
Phase Transport and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface is used to simulate the transport of
immiscible multiple species in a porous medium and solves for their averaged volume
fractions (also called saturations). The interfaces between the different phases are not
tracked explicitly, although microscopic interfacial effects are taken into account in the
macroscopic equations through the capillary pressure functions.

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Phase Transport and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added, an empty
Multiphysics node appears in the model tree. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the settings in the constituent interfaces are not modified.

650 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling)
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling node ( ) links
bidirectionally the Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mfpm1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the multiphase flow
coupling, or select All domains as needed.

When Multiphase Flow in Porous Media is added as an effect of adding a Multiphase Flow
in Porous Media interface, the selection is the same as for the participating physics
interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the participating physics interfaces (which are chosen
from the Coupled Interfaces selection list) can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Phase
transport and Flow in porous media lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 651

 You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Multiphase Flow in Porous
Media node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model
Builder, for example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Flow in porous media list defaults
to None as there is nothing to couple to.

Please find related information under

• The Phase Transport Interfaces and

• Theory for the Phase Transport Interfaces

in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

Well (Multiphysics Coupling)

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media ( ) interface contains an optional Well
multiphysics coupling feature on points (in 2D) or edges (in 3D). The Well coupling
node is intended to model injection or production wells and links bidirectionally the
Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this coupling feature (see
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The default Name (for the first Well multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is
wellmpp1.

POINT OR EDGE SELECTION

When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific points or edges, or select All points or All edges
as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section controls which individual interfaces are coupled by the current coupling
feature. If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then in
order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the correct physics interface
again from the Phase transport or Flow in porous media lists

652 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

WELL
Select whether the well is a production or injection well: for an injection well positive
mass fluxes signify inflowing fluxes and for a production well positive mass fluxes are
outflowing fluxes.

Either specify the total Total mass flow rate M0 (SI unit: kg/s), the Total mass flow rate
per unit length Ml (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa), the Pressure head
Hp0 (SI unit: m), or the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The elevation D used to
convert the hydraulic head to a pressure, is defined by the gravity effects in the coupled
Darcy’s Law interface.

Select the Specify well diameter check box to define the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m).
This averages the mass source on the boundary of a cylinder around the line. This
option avoids obtaining an increasing pressure value at the line when meshing finer
than this diameter. It makes use of the circavg operator.

If the well diameter is defined, the option to specify the Total mass flux N0 (SI unit:
kg/(m2·s)) is also available.

PHASES
The number of Phase sections depends on the number of phases defined in the coupled
Phase Transport in Porous Media interface: the number of sections is equal to the
number of phases not computed from the volume constraint, which is in turn equal to
the number of phases defined in the coupled Phase Transport in Porous Media
interface minus one.

Specify the boundary condition for each phase not computed from the volume
constraint. You can choose to enter a value for the Mass flow rate M0,i (SI unit: kg/s),
the Mass flow rate per unit length Ml,i (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), or the Volume fraction s0,i
(dimensionless). If the well diameter is specified, the option to specify the Mass flux N0,i
(SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is also available. For a production well, you can additionally
choose the Outflow option. For an injection well you can additionally choose to specify
the Fraction of total volumetric flow rate s0,i (dimensionless).

Fraction of total volumetric flow rate

When the Fraction of total volumetric flow rate s0,i is specified for a phase, a mass flow
rate per unit length Ml,i is supplied for that phase, which is given by

M l , i = ρ i s 0, i V l (7-16)

where Vl is the total volumetric flow rate per unit length, which is computed as follows:
assume that there are N phases, and that phase 1 is the phase computed from the

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 653

 volume constraint, that for phases i, for i = 2, ..., p, the fraction of total volumetric flow
rate s0,i is supplied, and that for the phases i, for i = p+1, ..., N, the mass flow rate per
unit length Ml,i is given. Then Vl can be computed from the relation

p N
M l, 1 M l, i
V l = ------------ +
ρ1  V l s i, 0 +  -----------
ρi
(7-17)
i=2 i = p+1

where the mass flow rate Ml,1 for the phase computed from the volume constraint is
given by

p N

M l, 1 = M l –  V l ρ i s i, 0 –  M l, i (7-18)
i=2 i = p+1

Note that the total mass flow rate per unit length Ml is readily available when any of
the Total mass flow rate, Total mass flow rate per unit length, or the Total mass flux
options is chosen. Furthermore, the total mass flow rate per unit length Ml is also
available as a Lagrange multiplier in case any of the Pressure, the Pressure head, or the
Hydraulic head is given, as these conditions are implemented as weak constraints. For
the mass flow rates per unit length Ml,i of the individual phases, it holds similarly that
they are readily available when any of the Mass flow rate, Mass flow rate per unit length,
or the Mass flux options are chosen, and that for the Volume fraction option,
implemented as a weak constraint, the mass flow rate per unit length Ml,i is computed
as a Lagrange multiplier.

Outflow
When the Outflow option is specified for a phase si, an outflowing mass flow rate per
unit length Ml,i is supplied for that phase, which is given by

N
ρ i κ ri ρ i κ ri
M l, i = ------------ M l
λr μi
with λ r =  -----------
μi
- (7-19)
i=1

where κri denotes the relative permeability of phase i.

654 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation
• Storage Model
• Average Linear Velocity
• References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

About Darcy’s Law

In a porous medium, the global transport of momentum by shear stresses in the fluid
is often negligible, because the pore walls impede momentum transport to the fluid
outside the individual pores. A detailed description, down to the resolution of every
pore, is not practical in most applications. A homogenization of the porous and fluid
media into a single medium is a common alternative approach. Darcy’s law together
with the continuity equation and equation of state for the pore fluid (or gas) provide
a complete mathematical model suitable for a wide variety of applications involving
porous media flows, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force.

Darcy’s law describes fluid movement through interstices in a porous medium.

Because the fluid loses considerable energy to frictional resistance within pores, flow
velocities in porous media are very low. The Darcy’s Law interface can be applied to
small-scale tasks in chemical engineering as well as to large-scale geophysical or
hydrological tasks such as water moving in an aquifer or stream bank, oil migrating to
a well, and even magma rising through the earth to a chamber in a volcano (see Ref. 1,
Ref. 2, Ref. 3, and Ref. 4). Also set up multiple Darcy’s Law interfaces to model
multiphase flows involving more than one mobile phase.

Darcy’s law describes flow in porous media driven by gradients in the hydraulic
potential field, which has units of pressure. For many applications it is convenient to
represent the total hydraulic potential or the pressure and the gravitational
components with equivalent heights of fluid or head. Division of potential by the fluid
weight can simplify modeling because units of length make it straightforward to
compare to many physical data. Consider, for example, fluid levels in wells, stream
heights, topography, and velocities. The physics interface also supports specifying

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 655

 boundary conditions and result evaluation using hydraulic head and pressure head. In
the physics interface, pressure is always the dependent variable.

Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation

Darcy’s law states that the velocity field is determined by the pressure gradient, the
fluid viscosity, and the structure of the porous medium:

κ
u = – --- ∇p (7-20)
μ

In this equation, u is the Darcy’s velocity or specific discharge vector (SI unit: m/s);
κ is the permeability of the porous medium (SI unit: m2); μ is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s); p is the pore pressure (SI unit: Pa) and ρ is the density of the
fluid (SI unit: kg/m3).

• The above equation formulation is called linear Darcy law. The

applicability of this formulation is discussed in the chapter About
Darcian and Non-Darcian Flow in the Porous Media Flow Module
User’s Guide.
• Permeability can be defined in different ways, either directly or based
on predefined permeability models. These are described in detail in the
chapter Permeability Models.
• For a detailed overview of the permeability models available in each
product visit https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law with the continuity equation

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (7-21)
∂t

In the above equation, ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), εp is the porosity, and
Qm is a mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). Porosity is defined as the fraction of
the control volume that is occupied by pores. Thus, the porosity can vary from zero
for pure solid regions to unity for domains of free flow.

For large-scale applications it might be necessary to take gravity effects into account.
Darcy’s law then applies when the gradient in hydraulic potential drives fluid
movement in the porous medium. Darcy’s law then has the form:

656 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ( ∇p + ρg ) (7-22)
μ

• See the section Gravity Effects in the Subsurface Flow Module User’s
Guide.
• Note that gravity effects are only included in some modules. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.
• Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

Storage Model
Inserting Darcy’s law (Equation 7-20) into the continuity equation produces the
generalized governing equation

∂ ρε κ
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m (7-23)
∂t μ

Represent this equation fully in COMSOL Multiphysics because relationships between

density or permeability can be freely specified, for example, and pressure, temperature,
concentration, and so on.

Expand the time-derivative term in Equation 7-23

∂ ρε ∂ρ ∂ε p
( p ) = ε p ------ + ρ --------
∂t ∂t ∂t

Define the porosity and the density as functions of the pressure, and apply the chain
rule

∂ρ ∂ε p ∂ρ ∂p ∂ε p ∂p
ε p ------ + ρ -------- = ε p ------ ------ + ρ -------- ------
∂t ∂t ∂p ∂t ∂p ∂t

Insert the definition of fluid compressibility χf = (1/ρ)(∂ρ/∂p) to the right-hand side and
rearrange to arrive at

∂( ρε p ) ∂ε p ∂p ∂p
---------------- = ρ  ε p χ f + -------- ------ = ρS ------
∂t ∂p ∂t ∂t

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 657

 Using this relation, the generalized governing equation (Equation 7-23) takes the
following form:

∂p κ
ρS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m (7-24)
∂t μ

In this equation, S is the storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa), which can be interpreted
as the weighted compressibility of the porous material and the fluid. The storage S can
be an expression involving results from a solid-deformation equation or an expression
involving temperatures and concentrations from other analyses. The Darcy’s Law
interface implements Equation 7-24 in the Porous Medium node, which explicitly
includes different storage models to choose from, such as linearized storage which
defines S (SI unit: 1/Pa) using the compressibility of fluids χf and of the porous matrix
χp:

S = ε p χ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p ,

or the poroelastic storage where

S = εp χf .

The Storage Model node is only available for the Subsurface Flow
Module and the Porous Media Flow Module. For a detailed overview of
the functionality available in each product visit https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Average Linear Velocity

Because fluids typically occupy only 10% to 50% of a porous medium, it follows that
velocities within the pore channels exceed the Darcy velocity, u, on the order of two
to ten times. For clarity, the physics interface includes the average linear velocity within
the pores, uα, (also termed the seepage velocity) defined as uα = u/εp, where εp is the
porosity.

References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

1. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

658 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

2. S.E. Ingebritsen and W.E. Sanford, Groundwater in Geologic Processes, Cambridge
University Press, 1998.

3. N.H. Sleep and K. Fujita, Principles of Geophysics, Blackwell Science, 1997.

4. D.L. Turcotte and G. Schubert, Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

5. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

6. Ö. Akgiray and A.M. Saatçı, “A New Look at Filter Backwash Hydraulics,” Water
Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65–72, 2001.

7. L. Klinkenberg, “The permeability of porous media to liquids and gases,” Drilling

and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum Inst., pp. 200–213, 1941.

8. Yu-Shu Wu and others, “Gas Flow in Porous Media with Klinkenberg Effects,”
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 32, pp. 117–137, 1998.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 659

 Theory for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Brinkman Equations

• Brinkman Equations Theory
• References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

About the Brinkman Equations

The Brinkman equations describe fluids in porous media for which the momentum
transport within the fluid due to shear stresses is of importance. This mathematical
model extends Darcy’s law to include a term that accounts for the viscous transport in
the momentum balance, and it treats both the pressure and the flow velocity vector as
independent variables. Use the Free and Porous Media Flow interface to model
combinations of porous media and free flow domains. These types of problems are
often encountered in applications such as monolithic reactors and fuel cells.

The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

In porous domains, the flow variables and fluid properties are defined at any point
inside the medium by means of averaging of the actual variables and properties over a
certain volume surrounding the point. This control volume must be small compared
to the typical macroscopic dimensions of the problem, but it must be large enough to
contain many pores and solid matrix elements.

Porosity is defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied by pores.
Thus, the porosity can vary from zero for pure solid regions to unity for domains of
free flow.

The physical properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity, are defined as
intrinsic volume averages that correspond to a unit volume of the pores. Defined this
way, they present the relevant physical parameters that can be measured experimentally,
and they are assumed to be continuous with the corresponding parameters in the
adjacent free flow.

660 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The flow velocity is defined as a superficial volume average, and it corresponds to a
unit volume of the medium including both the pores and the matrix. It is sometimes
called the Darcy velocity, defined as the volume flow rate per unit cross section of the
medium. Such a definition makes the velocity field continuous across the boundaries
between porous regions and regions of free flow.

Brinkman Equations Theory

The dependent variables in the Brinkman equations are the Darcy velocity and the
pressure. The flow in porous media is governed by a combination of the continuity
equation and the momentum equation, which together form the Brinkman equations:

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (7-25)
∂t p

ρ-  ∂u
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
u
----
εp  ∂ t ε p
(7-26)
1 T 2   Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ – 1 μ + -------- u +F
εp  3   ε p2 

In these equations:

• μ (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity vector
• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the fluid
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure
• εp is the porosity
• κ (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium, and
• Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is a mass source or sink

Influence of gravity and other volume forces can be accounted for via the force term
F (SI unit: kg/(m2·s2)).

When the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, the term (u · ∇)(u/
εp) on the left-hand side of Equation 7-13 is disabled.

The mass source, Qm, accounts for mass deposit and mass creation within the domains.
The mass exchange is assumed to occur at zero velocity.

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 661

 The Forchheimer and Ergun drag options add a viscous force proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity, F = −ρβ|u|u, on the right-hand side of Equation 7-13; see
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface for details.

In case of a flow with variable density, Equation 7-12 and Equation 7-13 must be
solved together with the equation of state that relates the density to the temperature
and pressure (for instance the ideal gas law).

For incompressible flow, the density stays constant in any fluid particle, which can be
expressed as

∂ ε
( ρ ) + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0
∂t p

and the continuity equation (Equation 7-12) reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = Q m

References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

1. D. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, 3rd ed., Springer, 2006.

2. M. Le Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

662 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface uses the Navier–Stokes equations to
describe the flow in open regions, and the Brinkman equations to describe the flow in
porous regions.

The same fields, u and p, are solved for in both the free flow domains and in the porous
domains. This means that the pressure in the free fluid and the pressure in the pores is
continuous over the interface between a free flow domain and a porous domain. It also
means that continuity is enforced between the fluid velocity in the free flow and the
Darcy velocity in the porous domain. This treatment is one of several possible models
for the physics at the interface. Examples of other models can be found in Ref. 1.

The continuity in u and p implies a stress discontinuity at the interface between a

free-flow domain and a porous domain. The difference corresponds to the stress
absorbed by the rigid porous matrix, which is a consequence implicit in the
formulations of the Navier–Stokes and Brinkman equations.

Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

1. M.L. Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 663
 Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s
Law Interface
About the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law (Equation 7-20) with the
continuity equation (Equation 7-21) for the average density ρ. In the presence of two
miscible fluid phases, the average density ρ and average viscosity μ depend on the
composition of the mixture (Ref. 1). In the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface these
dependencies are given by

1 = s1 + s2 (7-27)

ρ = s1 ρ1 + s2 ρ2 (7-28)

κ r1 κ r2
--1- = s 1 -------
- + s 2 -------
- (7-29)
μ μ1 μ2

Here, s1 and s2 represent the saturation of each phase, ρ1 and ρ2 the densities, and κr1
and κr2 the relative permeabilities. When either of the fluids is compressible, its density
can be related to the pressure (for instance using the ideal gas law).

Beside the continuity equation for the mixture, the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface
also solves the transport equation for the fluid content of one of the phases, c1 = s1ρ1:

∂ ε
( c ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c 1 u ) = ∇ ⋅ D c ∇c 1 (7-30)
∂t p 1

Here, Dc (SI unit: m2/s) is the capillary diffusion coefficient, which can be directly
specified or derived from a capillary pressure expression. Normally, the fluid content
c1 will be the concentration of the wetting phase.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the capillary diffusion

coefficient is computed from the saturation of one of the phases and the capillary
pressure:

κ r1 ∂p c
D c = -------- κ ( s 1 – 1 ) (7-31)
μ1 ∂ s1

664 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The capillary pressure is defined as the pressure difference between the phases, and it
can be defined as a function of saturation, pc(s1).

Capillary Pressure Models

The capillary pressure can be a user defined expression, or it can be derived from van
Genuchten (Ref. 2) or Brooks and Corey (Ref. 3) models.

For van Genuchten model, the expression for the capillary pressure as a function of
saturation follows the curve

 1 1 – m
p c = p ec  -----------
1⁄m
- – 1 (7-32)
 s1 

where pec is the entry capillary pressure and m is a constitutive exponent.

For the Brooks and Corey model, the capillary pressure curve depends on saturation as

1-
p c = p ec ----------
1⁄λ
(7-33)
s1

where λ is the pore distribution index.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the relative permeabilities are
also determined by the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey models. For the van
Genuchten model, the relative permeabilities are given by

l vG 1 ⁄ m vG m vG 2
κ r1 = s 1 ( 1 – ( 1 – s 1 ) )

l 1 ⁄ m vG 2m vG
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) vG ( 1 – s 1 )

where mvG and lvG are constitutive constants.

For the Brooks and Corey model, the relative permeabilities are given by

(3 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r1 = s 1

2 (1 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) ( 1 – s 1 )

where λ is again the pore distribution index.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 665

 References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
1. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in
Porous Media. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

2. M.Th. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

3. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

666 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media Interface
The model equations that are solved in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface
are based on the mass conservation of each phase and on an extended Darcy’s law. The
mass conservation equation for each phase is given by

∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi ui ) = Qi (7-34)
∂t p i i

where εp (dimensionless) is the porosity, and the vector ui should be interpreted as the
volumetric flux of phase i (SI unit m3/(m2·s) or m/s). The volumetric fluxes are
determined using the extended Darcy’s law (Ref. 2)

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) (7-35)
μi

where κ denotes the permeability (SI unit: m2) of the porous medium, g the
gravitational acceleration vector (SI unit m/s2), and μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit:
kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit: Pa), and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively. The phase pressures pi are related through the
capillary pressure functions p cij :

p i – p j = p cij ( s 1, …, s N ) i≠j (7-36)

One phase pressure can be chosen independently so that N − 1 capillary pressure

relations are needed to define the other phase pressures. In addition it is assume that
all phases together fill the pore space completely, so that we have

 si = 1 (7-37)
i=1

Pressure-Saturation Formulation
The algebraic relations in Equation 7-36 and Equation 7-37 allow for a reduction of
the number of dependent variables. An often used way is to eliminate N − 1 phase
pressures and one of the saturations. This results in a so-called pressure-saturation

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 667

 formulation (Ref. 3). The procedure in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is
to pick one of the phases, let us say phase i c , then express the volume fraction, s ic , of
this phase in terms of the volume fractions of the other phases and in addition to use
the pressure, p i c , of this phase to define the other phase pressures:

N
 
s i c = 1 –   s i (7-38)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (7-39)
ij

The equations for the volume fractions si, (i ≠ ic) are given by Equation 7-34 and
Equation 7-35. To arrive at an equation for pi, the conservation equations of all phases
are summed. This results in

N
   N 
∂
εp ρi si + ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ i u i = Q tot
 (7-40)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1 

where the total mass source Qtot is given by

Q tot =  Qi (7-41)
i=1

The equations for the volume fractions si are solved in the Phase Transport in Porous
Media interface (see Equation 6-99 and Equation 6-100). The Equation 7-40 for the
pressure field p ic , needed as an input to the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface,
is solved for in the Darcy’s Law interface: the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
multiphysics coupling interface replaces the equation

∂ 1
( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ ic u d ) = Q m where u d = – ------ κ ( ∇p ic – ρ ic g ) (7-42)
∂ t p ic μic

which is originally implemented in the Darcy’s Law interface, with Equation 7-40 by
adding the following terms to the left-hand side of Equation 7-42:

N
   N 
∂
εp ρ i s i – ε p ρ tot + ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ i u i – ( ρ tot u d )
 (7-43)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1 

and by setting the right-hand side Qm to be equal to Qtot.

668 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Furthermore, the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling interface
couples the user inputs for the porosity and permeability of the porous matrix in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the corresponding user input fields in the Phase and Porous
Media Transport Properties feature, and couples the pressure field computed for in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the user input field for the pressure of the phase computed
from the volume constraint.

Note that when the hydraulic conductivity of a domain is specified in the Darcy’s Law
interface (instead of the permeability), the coupled Phase and Porous Media Transport
Properties feature is supplied with a permeability that is computed using a reference
kinematic viscosity of 1.004*10−6 m2s−1 (kinematic viscosity of water at 293.15 K).

In the other direction, the multiphysics coupling node provides the averaged density
(denoted by ρtot in Equation 7-43 above) and effective viscosity to the Darcy’s Law
interface.

Mass Source
When adding a Mass Source node in the coupled Phase Transport interface, it is by
default assumed that the net mass source of all phases, Qtot, equals zero. This implies

Qic = –  Qi (7-44)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

However, when mass is transferred from or to phases not accounted for in the phase
transport interface — for instance, when mass is released or absorbed by the solid part
of the porous matrix — select the Mass transfer to other phases check box. In this case
the mass source for the phase calculated from the volume constraint should also be
specified, and the net total mass source Qtot is supplied as a right-hand side to the
Darcy Equation 7-40 for p ic .

Boundary Conditions
When supplying boundary conditions for the coupled Phase Transport in Porous Media
and Darcy’s Law interfaces, bear in mind that the Pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface affects the pressure of the phase from the volume constraint, p i c .
If the pressure of another phase needs to supplied, then take into account the capillary
pressure.

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 669

 Since the coupled Darcy’s Law interface uses the conservation equation for the total
mass (Equation 7-40) to solve for p ic , the Mass Flux boundary condition in the Darcy’s
Law interface should be used to prescribe the mass flux of all phases together.

If the mass flux of the phase computed from the volume constraint needs to be
prescribed at a boundary, and the total mass flux is not known a priori, it might be
necessary to compute for the total mass flux in the form of a Lagrange multiplier by
using the weak constraint formulation for the pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface.

References
1. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

2. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in

Porous Media, Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

3. R. Helmig, Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface – A

Contribution to the Modeling of Hydrosystems, Springer–Verlag, 1997.

670 | CHAPTER 7: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 8

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The physics interfaces under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( )

accommodate all types of material transport that can occur through diffusion and
convection. The section Modeling Chemical Species Transport helps you choose
the best physics interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface
• The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface
• The Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media Interface
• The Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces
• The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Multiphysics Interfaces
• The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interfaces
• The Nonisothermal Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface
• Theory for the Reacting Flow Interfaces

671
 Modeling Chemical Species Transport
In this section:

• Selecting the Right Physics Interface

• Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces
• Adding a Chemical Species Transport Interface

Selecting the Right Physics Interface

The behavior of chemical reactions in real environments is often not adequately
described by the assumptions of perfectly mixed or controlled environments. This
means that the transport of material through both time and space need to be
considered. Physics interfaces in the Chemical Species Transport branch accommodate
all types of material transport that can occur through diffusion and convection —
either alone or in combination with one another. The branch includes physics
interfaces solving equations for diluted as well as concentrated mixtures, where the
species propagation can occur in solids, free flowing fluids, or through porous media.

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface ( ) is applicable for solutions (either

fluid or solid) where the transported species have concentrations at least one order of
magnitude less than the solvent. The settings for this physics interface can be chosen
to simulate chemical species transport through diffusion (Fick’s law) and convection
(when coupled to fluid flow).

The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface ( ) is used for modeling transport

within mixtures where no single component is clearly dominant. Often the
concentrations of the participating species are of the same order of magnitude, and the
molecular effects of the respective species on each other need to be considered. This
physics interface supports transport through Fickian diffusion, a mixture average
diffusion model, and as described by the Maxwell-Stefan equations.

REACTING FLOW
The Reacting Laminar Flow Interface ( ) combines the functionality of the Laminar
Flow and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces. Using this physics interface
the mass and momentum transport in a reacting fluid can be modeled, with the
couplings between the velocity field and the mixture density set up automatically. This
physics interface is applicable for fluid flow in the laminar regime.

672 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface ( ) combines the functionality of the
Turbulent Flow, k-ε and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces. Using this
physics interface, the mass and momentum transport in reacting turbulent fluid flow
can be modeled, with the couplings between the velocity field and the mixture density
set up automatically. The physics interface solves for the mean velocity and pressure
fields, together with an arbitrary number of mass fractions. The fluid-flow turbulence
is modeled using the standard k-ε model, solving for the turbulent kinetic energy k and
the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ε.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface ( ) combines the functionality of the
Turbulent Flow, k-ω and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces. Using this
physics interface, the mass and momentum transport in reacting turbulent fluid flow
can be modeled, with the couplings between the velocity field and the mixture density
set up automatically. The physics interface solves for the mean velocity and pressure
fields, together with an arbitrary number of mass fractions. The fluid-flow turbulence
is modeled using the Wilcox revised k-ω model, solving for the turbulent kinetic
energy k and the rate of specific dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ω.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface ( ) combines the functionality of the
Turbulent Flow, SST and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces. Using this
physics interface, the mass and momentum transport in reacting turbulent fluid flow
can be modeled, with the couplings between the velocity field and the mixture density
set up automatically. The physics interface solves for the mean velocity and pressure
fields, together with an arbitrary number of mass fractions. The fluid-flow turbulence
is modeled using the Menter SST model, solving for the turbulent kinetic energy k and
the rate of specific dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ω. The physics interface also
includes a wall distance equation that solves for the reciprocal wall distance.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface ( ) combines the functionality
of the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces.
Using this physics interface, the mass and momentum transport in reacting turbulent
fluid flow can be modeled, with the couplings between the velocity field and the
mixture density set up automatically. The physics interface solves for the mean velocity
and pressure fields, together with an arbitrary number of mass fractions. The fluid-flow
turbulence is modeled using the AKN low-Reynolds number k-ε model, solving for
the turbulent kinetic energy k and the rate of dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy ε.
The physics interface also includes a wall distance equation that solves for the
reciprocal wall distance.

MODELING CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT | 673

 REACTING FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species Interface ( )
merges the functionality of the Transport of Diluted Species and the Free and Porous
Media Flow interfaces into a multiphysics interface. This way, coupled mass and
momentum transport in free and porous media can be modeled from a single physics
interface, with the nonlocal coupling for the velocity field set up automatically. In
addition, the effective transport coefficients in a porous matrix domain can be derived
based on the corresponding values in for a nonporous domain.

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated Species Interface

( ) combines the Transport of Concentrated Species and the Free and Porous Media
Flow interfaces. This means that mass and momentum transport can be modeled from
a single physics interface, with the couplings between the velocity field and the mixture
density set up automatically. Also, the effective transport coefficients in a porous matrix
domain are derived based on the corresponding values for a nonporous domain. This
physics interface is applicable for fluid flow in the laminar regime.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

When you are simulating applications that can be described by the material transport
interfaces in the Chemical Species Transport branch, there is often a need to couple the
material transport to other physics interfaces. Convection is often the cause of the
material transport, so couplings to Fluid Flow interfaces is required. The CFD Module
includes physics interfaces for Laminar Flow and Porous Media Flow as well as more
advanced descriptions of fluid flow, such as turbulent and Multiphase Flow.

Moreover, most chemical reactions or other types of material processing, such as

casting, either require or produce heat, which in turn affects both the reaction and
other physical processes connected to the system. This module includes physics
interfaces for heat transfer through conduction and convection as well as through
porous media. More extensive description of heat transfer, such as surface-to-surface
radiation, can be found in the Heat Transfer Module.

Finally, COMSOL Multiphysics supports simulations of electrostatics or DC-based

physical phenomena, even when the conductivity is nonlinear. If the electric field is
AC/DC in nature, or if your system is affected by electromagnetic waves, then the
AC/DC Module and RF Module include appropriate physics interfaces for such
phenomena. Furthermore, some applications of electrochemical reactions, particularly
in electrochemical power source applications, are better handled by the Battery Design
Module.

674 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adding a Chemical Species Transport Interface
A chemical species transport interface can be added when first creating a new model,
or at any time during the modeling process.

Creating a New Model in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

1 To add a physics interface:

- Select New to open the Model Wizard, after selecting a space dimension, go to the
Select Physics page.
- From the Home toolbar, click Add Physics ( ). Or right-click the Component
node in the Model Builder and select Add Physics. Go to the Add Physics window.

2 Under Chemical Species Transport, navigate to the physics interface to add and
double-click it.
There are other ways to add a physics interface depending on whether you are in the
Model Builder or Add Physics window:
- In the Model Wizard, click Add or right-click and select Add Physics ( ). The
physics interface displays under Added physics interfaces.
- In the Add Physics window, click Add to Component ( ) or right-click and select
Add to Component.
3 Specify the number of species (concentrations or mass fractions) and the names:
- In the Model Wizard, on the Review Physics Interface page under Dependent
Variables.
- In the Add Physics window, click to expand the Dependent Variables section.
- After adding the physics interface, you can also edit this information — click the
node in the Model Builder, then, on the Settings window under Dependent
Variables, specify the information.

4 Continue by adding more interfaces and specifying the number of species

(concentrations or mass fractions) that are to be simulated in a mass transport
physics interface when adding that interface.
5 In the Dependent Variables section, enter the Number of species. To add a single
species, click the Add Concentration button ( ) underneath the table or enter a

MODELING CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT | 675

 value into the Number of species field. Click the Remove Concentration button ( )
underneath the table if required.
The Transport of Concentrated Species interface needs to contain at least two species
(the default). Also edit the strings or names directly in the table. The names must
be unique for all species (and all other dependent variables) in the model.

676 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Transport of Diluted Species
Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species (tds) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ), is used to calculate the concentration field of a dilute solute in
a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas, liquid, or solid can
be handled with this interface. The driving forces for transport can be diffusion by
Fick’s law, convection when coupled to a flow field, and migration, when coupled to
an electric field.

The interface supports simulation of transport by convection and diffusion in 1D, 2D,
and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The dependent variable
is the molar concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby
the physics interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tds.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If any part of the model geometry should not partake in the mass transfer model,
remove that part from the selection list.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,
among other things, to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar
flux.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 677

 CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
For 1D components, enter a Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2) to define a parameter
for the area of the geometry perpendicular to the 1D component. Both constant and
varying areas are supported.The value of this parameter is used, among other things,
to automatically calculate molar flow rates from the total molar flux. The default is 1
m2.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the check boxes available under
Additional transport mechanisms to control other transport mechanisms.

Note: Some of the additional transport mechanisms listed below are only available in
certain products. For details see https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

• By default, the Convection check box is selected. Clear the check box to disable
convective transport.
• Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate transport of ionic species in
an electric field. See further the theory section Adding Transport Through
Migration.

Transport of ionic species in an electric field is available in a limited set of

add-on products. See https://www.comsol.com/products/
specifications/ for more details on availability.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media:

• Porous Medium
• Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Porous Electrode Coupling
• Volatilization
• Species Source

Note: Mass transport in porous media is only available in a limited set of

add-on products. See https://www.comsol.com/products/
specifications/ for more details on availability.

678 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina. This option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. It defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3)/tds.helem, where tds.helem
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods, select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for under resolved problems.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. Select a Convective term —
Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The conservative formulation
should be used for compressible flow. See Convective Term Formulation for more
information.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is activated by default so that COMSOL
Multiphysics computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables. When this option

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 679

 is checked, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

The flux variables affected in the interface are:

• ndflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal diffusive flux and corresponds to the boundary flux when diffusion is the
only contribution to the flux term.
• ntflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal total flux and corresponds to the boundary flux plus additional transport
terms, for example, the convective flux when you use the nonconservative form.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is the Concentration c by default. The names must be
unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

680 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

FURTHER READING

• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

• Effective Diffusivity in Porous Materials: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Diffusion/effective_diffusivity
• Micromixer: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/
Fluid_Dynamics/micromixer

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the species concentration and transport in free and porous media. The
interface is the same as the Transport of Diluted Species interface but it uses other
defaults: The Mass Transport in Porous Media property is selected, and a Porous
Medium node is added by default. The interface includes reaction rate expressions and
solute sources for modeling of species transport and reaction in porous media.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport in porous media, including immobile

and mobile phases, where the chemical species may be subjected to diffusion,
convection, migration, dispersion, adsorption, and volatilization in porous media. It
supports cases where either the solid phase substrate is exclusively immobile, or when
a gas-filling medium is also assumed to be immobile.

It applies to one or more diluted species or solutes that move primarily within a fluid
that fills (saturated) or partially fills (unsaturated) the voids in a solid porous medium.
The pore space not filled with fluid contains an immobile gas phase. Models including
a combination of porous media types can be studied.

The main feature nodes are the Porous Medium and Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes,
which add the equations for the species concentrations and provide an interface for
defining the properties of the porous media, as well as additional properties governing

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 681

 adsorption, volatilization, dispersion and diffusion, migration, and the velocity field to
model convection.

The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Porous Medium, No Flux (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can also
right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media to select physics features from
the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as The Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

FURTHER READING

• Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface

• Variably Saturated Flow and Transport — Sorbing Solute:

Application Library path Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/
sorbing_solute
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/
variably-saturated-flow-and-transport-sorbing-solute-490

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted

Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface has the following domain, boundary, point,
and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar

682 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to
access the context menu (all users).

• To add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what operating

system you are using.
• Contextual subnodes (attributes) are available by clicking the parent
node in the Model Builder, and then selecting the subnode from the
Attributes menu.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 683

 • Adsorption • Periodic Condition
• Concentration • Point Mass Source
• Continuity on Interior Boundaries • Porous Matrix
• Dispersion • Porous Medium
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Equilibrium Reaction • Reaction Coefficients
• Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction • Reactions
• Fluid • Species Source
• Flux • Surface Reactions
• Flux Discontinuity • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Fracture • Symmetry
• Gas • Thin Diffusion Barrier
• Inflow • Thin Impermeable Barrier
• Initial Values • Transport Properties
• Line Mass Source • Unsaturated Porous Medium
• Liquid • Volatilization
• Mass-Based Concentrations
• No Flux
• Open Boundary
• Out-of-Plane Flux
• Outflow
• Partition Condition

Some features require certain add-on modules. For details see https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on boundaries representing the
symmetry axis.

684 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Transport Properties
The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms on the Settings window for the Transport of Diluted Species interface. It
includes only the sections required by the activated transport mechanisms. It has all the
equations defining transport of diluted species as well as inputs for the material
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 685

 Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient Dc of each
species in the corresponding input field. This can be a scalar value for isotropic
diffusion or a tensor describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor
type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full that describes the diffusion transport, and
then enter the values in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details: https:/
/www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivity and the
temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under Mobility,
select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full —
and type in the value of expression of the mobility um,c.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from Model Inputs section.

686 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note that the migration in electric fields feature is only available in some COMSOL
products. See details: https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

EXAMPLE MODELS

• Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/
separation-through-dialysis-258

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/electrokinetic-valve-603

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the concentration of each species.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial conditions for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Concentration or concentrations,
ci. This also serves as a starting guess for stationary problems.

Mass-Based Concentrations
Use the Mass-Based Concentrations node to add postprocessing variables for mass-based
concentrations (SI unit: kg/m3) and mass fractions (dimensionless) for all species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 687

 MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The default Solvent density ρsolvent is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression manually. Define the Molar mass of each species, which is needed
to calculate the mass-based concentration.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i. Enter a value or expression
in the field. Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be
automatically generated and picked up using the drop-down menu. For an example,
see the application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor as linked below.

REACTING VOLUME
This section is only available when the Mass Transport in Porous Media property is
available and selected. See https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for
more details on availability.

When specifying reaction rates for a species in porous media, the specified reaction rate
may have the basis of the total volume, the pore volume, or the volume of a particular
phase.

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of the model domain (multiplied by unity).
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of total pore space. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the
domain porosity, εp. (εp equals unity for nonporous domains.)

688 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

• For Liquid phase, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of liquid in the pore space. The expressions will be multiplied by the liquid
volume fraction θ. (θ equals εp for Saturated Porous Media domains).
• For Gas phase, the expressions are multiplied by the gas volume fraction av = εp − θ.
av equals 0 for Saturated Porous Media domains.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter on chemical species transport, starting with the section Mass
Balance Equation.

• Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor: Application Library

path Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/
Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Transfer/plate_reactor
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/
fine-chemical-production-in-a-plate-reactor-8589

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically solid walls where no surface
reactions occur. The condition applied for each species corresponds to

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the no flux condition is:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = 0

CONVECTION
By default, the feature prescribes a vanishing flux due to diffusion and migration in an
electric field. This is the appropriate no flux condition when the relative convective
velocity at the boundary is zero. When the fluid velocity at the boundary is not equal
to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including the
convection. To do this select Include in the Convection section.

When including the convection, the no flux condition prescribed is

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = 0

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 689

 or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at an inlet boundary.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

For the Electroanalysis interface, this node is available when you select the Convection
check box on the physics interface Settings window.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the
boundary by the use of pointwise constraints.

The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can be used when the concentration at the
boundary is not known, or when it varies in a non-trivial manner. This may, for
example, be useful when reactions with high reaction rates occur in the vicinity of the
inlet. In this case the concentration far upstream of the boundary is instead prescribed.
The Flux (Danckwerts) condition prescribes the total flux defined by the upstream
concentration and the fluid velocity at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

690 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Outflow
Apply this condition at outlets boundaries where species should be transported out of
the model domain by fluid motion or by an electric field (in the case of ions). It is
assumed that convection and migration (in an electric field) are the dominating
transport mechanisms across the boundary, and therefore that the diffusive transport
can be ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0

Note that the Convection or the Migration in electric field transport mechanisms needs
to be included for this node to be available.

Concentration
This condition node adds a boundary condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species molar flux across a boundary. The flux can
for example occur due to chemical reactions or a phase change at the boundary. The
flux can also represent the transport to or from a surrounding environment currently
not included model.

The prescribed flux of a species c is by default defined as

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = J 0

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 691

 where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = J 0

The flux prescribed, J0, can include any arbitrary user-specified expression. It can be
constant or a function of a dependent variable or independent variable. Common
examples are a flux dependent of the concentration, temperature, pressure or the
electric potential φ .

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to
prescribe the total flux, including the convection. To do this select Include in the
Convection section.

When including the convection, the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = J 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = J 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

INWARD FLUX
Select the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a
value or expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign
when specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition
for a specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

692 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric, that is, where there is no mass flux across the boundary.

This boundary condition is identical to that of the No Flux node.

Flux Discontinuity
This node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior boundary:

– n ⋅ [ ( J + uc ) u – ( J + uc ) d ] = N 0 J = – D∇c

where the value N0 (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) specifies the jump in total flux at the
boundary. This can be used to model a boundary source, for example a surface
reaction, adsorption or desorption.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
In this section the jump in species flux (or surface source) is specified.

Select the Species check box for the species to specify and enter a value or expression
for the material flux jump in the corresponding field. To use a different boundary
condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity
of that species.

Partition Condition
The Partition Condition node can be used to prescribe the relation between the
concentration of a solute species in two adjoining immiscible phases. It can for example
be used on interior boundaries separating two liquid phases, a gas-liquid interface, or
on a boundary separating a liquid phase and a solid or porous media.

Select Partition coefficient from the Relation list to prescribe a linear relationship
between the concentration on either side of a boundary. For a species concentration
ci, the ratio between the concentration on the upside and on the downside of the
boundary (ci,u and ci,d respectively) is then defined in terms of a partition coefficient
Ki in the manner of

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 693

 c i, u
K i = ---------
c i, d

Use the associated input field to prescribe the partition coefficient for each species.

Select User defined from the Relation list to set up a nonlinear relation between the up
and downside concentrations. For such relations f(ci)u=f(ci)d, where f(ci)u is the
expression enforced on the upside. Use the associated input fields to enter the upside
and downside expressions for each species.

The up and downside of the selected boundary is indicated with a red arrow in the
Graphics window. The arrow points from the downside into the upside. Select the
Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the arrow on the selected
boundary, and update the definition of the up and downside concentrations
accordingly.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a partition condition, see this application example:

Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the mass transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the concentration
and the mass flux between the “source” and the “destination” side respectively. Note
that these names are arbitrary and does not influence the direction in which mass is
transported. It is dictated by mass transfer equations in the adjacent domains.

The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

694 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to add the Destination Selection
subnode, which is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as well
as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. With this subnode, the boundaries that
constitute the source and destination surfaces can be manually specified.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a periodic condition, see this application example:

The KdV Equation and Solitons: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Equation_Based/kdv_equation

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube or line region
with an infinitely small radius.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D Edges

SPECIES SOURCE
·
Enter the source strength, q l,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/(m·s)). A positive value
results in species injection from the line into the computational domain, and a negative
value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 695

 FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain around a point.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

SPECIES SOURCE
·
Enter the source strength, q p,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/s). A positive value
results in species injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both convective inflow
and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the
domain, an exterior species concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

696 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

EXTERIOR CONCENTRATION
Enter a value or expression for the Exterior concentration.

Thin Diffusion Barrier

Use this boundary condition to model a thin layer through which mass is transported
by diffusion only. The node is applicable on interior boundaries and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures.

THIN DIFFUSION BARRIER

Specify the Layer thickness, ds, and input a Diffusion coefficient, Ds,c, for each of the
species included.

Thin Impermeable Barrier

This feature models a thin mass transfer barrier. It is available on interior boundaries
and introduces a discontinuity in the concentration across the boundary. On each side,
a no-flux condition is prescribed for the mass transport implying that it acts as a barrier.
The feature can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Solving a model involving coupled fluid flow and mass transfer, the Thin Impermeable
Barrier feature can be combined with an Interior Wall feature in order to model a thin
solid wall.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is so fast that the equilibrium
condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree of freedom
(the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all space
coordinates.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 697

 If the Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected, the
specified inflow concentration values in all active Inflow boundary nodes for the physics
interface are modified to comply with the equilibrium condition.

• A necessary requirement for this is feature to be available is that two or

more species are solved for by the interface.
• This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details
on availability.

EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
The list defaults to Equilibrium constant or select User defined. For either option, the
Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected by default.

For Equilibrium constant, enter an Equilibrium constant Keq (dimensionless). Also enter
a value or expression for the Unit activity concentration Ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3).
Selecting Equilibrium constant defines an equilibrium condition based on the
stoichiometric coefficients, the species activities, and the law of mass action.

For User defined, enter an Equilibrium expression Eeq (dimensionless).

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientνc (dimensionless). The default is 0. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.

Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

Surface Reactions
The Surface Reactions node can be used to account for the species boundary flux due
to chemical reactions occurring on a surface (heterogeneous reactions). For a domain
species participating in a surface reaction, the boundary flux corresponds to the
reaction rate at the surface.

SURFACE REACTION RATE

Specify the surface reaction rate J0 of each species resulting from the reactions. Note
that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical

698 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down menu.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Surface Reactions node, see this application example:

Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaAs: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/
Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Transfer/gaas_cvd

Surface Equilibrium Reaction

Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The settings
for this node are similar to Equilibrium Reaction. Note that a necessary requirement
for this is feature to be available is that two or more species are solved for by the
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction

This boundary node defines an irreversible reaction where the kinetics is so fast that
the only factor limiting the reaction rate is the transport of a species to the reacting
surface.

The node will set the Rate limiting species concentration to zero at the boundary, and
balance the fluxes of the species participating in the reaction and the current densities
according to the Stoichiometric Coefficients settings.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 699

 Porous Electrode Coupling
Use this node to add a molar source in a domain that is coupled to one or multiple
Porous Electrode Reaction nodes of an Electrochemistry Interface.

The molar source is calculated from the number of electrons, stoichiometric

coefficients, and volumetric current densities of the coupled porous electrode reactions
specified in the Reaction Coefficients subnodes.

In the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, the molar sources (or sinks) are
multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the corresponding mass sources.

Additional Reaction Coefficients subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
non-negligible total mass source or sink, which is often the case in gas diffusion
electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Porous Electrode Coupling node in
the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Reaction Coefficients
Add this node to the Electrode Surface Coupling and Porous Electrode Coupling
features to define molar fluxes and sources based on electrode current densities in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The molar flux or source is proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients and the
current density according to Faraday’s law.

Current densities from Electrode Reaction (iloc, SI unit: A/m2) or Porous Electrode
Reaction nodes (iv, SI unit: A/m3) of any Electrochemistry interface in the model are
available for selection as the Coupled reaction, and user-defined expressions are also
supported.

Enter the Number of participating electrons nm (dimensionless) and the Stoichiometric

coefficient vc (dimensionless) as explained in the theory section linked below.

Use multiple subnodes to couple to multiple reactions.

700 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Electrode Surface Coupling
Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple Electrode Reaction nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass flux over the boundary, which is often the case for gas
diffusion electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Electrode Surface Coupling
node in the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Porous Medium
Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Species transport through a porous medium is affected both by properties of the fluid
phase, and as well as properties of the solid matrix. These properties are defined in the
Fluid and Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node, where properties are defined per
phase in a similar manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Porous Medium to account for the
corresponding transport mechanism.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 701

 Fluid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile fluid solvent filling the pores
of a porous medium. It is used as a subnode to Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent fluid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Fluid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All
defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Fluid diffusion coefficient
list.

702 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Fluid diffusion coefficient DF,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model to account for the
reduced diffusivity. The available models are Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity model, enter a
value for the tortuosity τF,i (dimensionless).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details: https:/
/www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Porous Matrix
This node sets the porosity when modeling transport of diluted species in a Porous
Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium.

The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. The Porous Matrix
node supports the use of a Porous Material node, where the porosity is defined in the
manner of

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 703

 εp = 1 –  θs, i – θimf, i
i i

where θs,i and θimf,i are the porosities of the Solid and Immobile Fluids subnodes under
the Porous Material node.

Select From pellet bed densities to compute the porosity using the (dry bulk) Bed
density ρb and the (single phase) Pellet density ρpe. The porosity is then defined from

ρb
ε p = 1 – --------
ρ pe

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

Dispersion
Local variations in the velocity as the fluid flows around solid particles lead to
mechanical mixing, referred to as dispersion. Use this feature to account for dispersion
in a Porous Medium or a Unsaturated Porous Medium

This subfeature is available when both the Mass transfer in porous media mass transfer
check box and the Convection check box are selected on the Settings window for the
physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. When not selected the
same dispersion tensor DD is used for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — Dispersivity or User defined.

Select Dispersivity to specify the dispersion in terms of dispersivities (SI unit: m). Select
an option from the Dispersivity model list: Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic
based on the properties of the porous media. For isotropic porous media, specify the
longitudinal and transverse dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media,
specify the longitudinal, horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

For User defined, specify the dispersion components in terms of constants or

expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enable the appropriate
tensor components.

704 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Unsaturated Porous Medium
Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a solvent
(mobile fluid phase) through interstices in a solid porous medium. In addition to
transport due to convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include
species evolution through adsorption and dispersion.

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a liquid
(mobile fluid phase) in a partially filled solid porous medium. The interstices of the
porous medium contains the liquid carrier phase and gas pockets. Apart from
convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include species evolution
through adsorption, dispersion, and volatilization.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

The properties of each phase present are defined using the Liquid, the Gas, and the
Porous Matrix subnodes respectively. The Unsaturated Porous Medium node supports
material properties using a Porous Material node, where properties are defined per
phase in a similar manner.

Add an Adsorption or a Dispersion subfeature to the Unsaturated Porous Medium to

account for the corresponding transport mechanism.

Liquid
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the mobile liquid solvent present in the
pores of the Unsaturated Porous Medium.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. By default, the Temperature model
input is set to Common model input, and the temperature is controlled from Default
Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a locally defined Model Input. If a Heat
Transfer interface is included in the component, it controls the temperature Common
model input. Alternatively, the temperature field can be selected from another physics
interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a Heat
Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht) option
is available for T.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 705

 You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

SATURATION
Select Saturation or Liquid volume fraction from the list.

For Saturation, enter a value for s (dimensionless) between 0 and 1. The liquid volume
fraction is then computed from the saturation and porosity as θl = εps.

For Liquid volume fraction, enter a value for θl (dimensionless) between 0 and the value
of the porosity.

Select a Liquid fraction time change: Liquid fraction constant in time (the default), Time
change in liquid fraction, or Time change in pressure head.

• For Time change in fluid fraction, enter dθ/dt (SI unit: 1/s).
• For Time change in pressure head, enter dHp/dt (SI unit: m/s) and a Specific
moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). If a Darcy’s Law interface is included in the
component, the time change in pressure head solved for can be selected.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in
the input fields. This input option is always available. You can also select the velocity
field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the model component. These
physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity field list.

DIFFUSION
Use this section to specify diffusion coefficients describing the diffusion of each species
in the solvent liquid.

Use the Source list to select to pick up diffusion coefficients defined in a material or a
Chemistry interface.

Select Material, and a Liquid material to use a diffusion coefficient in a material available
in the model. User-defined property groups including a diffusion coefficient output
property are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient list.

Select Chemistry to use a diffusion coefficient from a Chemistry interface added to

model component. Diffusion coefficients are automatically defined when Calculate
transport properties is selected on the interface level of a Chemistry interface. All

706 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

defined diffusion coefficients are available for selection in the Liquid diffusion coefficient
list.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Liquid diffusion coefficient DL,i of
each species in the corresponding input field.

In a porous medium the diffusivity is reduced due to the fact that the solid grains
impede Brownian motion. Select an Effective diffusivity model, liquid to account for the
reduced diffusivity in the liquid. The available models are Millington and Quirk model
(the default), Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No correction. For Tortuosity
model, enter a value for the tortuosity τL,i (dimensionless).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. For details see:
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V. This input
option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has added to
the component.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved for by an Electrochemistry interface
added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, select the
appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full — and type
in the value or expression of the effective mobility ume,i.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

Gas
Use this node to specify the mass transfer in the gas phase present in the pores of the
Unsaturated Porous Medium.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 707

 DIFFUSION
The settings for the diffusion of each species in the gas phase are identical to those in
the Liquid subnode.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a value for the volatilization isotherm kG,c (dimensionless) for each species.

Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the (fluid phase) solute species onto the surface
of the porous matrix. It is available as a subnode to the Porous Medium and the
Unsaturated Porous Medium nodes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The density of the porous media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface
of the porous matrix. Choose to input either the Dry bulk density ρ, or the Solid phase
density ρs. The former is the density of the porous matrix including empty pores, while
the latter corresponds to the density of the pure solid phase. The density can be defined
from the domain material by selecting From material, or from a user defined expression.
When a Porous Material is used on the selection, the density will be requested from a
Solid subfeature. Several Solid features can be used to model a homogeneous mixture
of several solid components.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir, Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User defined to
specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase (moles per
unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

708 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 KL c ∂c P K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- , K P = -------- = ---------------------------2
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

• For Freundlich:

c N ∂c P cP
c P = K F  -------- , K P = -------- = N -----
 c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

–  1 + -------
1
∂c P  N T
N
KP = -------- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = --------------------------------------------------------------
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

and

2 2
∂c P K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
K P = -------- = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
∂c 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )
2

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined enter an Adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 709

 cP = f ( c )

For more information, see in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section .

Volatilization
This feature is available when the Mass transfer in porous media check box is selected
on the Settings window for the physics interface.

Use this feature to model mass transfer at the boundary due to volatilization. The
species dissolved in the liquid are assumed to be vaporized at the boundary, and
transported into the surrounding bulk region due to convection and diffusion. The
mass transfer at the boundary is defined as

– n ⋅ J c = – h c ( k G,c c – c Gatm,c )

where hc is the mass transfer coefficient, kG,c the volatilization coefficient, and cGatm,c
the concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a Mass transfer coefficient hc defining the transfer into the surrounding media.
This can be given by boundary layer theory. When assuming that no convective flow
is present in the surrounding, the mass transfer coefficient can be defined from the gas
diffusion coefficient DGc and the thickness of the diffusion layer ds in the manner of

D Gc
h c = ----------
ds

Also give the atmospheric concentration for each species, cGatm,c. The Volatilization
coefficient kG,c for each species are taken from the adjacent Unsaturated Porous
Medium domain.

710 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in porous domains, the
Species Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the
species transport equations.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several types of domains, with subsequent and different reactions occurring
within them, it might be necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These
are then defined in an additional Species Source node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each of the species solved for. Enter a
value or expression in the field of the corresponding species.

Hygroscopic Swelling
The Hygroscopic Swelling multiphysics coupling node ( ) is used for moisture
concentration coupling between the Solid Mechanics interface and either the
Transport of Diluted Species or Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces.

Hygroscopic swelling is an effect of internal strain caused by changes in moisture

content. This volumetric strain can be written as

ε hs = β h M m ( c mo – c mo,ref )

where βh is the coefficient of hygroscopic swelling, Mm is the molar mass, cmo is the
moisture concentration, and cmo,ref is the strain-free reference concentration.

This feature requires a license of either the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics
Module. The multiphysics feature will appear automatically if both the Transport of
Diluted Species and the Solid Mechanics interfaces are added to the same component.
For the most current information about licensing, please see See https://
www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 711

 FURTHER READING
More information about how to use hygroscopic swelling can be found in Hygroscopic
Swelling Coupling section in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

More information about multiphysics coupling nodes can be found in the section The
Multiphysics Branch.

Out-of-Plane Flux
The out-of-plane flux node is used to prescribe a flux in an out-of-plane domain, and
it can be used to reduce a model geometry to 2D, or even 1D, when the concentration
variation is small in one or more directions. This could be the case for example when
the object to model is thin or slender. Figure 8-1shows examples of possible situations
in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

Jz

Jup

Jdown

Figure 8-1: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

For a 1D component this node adds a single out-of-plane molar flux J0,z,i for species
i. For a 2D component two fluxes can be prescribed for each species; J0,u,i for the
upside of the domain, and J0,d,i for the downside of the domain.

The fluxes are added as a source contribution to the right-hand side of the transport
equation. For example, in 2D components with diffusion, convection and out-of-plane
flux present, mass transfer of species i is defined by the mass conservation equation

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i + S , (8-1)
∂t opf, i

where Sopf,i is the out-of-plane source for species i

712 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 J 0, i J 0, u, i + J 0, d, i
S opf, i = ---------- = -------------------------------------- .
dz dz

For external convection on the upside and the downside of the domain, the
out-of-plane flux is

J 0, i = k c, u, i ( c b, u, i – c i ) + k c, d, i ( c b, d, i – c i )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain. The prescribed flux, J0, can
include any arbitrary user-specified expressions. It can be a constant or a function of a
dependent variable or independent variables.

UPSIDE INWARD FLUX

For 1D components, enter the cross-sectional perimeter Pc to get the out-of-plane flux

J 0, i = P c J 0, z, i .

The default value of Pc is the circumference. Either keep the default value, for a circular
cross-section shape, or edit the value to get a user-defined shape of the out-of-plane
cross-section.

The available flux type options are General inward flux and External convection. Select
the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a value or
expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign when
specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition for a
specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

DOWNSIDE INWARD FLUX

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. The settings are
the same as for the Upside Inward Flux section.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 713

 FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Out-of-Plane Flux node, see this application example:

Mass Transfer from a Thin Domain: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Tutorials/thin_domain

Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fractures in porous media. The node
assumes that the transport in the tangential direction along the fracture is dominant,
as a result of lower flow resistance.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Boundary material is used.

Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select User defined to instead enter a different value.

CONVECTION
Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity along the
fracture. For a consistent model, use a Fracture Flow feature in a Darcy’s Law interface
to compute the fluid flow velocity in the fracture.

714 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown.

The settings for the Diffusion is the similar to the settings for the diffusion
coefficients in the Fluid node. The Dispersion settings are identical to the
ones in the Dispersion node.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 715

 T he T r a ns po r t of Con c en t rat ed
Species Interface
The Transport of Concentrated Species (tcs) interface ( ), found under the Chemical
Species Transport branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to study
gaseous and liquid mixtures where the species concentrations are of the same order of
magnitude and none of the species can be identified as a solvent. In this case, properties
of the mixture depend on the composition, and the molecular and ionic interactions
between all species need to be considered. The physics interface includes models for
multicomponent diffusion, where the diffusive driving force of each species depends
on the mixture composition, temperature, and pressure.

The physics interface solves for the mass fractions of all participating species. Transport
through convection, diffusion, and migration in an electric field can be included.

It supports simulations of transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D,

2D, and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The physics
interface defines the equations for the species mass fractions, including a diffusion
model (Mixture-averaged, Maxwell–Stefan, or Fick’s law).

The available transport mechanisms and diffusion models differs between various
COMSOL products (see https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

Some examples of what can be studied with this physics interface include:

• The evolution of a chemical species transported by convection and diffusion.

• The migration in an electric field in the case of ionic species, in mixtures and
solutions that cannot be deemed as being diluted.
• Concentrated solutions or gas mixtures, where the concentration of all participating
species are of the same order of magnitude, and their molecular and ionic interaction
with each other therefore must be considered. This implies that the diffusive
transport of a single species is dependent on the mixture composition, and possibly
on the temperature, the electric potential, the pressure, or any combination.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Transport Properties, No Flux, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
reactions. You can also right-click Transport of Concentrated Species to select physics
features from the context menu.

716 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tcs.

EQUATION
The basic equation for the conservation of mass of a species i is:

∂ ρω
( i ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρω i u ) = – ∇ ⋅ j i + R i (8-2)
∂t

Using the continuity equation, the sum of all species equations, the equation can be
re-cast in its non-conservative form:

∂
ρ (ω i) + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )ω i = – ∇ ⋅ j i + R i (8-3)
∂t

This form of the equation is the one used in the Transport of Concentrated Species
interface. The equation displayed in the interface changes depending on the active
transport mechanisms, the selected diffusion model, and the type of reactions
modeled.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, the Thickness field (default value: 1 m) defines a parameter for the
thickness of the geometry perpendicular to the two-dimensional cross-section. Both
constant and varying thicknesses are supported. The value of this parameter is used,
among other things, to automatically calculate mass flow rates from the total mass flux.

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
For 1D components, enter a Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2) to define a parameter
for the area of the geometry perpendicular to the 1D component. Both constant and
varying areas are supported.The value of this parameter is used, among other things,
to automatically calculate mass flow rates from the total mass flux. The default is 1 m2.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 717

 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
The Transport of Concentrated Species interface always accounts for transport due to
convection and diffusion.

The available diffusion models and the additional transport mechanisms differs
between various COMSOL products (see https://www.comsol.com/products/
specifications/).

Diffusion Model
• The Maxwell–Stefan option employs the most detailed diffusion model, but is also
the most computationally expensive. The model is intended for diffusion dominated
models, and requires that the multicomponent Maxwell–Stefan diffusivities of all
component pairs are known. No stabilization is available when selecting this model.
• The Mixture-averaged option is less computationally expensive than the Maxwell–
Stefan model. It is a simpler model that can be used when variations in the partial
pressures and temperature can be assumed to not affect the multicomponent
diffusion. The model includes stabilization but requires the multicomponent
Maxwell–Stefan diffusivities of all component pairs.
• The Fick’s law model is a general model that should be used when the diffusion is
assumed Fickian, or when no multicomponent diffusivities are available. Also, when
molecular diffusion is not the dominating transport mechanism and a robust but
low order model is wanted, the Fick’s law options should be used. The model
includes stabilization.

Additional Transport Mechanisms

Under Additional transport mechanisms, click to select or clear any combination of
check boxes as needed.

Migration in Electric Field

Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate migration of ionic species due
to an electric field. The resulting migration term is part of the relative mass flux vector.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media. When selected the following domain features are enabled:

• Porous Medium
• Porous Electrode Coupling

718 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Knudsen Diffusion
For Mixture-averaged and Fick’s law, it is possible to include Knudsen diffusion. This
mechanism accounts for species collisions with the surrounding media, for example,
the pore walls the species pass through. It is also an important component when setting
up a Dusty gas model.

Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model

When using the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion model the relative mass flux vector is

Q T
Di
j i = – ρω i  D̃ ik d k – -------- ∇T
T
k=1
˜
where D ik (SI unit: m2/s) are the multicomponent Fick diffusivities, dk (SI unit: 1/
T
m) is the diffusional driving force, T (SI unit: K) is the temperature, and D i (SI
unit: kg/(m·s)) is the thermal diffusion coefficient.

The diffusional driving force is defined as

Q
1
d k = ∇x k + --- ( x k – ω k ) ∇p – ρω k g k + ω k
p  ρωl gl (8-4)
l=1

where gk is an external force (per unit mass) acting on species k. In the case of an ionic
species, the external force due to the electric field, which is added by selecting the
Migration in electric field check box, is

zk F
g k = – --------- ∇φ (8-5)
Mk

where zk is the species charge number, F (SI unit: A·s/mol) is Faraday’s constant and
φ (SI unit: V) is the electric potential.

Mixture-Averaged Diffusion Model

When using the Mixture-averaged diffusion model, the diffusive flux is formulated in
terms of a mixture-averaged diffusion coefficient representing the diffusion of each
species into the resulting mixture. The diffusion coefficient is based on the
multicomponent Maxwell–Stefan diffusivities Dik. The Mixture-averaged diffusion
model is computationally less expensive, and significantly more robust than the
Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model, but constitutes an approximation of the
multicomponent flux. For information on the flux formulation in this case see
Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 719

 Fick’s Law Diffusion Model
When using the Fick’s law diffusion model, the diffusive flux is formulated in terms of
a Fickian diffusion coefficient. The Fick’s law diffusion model is computationally less
expensive and significantly more robust than the Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model, but
constitutes an approximation of the multicomponent flux. For information on the flux
formulation in this case see Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law Approximation.

SPECIES
Select the species that this physics interface solves for using the mass constraint in
Equation 8-6 (that is, its value comes from the fact that the sum of all mass fractions
must equal 1). In the From mass constraint list, select the preferred species. To
minimize the impact of any numerical and model introduced errors, use the species
with the highest concentration. By default, the first species is used.

ω1 = 1 –  ωi (8-6)
i=2

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• There are two consistent stabilization methods available when using the
Mixture-Averaged Diffusion Model or Fick’s Law Diffusion Model — Streamline
diffusion and Crosswind diffusion. Both are active by default.
The Residual setting applies to both the consistent stabilization methods.
Approximate residual is the default setting and it means that derivatives of the
diffusion tensor components are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough
and computationally faster. If required, select Full residual instead.
• There is one inconsistent stabilization method, Isotropic diffusion, which is available
when using the Mixture-Averaged Diffusion Model or Fick’s Law Diffusion Model.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed.

Regularization
From the Regularization list, select On (the default) or Off. When turned On, regularized
mass fractions are calculated such that

720 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 0 ≤ w i, reg ≤ 1

Regularized mass fractions are used for the calculation of composition-dependent

material properties, such as the density.

Diffusion
The Diffusion settings are available for the approximate diffusion models
Mixture-averaged and Fick’s law.

When the Mixture diffusion correction is enabled, a flux correction is added to ensure
that the net diffusive flux is zero. This typically also mean that the solution becomes
less sensitive to the species selected to be computed from the mass constraint in the
Species section. More information on this correction is available in the theory section
Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation.

The Diffusion flux type list controls the whether the molecular flux is assumed
proportional to the mole fraction or the mass fraction. See Multicomponent Diffusion:
Mixture-Averaged Approximation or Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law
Approximation for information on the diffusive flux formulation.

Pseudo Time Stepping

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator. For more information, see Pseudo
Time Stepping for Mass Transport.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

For more information about these settings, see the Discretization section under The
Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 721

 • Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Concentrated
Species Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface

• Species Transport in the Gas Diffusion Layers of a PEM: Application

Library path Fuel_Cell_and_Electrolyzer_Module/Fuel_Cells/
pem_gdl_species_transport_2d
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/
species-transport-in-the-gas-diffusion-layers-of-a-pem-260

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Add or remove species in the model and also change the names of the dependent
variables that represent the species concentrations.

Specify the Number of species. There must be at least two species. To add a single
species, click the Add concentration button ( ) under the table. To remove a species,
select it in the list and click the Remove concentration button ( ) under the table.
Edit the names of the species directly in the table.

The species are dependent variables, and their names must be unique with
respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Adding a Chemical Species Transport Interface

The Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the chemical composition in a fluid mixture transported through the
interstices of a porous media. The interface is the same as the Transport of
Concentrated Species interface but it has a Porous Medium node added by default. All
other features for porous media transport is always available.

This interface is dedicated to analyzing mass transport in porous media where the
chemical species may be subjected to convection, diffusion, and migration in an
electric field. The interface also includes reaction rate expressions and source terms for

722 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

modeling chemical reactions in porous media. It is also possible to include regions with
free flow.

The main feature of the interface is the Porous Medium node which adds the governing
equations for the mass fractions of all present species. It has two subnodes, Fluid and
Porous Matrix, which in turn are used to define the physical properties corresponding
to each phase, and to prescribe the transport properties. The latter are typically the
flow field, and when applicable, the electric field. The Porous Medium node supports
the use of a Porous Material for defining phase-specific properties, and for sharing
them among different physics interfaces.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added to the
Model Builder — Porous Medium, No Flux (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can also
right-click Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media to select physics features
from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as The Transport of Concentrated Species
Interface.

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of

Concentrated Species Interface
The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface has these domain, boundary, and pair
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 723

 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

These nodes are described in this section or as indicated:

• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Matrix

• Equilibrium Reaction • Porous Medium
• Fluid • Reaction
• Flux • Reaction Sources
• Flux Discontinuity • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Inflow • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Thin Impermeable Barrier1
• Mass Fraction • Transport Properties
• No Flux
• Open Boundary
• Out-of-Plane Flux
• Outflow

Some features require certain add-on modules. See details https://

www.comsol.com/products/specifications/
1 The node is described for the Transport of Diluted Species interface.

Transport Properties
The Transport Properties is the main node used to model mass transfer in a fluid
mixture with the Transport of Concentrates species interface. The node adds the
equations governing the mass fractions of all present species, and provides inputs for
the transport mechanisms and for the material properties of the fluid mixture.

The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms in the Settings window of the Transport of Concentrated Species
interface.

724 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The options available in this feature differs between COMSOL products. (See https:/
/www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

MODEL INPUTS
Specify the temperature and pressure to be used in the physics interface. The
temperature model input is used when calculating the density from the ideal gas law,
but also when thermal diffusion is accounted for by supplying thermal diffusion
coefficients. The pressure model input is used in the diffusional driving force in
Equation 8-4 (that is, when a Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model is used) and when
calculating the density from the ideal gas law.

Temperature
Select the source of the Temperature field T:

• Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the temperature (SI unit: K).
This input is always available.
• If required, select a temperature defined by a Heat Transfer interface present in the
model (if any). For example, select Temperature (ht) to use the temperature defined
by the Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with the ht name.

Absolute Pressure
Select the source of the Absolute pressure p:

• Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the absolute pressure
(SI unit: Pa). This input is always available.
• In addition, select a pressure defined by a Fluid Flow interface present in the model
(if any). For example, select Absolute pressure (spf) to use the pressure defined in a
Laminar Flow interface with spf as the Name.

DENSITY
Define the density of the mixture and the molar masses of the participating species.

Mixture Density
Select a way to define the density from the Mixture density list — Ideal gas or User
defined:

• For Ideal gas, the density is computed from the ideal gas law in the manner of:

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 725

 pM
ρ = -----------
Rg T

Here M is the mean molar mass of the mixture and Rg is the universal gas constant.
The absolute pressure, p, and temperature, T, used corresponds to the ones defined
in the Model Inputs section.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mixture density ρ.

Molar Mass
Enter a value or expression for the Molar mass Mw for each species. The default value
is 0.032 kg/mol, which is the molar mass of O2 gas.

CONVECTION
Select the source of the Velocity field u:

• Select User defined to enter manually defined values or expressions for the velocity
components. This input is always available.
• Select a velocity field defined by a Fluid Flow interface present in the model (if any).
For example, select Velocity field (spf) to use the velocity field defined by the Fluid
Properties node fp1 in a Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface with spf as the
Name.

DIFFUSION
Specify the molecular and thermal diffusivities of the present species based on the
selected Diffusion model.

When using a Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model or a Mixture-Averaged Diffusion

Model, select the Binary diffusion input type (Table or Matrix) and specify the Maxwell–
Stefan diffusivities in the table or matrix, then enter the Thermal diffusion coefficients
T
Dw .
F
When using a Fick’s Law Diffusion Model, specify the Diffusion coefficient D w and the
T
Thermal diffusion coefficients D w for each of the species.

Maxwell–Stefan Diffusivity Matrix

Using a Maxwell–Stefan Diffusion Model or a Mixture-Averaged Diffusion Model, the
Maxwell–Stefan diffusivity matrix Dik (SI unit: m2/s) can be specified by a table or
matrix. For a simulation involving Q species the Maxwell–Stefan diffusivity matrix is a
Q-by-Q symmetric matrix, where the diagonal components are 1. Enter values for the
upper triangular components, Dij, which describe the interdiffusion between species i
and j. For the table input type, only upper triangular components (Dij) are listed. The

726 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

name of species pair consists of species in the first and second column. For the matrix
input type, the numbering of the species corresponds to the order, from top to
bottom, used for all the input fields for species properties (see for example the molar
mass fields in the Density section).

Diffusion Coefficient
Using a Fick’s Law Diffusion Model, the diffusion is by default assumed to be isotropic
F
and governed by one Diffusion coefficient D w (SI unit: m2/s) for each species. To allow
for a general representation, it is also possible to use diffusion matrices (diagonal,
symmetric, or anisotropic).

Thermal Diffusion Coefficient

T
To model thermal diffusion, prescribe the Thermal diffusion coefficients D i
(SI unit: kg/(m·s)), by entering one thermal diffusion coefficient for each species in
the corresponding field. In a multicomponent mixture, the sum of the thermal
diffusion coefficients is zero. The default value for all thermal diffusion coefficients
is 0.

Specify the molecular and thermal diffusivities of the present species based on the
selected Diffusion model.

KNUDSEN DIFFUSION
The Knudsen diffusion transport mechanism accounts for the interaction of the species
with the surroundings (interspecies collisions excluded) — for example, the pore wall
when a species passes through porous media.

Depending on which Diffusion model is selected, either the Fick’s law or the
M
Mixture-averaged diffusion coefficient D i is corrected with the Knudsen diffusion
K
coefficient D i in the following way

MK  1 1 
-1
Di =  --------
M
- + --------
K
 Di Di 

For gases, the Kinetic gas theory is often valid and requires the Mean path length λpath
(SI unit: m). Typically, for transport in porous media, the pore diameter can be entered
here. For other cases, choose User defined.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected for the
Transport of Concentrated Species interface.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 727

 Electric Potential
• Select User defined to enter a value or expression for the electric potential. This input
is always available.
• If required, select an electric potential defined by an AC/DC interface that is
present in the model (if any). For example, select Electric potential (ec) to use the
electric field defined by the Current Conservation node cucn1 in an Electric
Currents interface ec.

Settings for the mobilities are used for the Mixture-averaged and Fick’s law transport
models. By default the mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivities
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. To manually specify the
mobilities, select User defined for the mobility um,c (SI unit: s·mol/kg) and enter one
value for each species.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from the Model Inputs section.

Porous Medium
Use this node to model the composition in a gas or liquid mixture as it is transported
though the interstices of solid porous medium. In addition to transport due to
convection and diffusion, the node contains functionality to include species evolution
through reactions in the fluid phase.

Species transport in a porous medium is affected both by properties of the fluid phase
as well as properties of the solid matrix. These properties are defined in the Fluid node
and the Porous Matrix node respectively. The Porous Medium node supports material
properties using a Porous Material node, where properties are defined per phase in a
similar manner.

Fluid
Use this node to specify the mass transport in a fluid phase filling the pores of a porous
medium. It is used as a subnode to Porous Medium.

728 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MODEL INPUTS
Specify the temperature and pressure in the fluid. The temperature model input is used
when calculating the density from the ideal gas law, but also when thermal diffusion is
accounted for by supplying thermal diffusion coefficients. The pressure model input is
used in the diffusional driving force in Equation 8-4 (that is, when a Maxwell–Stefan
Diffusion Model is used) and when calculating the density from the ideal gas law.

Temperature
Select the source of the Temperature field T:

• Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the temperature.

• When present, select a temperature defined by a Heat Transfer interface in the
model. For example, select Temperature (ht) to use the temperature defined by the
Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with the ht name.

Absolute Pressure
Select the source of the Absolute pressure p:

• Select User defined to enter a value or an expression for the absolute pressure.
• When present, select a pressure defined by a Fluid Flow interface present in the
model. For example, select Absolute pressure (spf) to use the pressure defined in a
Laminar Flow interface with spf as the name.

DENSITY
Use this section to define the density of the fluid phase, and to specify the molar masses
of the participating species.

Mixture Density
Select a way to define the density from the Mixture density list — Ideal gas or User
defined:

• For Ideal gas, the density is computed from the ideal gas law in the manner of:
pM
ρ = -----------
Rg T

Here M is the mean molar mass of the mixture and Rg is the universal gas constant.
The absolute pressure, p, and temperature, T, used corresponds to the ones defined
in the Model Inputs section.
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the Mixture density ρ.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 729

 Molar Mass
Enter a value or expression for the Molar mass Mw for each species. The default value
is 0.032 kg/mol, which is the molar mass of O2 gas.

CONVECTION
Select the source of the Velocity field u:

• Select User defined to enter values or expressions for the velocity components. This
input is always available.
• Select a velocity field defined by a Fluid Flow interface that solves for the velocity of
the fluid. For example, select Velocity field (spf) to use the velocity field defined by
in a Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface with spf as the Name.

When the interface is used in a reacting flow multiphysics coupling, the velocity is
automatically defined and the input is disabled.

DIFFUSION
Specify the species molecular and thermal diffusivities in fluid phase in the manner
described for the Transport Properties node.

To account for the effect of porosity in the diffusivities, select an Effective diffusivity
model — Millington and Quirk model, Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or No
correction. Using one of the first four models, the effective transport factor, fe, is
defined from the porosity and the fluid tortuosity factor in the manner of:

εp
f e = ----- (8-7)
τF

For No correction, the effective transport factor is set to one.

–1 ⁄ 3
• For the Millington and Quirk model, the effective transport factor is τ F = ε p .
–1 ⁄ 2
• For the Bruggeman model, the effective transport factor is τ F = εp .
• For the Tortuosity model, specify the tortuosity factor is τF.

The species diffusivities and mobilities are automatically adjusted for porous media
transport using the effective transport factor.

730 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD
This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected in the
Transport Mechanisms section of the interface. Select the source of the Electric
potential V:

• Select User defined to enter a value or expression for the electric potential.
• When present, select an electric potential defined by an AC/DC interface that is
present in the model. For example, select Electric potential (ec) to use the electric
field defined an Electric Currents interface ec.

Settings for the mobilities are needed for the Mixture-averaged and Fick’s law diffusion
models. By default the mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivities
(adjusted by the Effective diffusivity model in the Diffusion section) using the
Nernst-Einstein relation. To manually specify the mobilities, select User defined for the
mobility um,w and enter one value for each species.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based or the Nernst–Einstein relation) is
taken from the Model Inputs section.

Porous Matrix
This node defines the porosity, defined as the volume fraction occupied by a fluid
phase, when modeling transport in a Porous Medium.

The default Porosity εp of the solid matrix is taken From material. The Porous Matrix
node supports the use of a Porous Material node, where the porosity is defined in the
manner of

εp = 1 –  θs, i – θimf, i
i i

where θs,i and θimf,i are the volume fractions given in Solid and Immobile Fluids
subnodes under the Porous Material node.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the porosity.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 731

 Electrode Surface Coupling
Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple Electrode Reaction (described in the Electrochmistry Module User’s Guide)
nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes. The molar fluxes are multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the
corresponding mass fluxes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

MASS TRANSFER TO OTHER PHASES

When using the Reacting Flow coupling feature to model coupled momentum and
mass transport, boundary conditions that results in a nonnegligible mass flux can be
consistently handled by accounting for The Stefan Velocity.

Select Account for Stefan velocity to update the Stefan velocity in accordance with the
mass flux from the electrode reactions. One example that may benefit from this is when
modeling gas diffusion electrodes.

Reaction
Use the Reaction node to specify the reaction kinetics for a single homogeneous
chemical reaction. The resulting mass source terms for the species involved in the
reaction are automatically defined and added on the selected domains. For turbulent
flow, the Reaction node includes the Eddy-dissipation turbulent-reactions model.

REACTION RATE
Select a Reaction rate — Automatic (the default), or User defined. Selecting Automatic
the laminar flow reaction rate is computed using the mass action law.

For User defined, input a custom expression or constants for the Reaction rate r.

Specify the reaction stoichiometry by entering values for the stoichiometric coefficients
(dimensionless) of each species. Enter negative values for reactants and positive values
for products.

732 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

RATE CONSTANTS
When the Use Arrhenius expressions check box is not selected, input custom expressions
or constants for the Forward rate constant kf and Reverse rate constant kr.

When the Use Arrhenius expressions check box is selected, enter values for the following
parameters of the forward and reverse reactions:

• Forward frequency factor Af and Reverse frequency factor Ar (dimensionless)

• Forward activation energy Ef and Reverse activation energy Er
• Forward temperature exponent nf and Reverse temperature exponent nr
(dimensionless)

TURBULENT FLOW
Note this section is only available when then licensed to the CFD Module (see https:/
/www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

When the Turbulent-reaction model is set to None, laminar flow is assumed and the
reaction source terms are defined from the reaction stoichiometry and reaction rates
prescribed.

When the Turbulent-reaction model is set to Eddy-dissipation, turbulent flow will be

accounted for in the reaction mass sources in the manner described in The Reaction
Source Term for Turbulent Flow. In this case, enter values for the Turbulent reaction
model parameters αED and β ED (dimensionless).

The Eddy-dissipation model also requires an estimation of the turbulent mixing time of
the fluid flow turbulence. When a Fluid Flow interface defining it is present in the
model, it can be selected from the Turbulence time scale list. For example, select
Turbulence time scale (spf/fp1) to use the time scale defined by the Fluid Properties node
fp1 in a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface with the Name set to spf.

REGULARIZATION
Select Rate expression in order to regularize the individual rate expressions that are
added to each species. If the mass fraction for a reactant species ωi becomes smaller
than its damping limit, ωidl, the rate expression added to species ωi is reduced linearly.
If ωi ≤ 0 for a reactant species, the reaction rate contribution to that species is
completely removed. Similarly, the if the mass fraction for a product species ωj becomes
larger than 1 − ωjdl, the rate expression added to that species is damped linearly. If ωj ≥
1 for a product species, the reaction rate contribution to that species is completely
removed.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 733

 The default value for the damping limit, ωidl, is 10−6, which is appropriate for most
applications, but can require adjustment when working with for example catalytic trace
species.

Regularization of the rate expressions adds considerable stability to the reaction

expressions, but should optimally only be used as a mean to reach convergence. If the
regularization is active in too large parts of the domain, the mass balance can become
affected since the regularization acts on the contributions to each individual species,
not the reaction as a whole.

Reaction Sources
Use the Reaction Sources node to define mass source terms from one or more chemical
reactions. Both homogeneous reactions as well as heterogeneous reactions occurring
in a porous media can be studied. The node also includes the possibility to pick up
automatically defined source term definitions from a Chemistry physics interface.

REACTIONS
Add an expression for the reaction mass source, Ri, for each individual species present,
except for the one computed from the mass constraint (see Species). Enter a value or
expression in the field for the corresponding species.

Select the Mass transport to other phases check box if mass is leaving or entering the
fluid as a result of the reactions, for instance due to condensation or vaporization in a
porous matrix. In this case the mass source for the species calculated from the mass
constraint can also be specified. The net mass transfer corresponds to the sum of the
mass sources for all species.

REACTING VOLUME
When specifying reaction sources for a species in porous media, the specified mass
source may have the basis of the total volume, or the pore volume. For nonporous
domains, the Reacting Volume setting has no impact.

• For Total volume, the reaction mass source expressions are specified per unit volume
of the model domain.
• For Pore volume, the reaction mass source expressions are specified per unit volume
pore space. In this case the reaction mass sources will be multiplied by the domain
porosity εp (εp equals unity for nonporous domains).

734 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the mass fractions that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation, or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
If required, add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial mass fractions can be specified using a number of quantities. Select the type
of input from the Mixture specification list. Select:

• Mass fractions (the default) to enter mass fractions (ω0,ω1 for example)
• Mole fractions to enter mole fractions (x0,ω1 for example)
• Molar concentrations (SI unit: mol/m3) to enter molar concentrations (c0,ω1 for
example)
• Number densities (SI unit: 1/m3) to enter number densities (n0,ω1 for example)
• Densities (SI unit: kg/m3) to enter densities (ρ0,ω1 for example)

Enter a value or expression in the field for each species except for the one computed
from the mass constraint.

INITIAL MIXTURE DENSITY

When the selecting Molar concentrations, Number densities, or Densities are selected
from the Mixture specification list, the should also be specified. Select Ideal gas or User
defined from the Initial mixture density list.

• For Ideal gas, also specify the Initial pressure p0 and the Initial Temperature T0. Note
that dependent variables solved for are evaluated to zero for initial values. When
solving for pressure or temperature together with the mass fractions, apply the initial
values from the corresponding interfaces here as well.
• For User defined, input a custom for the Initial mixture density ρm0.

Mass Fraction
The Mass Fraction node adds boundary conditions for the species mass fractions. For
example, the following condition specifies the mass fraction of species i: ωi = ωi,0.

Set the mass fractions of all species except the one computed from the mass constraint.
This ensures that the sum of the mass fractions is equal to one (see Species). This node
is available for exterior and interior boundaries.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 735

 MASS FRACTION
Specify the mass fraction for each species individually. Select the check box for the
species to specify the mass fraction, and enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the mass fraction of that species.

MASS TRANSFER TO OTHER PHASES

When using the Reacting Flow coupling feature to model coupled momentum and
mass transport, boundary conditions that results in a nonnegligible mass flux can be
consistently handled by accounting for The Stefan Velocity.

Select Account for Stefan velocity to update the Stefan velocity in accordance with the
prescribed mass fractions. Examples of cases that may benefit from this are, for
example, when modeling surface reactions or phase change on an exterior boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Flux
The Flux node is available on exterior boundaries and can be used to specify the mass
flux. The boundary mass flux for each species is defined in the manner of

– n ⋅ j i = j 0, i (8-8)

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. The prescribed flux
j0,i can contain an arbitrary flux expression. It can for example be used to represent a
heterogeneous reaction or a separation process occurring at the boundary. The flux can
for example be a function of ωi, the temperature, the pressure or even the electric
potential.

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, for example due to a fluid
injection, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including convection. To do
so select Include in the Convection section. In this case the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( j i + ρuω i ) = j 0

736 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

MASS TRANSFER TO OTHER PHASES
When using the Reacting Flow coupling feature to model coupled momentum and
mass transport, boundary conditions that results in a non-negligible mass flux can be
consistently handled by accounting for The Stefan Velocity.

Select Account for Stefan velocity to update the Stefan velocity in accordance with the
prescribed flux. Examples of cases that benefit from this are for example when
modeling surface reactions or phase change on an exterior boundary. The Stefan
velocity represents the mixture velocity resulting from mass fluxes at the wall. This
section is not available when Include is selected in the Convection section.

INWARD FLUX
Specify the Inward flux for each species individually. Select the check box for the species
to prescribe a flux for and enter a value or expression in the corresponding field. To
use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for
the flux of that species. Use a positive value for an inward flux.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a mass flux to or from an exterior
domain (not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example
include a forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass
transport. In this case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

j 0, i = k ω, i ( ω b, i – ω i ) (8-9)

where kω,i is a mass transfer coefficient and ωb,i is the bulk mass fraction, the typical
mass fraction far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Inflow
The Inflow node adds a boundary condition for an inflow boundary, defining the
composition of the mixture. The node is available for exterior boundaries. The mixture
composition can be specified using the following quantities:

• Mass fractions: ωi = ω0,i

• The mole fraction: xi = x0,i
• The molar concentration: ci = c0,i
• The number density, which describes the number of particles per volume: ni = n0,i

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 737

 • The density: ρi = ρ0,i
• The mass flow rates.

The node requires input for all species. (The Mass Fraction node can be used to specify
boundary mass fractions for a subset of the active species in the interface.)

INFLOW
Select a Mixture specification:

• Mass fractions (the default) to enter mass fractions (ω0,ω1, for example)
• Mole fractions to enter mole fractions (x0,ω1 for example)
• Molar concentrations (SI unit: mol/m3) to enter molar concentrations (c0,ω1, for
example)
• Number densities (SI unit: 1/m3) to enter number densities (n0,ω1, for example)
• Densities (SI unit: kg/m3) to enter densities (ρ0,ω1, for example)
• Mass flow rates (SI unit: kg/s) to enter the total mass flow over the boundary
(Jin,ω1, for example)

Enter a value or expression in the field for each species except for the one computed
from the mass constraint.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

No Flux
The No Flux node is the default boundary condition available for exterior boundaries.
It should be used on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically exterior
solid walls where no surface reactions occur. The condition applied for each species
corresponds to

–n ⋅ ji = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary.

Out-of-Plane Flux
The out-of-plane flux node is used to prescribe a flux in an out-of-plane domain, and
it can be used to reduce a model geometry to 2D, or even 1D, when the variation of
mass fraction is small in one or more directions. This could be the case for example

738 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

when the object to model is thin or slender. Figure 8-1shows examples of possible
situations in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied..

jz

jup

jdown

Figure 8-2: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

For a 1D component this node adds a single out-of-plane mass flux j0,z,i for species i.
For a 2D component two fluxes can be prescribed for each species; j0,u,i for the upside
of the domain, and j0,d,i for the downside of the domain.

The fluxes are added as a source contribution to the right-hand side of the transport
equation. For example, in 2D components with diffusion, convection and out-of-plane
flux present, mass transfer of species i is defined by the mass conservation equation

∂
ρ (ω i) + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )ω i + ∇ ⋅ j i = R i + S opf, i , (8-10)
∂t

where Sopf,i is the out-of-plane source for species i

j 0, i j 0, u, i + j 0, d, i
S opf, i = -------- = ----------------------------------- .
dz dz

For external mass transfer on the upside and the downside of the domain, the
out-of-plane flux is

j 0, i = k w, u, i ( w b, u, i – w i ) + k w, d, i ( w b, d, i – w i )

where kω,i is a mass transfer coefficient and ωb,i is the bulk mass fraction, the typical
mass fraction far into the surrounding exterior domain. The prescribed flux, j0, can
include any arbitrary user-specified expressions. It can be a constant or a function of a
dependent variable or independent variables.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 739

 UPSIDE INWARD FLUX
For 1D components, enter the cross-sectional perimeter Pc to get the out-of-plane flux

j 0, i = P c j 0, z, i .

The default value of Pc is the circumference. Either keep the default value, for a circular
cross-section shape, or edit the value to get a user-defined shape of the out-of-plane
cross-section.

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. Specify the Inward
flux for each species individually. Select the Species check box for the species for which
to specify the flux, and enter a value or expression in the corresponding field. To use
another boundary condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the
flux of that species. Use a positive value for an inward flux.

Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a mass flux to or from an exterior
domain (not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example
include a forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass
transport. In this case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

j 0, i = k ω, i ( ω b, i – ω i )

where kω,i is a mass transfer coefficient and ωb,i is the bulk mass fraction, the typical
mass fraction far into the surrounding exterior domain.

DOWNSIDE INWARD FLUX

The available options are General inward flux and External convection. The settings are
the same as for the Upside Inward Flux section.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Out-of-Plane Flux node, see this application example:

Mass Transfer from a Thin Domain: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Tutorials/thin_domain

Outflow
The Outflow node is the preferred boundary condition at outlets where the species are
to be transported out of the model domain. It is useful, for example, in mass transport
models where it is assumed that convection is the dominating effect driving the mass

740 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

flow through the outflow boundary. This node is available for exterior boundaries. The
boundary condition is applied to all species and corresponds to one of the following
equations depending on the selected diffusion model:

• For the Mixture-Averaged Diffusion Model:

m
– n ⋅ ρD i ∇ω i = 0

• For the Fick’s Law Diffusion Model:

f
– n ⋅ ρD i ∇ω i = 0

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric; that is, there is no mass flux in the normal direction across
the boundary:

– n ⋅ N = – n ⋅ ( ρω i u + j i ) = 0

This boundary condition is identical to the No Flux node, but applies to all species and
cannot be applied to individual species. The Symmetry node is available for exterior
boundaries.

Flux Discontinuity
The Flux Discontinuity node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior
boundary:

–n ⋅ ( Nd – Nu ) = N0 N = ( ρω i u + j i )

where the value of N0 specifies the size of the flux jump evaluated from the down to
the upside of the boundary.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
Specify the jump in species mass flux. Use a positive value for increasing flux when
going from the downside to the upside of the boundary. The boundary normal points
in the direction from the downside to the upside of an interior boundary and can be
plotted for visualization.

Select the Species check boxes to specify a flux discontinuity, and enter a value or
expression for the Flux discontinuity N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) in the corresponding field,

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 741

 N0, w1 for example. To use a different boundary condition for a specific species, click
to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity of that species.

Open Boundary
Use the Open Boundary node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both
convective inflow and outflow can occur. Use the node to specify an exterior species
composition on parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the domain. A condition
equivalent to the Outflow node applies to the parts of the boundary where fluid flows
out of the domain. The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated
by a Fluid Flow interface and is entered as Model Inputs.

EXTERIOR COMPOSITION
Enter a value or expression for the species composition. Select:

• Mass fractions (the default) to enter mass fractions (ω0,ω1, for example)
• Mole fractions to enter mole fractions (x0,ω1, for example)
• Molar concentrations (SI unit: mol/m3) to enter molar concentrations (c0,ω1, for
example)
• Number densities (SI unit: 1/m3) to enter number densities (n0,ω1, for example)
and to describe the number of particles per volume n = n0
• Densities (SI unit: kg/m3) to enter densities (ρ0,ω1, for example)

A concentration quantity other than the mass fractions can only be used
when all species are defined.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is assumed so fast that the
equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree
of freedom (the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all
space coordinates.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

742 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
Selecting Equilibrium constant in the list, the following equilibrium condition based on
the species activities and the law of mass action is used

ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ reactants

where νi are the stoichiometric coefficients and the species activities are defined from
the concentration, ci, and the unit activity concentration ca0.

ci
a i = -------
c a0

Enter a value or expression for the dimensionless Equilibrium constant Keq, and the Unit
activity concentration Ca0.

Select User defined from the list to instead enter a manually defined Equilibrium
expression Eeq.

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientν for all participating species. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.
Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

Surface Equilibrium Reaction

Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The kinetics
of the reaction is assumed so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all times.
The node solves for an additional degree of freedom (the mass flux Jeq) to fulfill the
equilibrium condition at all times in all space coordinates along the boundary.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

The settings for this node are the same as for Equilibrium Reaction except for the
setting in the section below.

THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 743

 MASS TRANSFER TO OTHER PHASES
When using the Reacting Flow coupling feature to model coupled momentum and
mass transport, boundary conditions that results in a nonnegligible mass flux can be
consistently handled by accounting for The Stefan Velocity. Select Account for Stefan
velocity to update the Stefan velocity in accordance with the prescribed mass fractions.
Examples of cases that may benefit from this are for example when modeling surface
reactions or phase change on an exterior boundary.

744 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Reacting Flow Multiphysics
Interfaces
The CFD Module includes predefined multiphysics interfaces that couples fluid with
mass transport and reactions.

Selecting a multiphysics interface under the Chemical Species Transport>Reacting Flow

branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow
interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) and a Transport of Concentrated Species interface
are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Reacting Flow. The Reacting Flow feature predefines and controls the couplings
between the separate interfaces in order to facilitate easy set up of models.

In this section:

• The Reacting Laminar Flow Interface

• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features

The Reacting Laminar Flow Interface

The Reacting Laminar Flow ( ) multiphysics interface is used to simulate laminar flow
coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Laminar Flow, and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces. The
Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples fluid flow
and mass transport. The fluid flow can either be free flow or flow in a porous medium.
The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of
comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

THE REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 745

 On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A
Fluid Properties feature is active by default on the entire interface selection. A Porous
Medium feature can be added in order to model flow in porous media by solving the
Brinkman equations.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field.

The Reacting Laminar Flow interface triggers pseudo time stepping for the
flow equations when Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form
in the Fluid Flow interface is set to Automatic from physics.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε ( ) multiphysics interface is used to simulate flow
in the turbulent regime coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, k-ε and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces.
The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples the
fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass transport.
The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of
comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation
k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled

746 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

using wall functions, and reactions within the turbulent flow are modeled using the
eddy dissipation model.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface

The Reacting Turbulent Flow k-ω ( ) multiphysics interface is used to simulate flow
in the turbulent regime coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow k-ω and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces.
The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples fluid
flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass transport. The
species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable
order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow k-ω interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the Wilcox revised
k-ω model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled
using wall functions, and reactions within the turbulent flow are modeled using the
eddy dissipation model.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST ( ) multiphysics interface is used to simulate flow
in the turbulent regime coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, SST and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces.
The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples fluid
flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass transport. The
species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable
order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

THE REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 747

 The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, SST interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the SST model. The
SST model is a low-Reynolds number model which means that it resolves the velocity,
pressure, and mass fractions all the way down to the wall. For that reason this physics
interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The SST model
depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Reactions within the turbulent flow are
modeled using the eddy dissipation model.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε ( ) multiphysics interface is used to simulate
flow in the turbulent regime coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε and Transport of Concentrated Species
interfaces. The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically,
couples fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass
transport. The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are
of comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the AKN
low-Reynolds number k-ε model. The low-Reynolds number model resolves the
velocity, pressure, and mass fractions all the way down to the wall. For that reason this
physics interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The

748 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore
includes a wall distance equation.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Reactions within the turbulent flow are
modeled using the eddy dissipation model.

The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature

Use the Reacting Flow ( ) multiphysics coupling to simulate mass transport and
reactions in a gas or liquid mixture where the fluid flow can be dependent on the
mixture composition. When a Heat Transfer and a Chemistry interface are selected, use
this coupling to simulate heat transfer additionally to mass transport and reactions.

The coupling adds the heat source of reaction when a heat transfer interface is selected.
No additional heat source needs to be defined to account for it in the heat transfer
interface. It also accounts for the multiphysics stabilization terms, for work due to
pressure forces and viscous dissipation.

Select a Fluid Flow interface and a Species transport interface to couple fluid flow with
mass transport. Chemistry and Heat Transfer are optional. They can be set to None when
the coupling is used to simulate isothermal mixtures.

When a Chemistry interface is selected and Heat Transfer is set to None, fluid properties
are taken from the Chemistry interface. Set the Temperature to evaluate the fluid
properties synchronized with all the physics interfaces at the given temperature.

Select a Chemistry interface and Heat Transfer interface in order to account for the heat
of reaction, enthalpy diffusion, viscous heating and mass fluxes contributing to the
heat and energy balance.

When Chemistry is set to None and a Heat Transfer interface is selected, the
coupling is solved in the same way as when no Heat Transfer interface is
selected. Thermodynamic properties are required by the Heat Transfer
interface.

THE REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 749

 The pressure, velocity, and temperature variables of the Reacting Flow
coupling node are set to the Common Model Input values of the Default
Model Inputs node on the complementary selection, that is, all domains
except those from the Selection list. It allows to couple multiple fluid flow
or transport of species interfaces with a single heat transfer interface. See
Default Model Inputs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
for details.

DOMAIN LEVEL SYNCHRONIZATION

The Reacting Flow coupling synchronizes the features from a Chemistry interface, Heat
Transfer interface, Single-Phase Flow, or Brinkman Equations, interface and a
Transport of Concentrated Species interface. When the Chemistry interface is not
selected, the density in the Single-Phase Flow interface is automatically synchronized
to the one defined by the Transport of Concentrated Species interface.

The velocity field used by the Transport of Concentrated Species interface and Heat
Transfer interface is synchronized to the one computed in the Single-Phase Flow
interface.

When a Chemistry interface is selected, the Reacting Flow coupling synchronizes the
definition of the thermal conductivity, density, heat capacity, enthalpy and dynamic
viscosity with the other coupled physics interfaces. The reference temperature is taken
from the Heat Transfer interface.

THE STEFAN VELOCITY

The Reacting Flow coupling feature automatically couples mass transfer on boundaries
and applies a corresponding velocity contribution for the flow. Prescribing a net mass
boundary flux in the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, either using a Flux or
Mass Fraction feature, the Reacting Flow feature computes The Stefan Velocity and
applies this in Wall features using the same selection.

MASS TRANSFER TO OTHER PHASES IN POROUS MEDIA

When coupled to the Brinkman Equations interface, the Reacting Flow node
automatically computes the net mass source or sink in a Reactions (when Mass transfer
to other phases is enabled) node in the Transport of Concentrated Species interface and
adds the corresponding source/sink to the momentum equations of the Fluid and
Matrix Properties domains.

750 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

TURBULENT MASS TRANSFER
When a turbulence model is used, the Reacting Flow coupling applies turbulence
modeling for the mass transport in the following manners:

• Turbulent heat transfer and mass transport are added, defined from the turbulent
viscosity and a turbulent Schmidt number (for more information, see Turbulent
Mass Transport Models).
• Temperature and mass transport wall functions. When a turbulence model using
wall functions is used for the fluid flow, the Reacting Flow coupling automatically
adds wall functions for the temperature and mass transport on the same boundaries
(for more information, see Mass Transport Wall Functions).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nirf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The Reacting Flow coupling is automatically defined on the intersection of the
selections for the coupled interfaces. When modeling porous media transport a
Porous Medium feature, applied on the same domains, is needed in all coupled transport
interfaces. Reacting Flow coupling supports porous media transport in Fluid flow and
Species transport interfaces.

The Selection list displays the domains where the coupling feature is active.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow,
Species transport, Chemistry, Heat Transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

THE REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 751

 The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from a list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.

Click the Go to Source buttons ( ) to move to the main physics interface node for
the selected physics interface.

Click the Show or Hide Physics Properties Settings button ( ) to toggle the display of
physics properties settings affecting the coupling feature. When a turbulence model is
used, turbulent heat and mass transfer is automatically accounted for (see the settings
in the Turbulence section below). Using Reacting Flow, the heat and mass transfer
treatment at walls follows that applied for the fluid flow. Therefore the Wall treatment
setting is also displayed when using a turbulence model. For more information on
turbulent mass transfer at walls, see the section Mass Transport Wall Functions in the
CFD Module User’s Guide.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow, Species transport, Chemistry and Heat
Transfer lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that
would normally default to the once present interface. See Multiphysics
Modeling Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

MASS TRANSPORT TURBULENCE MODEL

When the fluid flow interface uses a turbulence model, select an option from the Mass
transport turbulence model list — Kays-Crawford, High Schmidt Number, or User-defined
turbulent Schmidt number.

For User-defined turbulent Schmidt number, enter a Turbulent Schmidt number ScT
(dimensionless).

The turbulent mass transfer added to the mass fraction equations is defined as

752 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 μT
N i, T = – --------- ∇ω i
Sc T

where μT is the turbulent viscosity defined by the flow interface, and the turbulent
Schmidt number, ScT, depends on the Mass transport turbulence model used.

HEAT TRANSFER TURBULENCE MODEL

This section is available when a Heat Transfer interface is selected and the fluid flow
interface uses a turbulence model. Select an option from the Heat transport turbulence
model list: Kays-Crawford (the default), Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined
turbulent Prandtl number.

For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).

For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number prT
(dimensionless).

When the flow interface uses a RANS turbulence model, the conductive heat flux is
defined as

q = – ( k + k T ) ∇T

with the turbulent thermal conductivity defined as

μT Cp
k T = --------------
Pr T

where μT is defined by the flow interface, and PrT depends on the Heat transport
turbulence model. See Turbulent Conductivity for details.

The Turbulence model type used by the fluid flow interface can be displayed by selecting
the Show or Hide Physics Property Settings button at the right of the Fluid flow list.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

THE REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 753

 LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES

The available physics features for The Transport of Concentrated Species interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of
Concentrated Species Interface.

754 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species
Multiphysics Interfaces
Reacting Flow, Diluted Species is a predefined multiphysics interface, available in the
CFD Module, that couples fluid flow with mass transport and reactions.

Selecting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species under the Chemical Species Transport>Reacting
Flow branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, a Laminar Flow interface and
a Transport of Diluted Species interface are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Reacting Flow, Diluted Species. The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species feature
predefines and controls the couplings between the separate interfaces in order to
facilitate easy set up of models.

In this section:

• The Reacting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species Interface

• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Diluted Species Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω, Diluted Species Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST, Diluted Species Interface
• The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε, Diluted Species Interface
• The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features

The Reacting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species Interface

The Reacting Laminar Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics interface ( ) is used to
simulate laminar flow coupled to transport of dilute solutes in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Laminar Flow, and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces. The Reacting
Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples fluid
flow and mass transport. The fluid flow can either be free flow or flow in a porous
medium. The mass transfer solves for the development of one or several solutes
dissolved in a gas or liquid solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

THE REACTING FLOW, DILUTED SPECIES MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 755

 On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A
Fluid Properties feature is active by default on the entire interface selection. A Porous
Medium feature can be added in order to model flow in porous media by solving the
Brinkman equations.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of

concentrations. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε, Diluted Species Interface

This multiphysics interface e ( ) is used to simulate flow in the turbulent regime
coupled to transport of dilute solutes present in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, k-ε and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces. The
Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically,
couples the fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass
transport. The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D,
2D axial symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation
k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of

concentrations. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω, Diluted Species Interface

This multiphysics interface e ( ) is used to simulate flow in the turbulent regime
coupled to transport of dilute solutes present in a gas or liquid.

756 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

It combines the Turbulent Flow k-ω and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces. The
Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically,
couples fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass
transport. The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are
of comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow k-ω interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the Wilcox revised
k-ω model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of

concentrations. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST, Diluted Species Interface

This multiphysics interface e ( ) is used to simulate flow in the turbulent regime
coupled to transport of dilute solutes present in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, SST and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces. The
Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically,
couples fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass
transport. The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are
of comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, SST interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the SST model. The
SST model is a low-Reynolds number model which means that it resolves the velocity,
pressure, and concentrations all the way down to the wall. For that reason this physics

THE REACTING FLOW, DILUTED SPECIES MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 757

 interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The SST model
depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of

concentrations. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε, Diluted Species Interface

This multiphysics interface e ( ) is used to simulate flow in the turbulent regime
coupled to transport of dilute solutes present in a gas or liquid.

It combines the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces.
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically,
couples fluid flow and mass transport and applies turbulence modeling for the mass
transport. The species transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are
of comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the AKN
low-Reynolds number k-ε model. The low-Reynolds number model resolves the
velocity, pressure, and concentrations all the way down to the wall. For that reason this
physics interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The
AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore
includes a wall distance equation.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of

concentrations. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transport close to solid walls is modeled
using wall functions.

758 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species ( ) multiphysics coupling is used to simulate mass
transport and reactions in a gas or liquid.

DOMAIN LEVEL SYNCHRONIZATION

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species coupling synchronizes the features from a
Single-Phase Flow, or Brinkman Equations, interface and a Transport of Diluted
Species interface. When added, the velocity field used by the Transport of Diluted
Species interface is synchronized to the one computed in the fluid flow interface.

TURBULENT MASS TRANSFER

When a turbulence model is used, the Reacting Flow, Diluted Species coupling applies
turbulence modeling for the mass transport in the following manners:

• Turbulent mass transport is added, defined from the turbulent viscosity and a
turbulent Schmidt number (for more information, see Turbulent Mass Transport
Models).
• Mass transport wall functions. When a turbulence model using wall functions is used
for the fluid flow, the Reacting Flow coupling automatically adds wall functions for
the mass transport on the same boundaries (for more information, see Mass
Transport Wall Functions).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is rfd1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species coupling is automatically defined on the intersection
of the selections for the coupled interfaces.

The Selection list displays the domains where the coupling feature is active.

THE REACTING FLOW, DILUTED SPECIES MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 759

 COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Species transport lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(macOS and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for example Laminar Flow is
deleted, then the Fluid Flow list defaults to None as there is nothing to couple to.

Click the Go to Source buttons ( ) to move to the main physics interface node for
the selected physics interface.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Species transport lists. This is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

TURBULENCE
When the fluid flow interface uses a turbulence model, select an option from the Mass
transport turbulence model list — Kays-Crawford, High Schmidt Number, or User-defined
turbulent Schmidt number.

For User-defined turbulent Schmidt number, enter a Turbulent Schmidt number ScT
(dimensionless).

The turbulent mass transfer added to the concentration equations is defined as

μT
J T, i = – --------- ∇c i
Sc T

760 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

where μT is the turbulent viscosity defined by the flow interface, and the turbulent
Schmidt number, ScT, depends on the Mass transport turbulence model used.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (macOS or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ω
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TURBULENT FLOW, SST

The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, SST interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES

The available physics features for The Transport of Diluted Species interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted Species
Interface in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module User’s Guide.

THE REACTING FLOW, DILUTED SPECIES MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 761

 The Reacting Flow in Porous Media
Interfaces
The CFD Module includes two predefined multiphysics interface that couples fluid
flow in porous media with mass transport and reactions in porous media.

Selecting a multiphysics interface under the Chemical Species Transport>Reacting Flow

in Porous Media branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, a Brinkman
Equations interface combined with either the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media interface or the Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces are added to the
Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature. The multiphysics coupling feature controls the coupling between the separate
interfaces in order to facilitate easy setup of models.

In this section:

• The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated Species Interface
• The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature
• The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species

Interface
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species interface ( ) is used
to study the flow and chemical composition of a gas or liquid moving through the
interstices of a porous medium.

It combines the Brinkman Equations, and Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces. The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling feature, which is
added automatically, couples the fluid flow and mass transport. A Porous Material node,
including a Fluid and a Solid subnode, is also added to the component.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2Daxi and
3D.

762 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Brinkman Equations interface computes the fluid velocity and pressure fields of
single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow regime. A Porous Medium feature
is active by default on the entire interface selection.

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface computes the species
concentration in free and porous media, assuming that the species are solutes,
dissolved in a solvent of significantly higher concentration. A Porous Medium feature is
active by default on the entire interface selection.

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated

Species Interface
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Concentrated Species interface ( ) is
used to study the flow and chemical composition of a gas or liquid moving through
the interstices of a porous medium. The fluid can consist of a mixture of species where
the individual concentrations are of comparable order of magnitude.

It combines the Brinkman Equations, and Transport of Concentrated Species interfaces.

The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling feature, which is added automatically, couples
the fluid flow and mass transport. A Porous Material node is also added to the
component.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2Daxi and
3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Brinkman Equations interface computes the fluid velocity and pressure fields of
single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow regime. A Porous Medium feature
is active by default on the entire interface selection.

The Transport of Concentrated Species in Porous Media interface solves for an arbitrary
number of mass fractions in free and porous media. In the current multiphysics
interface a Porous Medium feature is active by default on the entire interface selection.

The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling Feature

For the settings of this feature see The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species Coupling
Feature in the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module User’s Guide.

THE REACTING FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACES | 763

 The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature
For the settings of this feature see The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module User’s Guide.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

BRINKMAN EQUATIONS
The available physics features for The Brinkman Equations interface are listed in the
Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations Interface
section in the CFD Module User’s Guide.

TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES

The available physics features for The Transport of Diluted Species interface are listed
in the Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted Species
Interface section.

TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES

The available physics features for The Transport of Concentrated Species interface are
listed in the Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Concentrated
Species Interface section.

764 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The Nonisothermal Reacting Flow
Multiphysics Interfaces
Nonisothermal Reacting Flow is a predefined multiphysics interface, available in the
CFD Module, that couples fluid flow and heat transfer with species transport and
reactions.

Selecting an entry in the Chemical Species Transport>Nonisothermal Reacting Flow

branch of the Model Wizard, or Add Physics windows, the following four physics
interfaces are added to the Model Builder:

• Chemistry
• Transport of Concentrated Species
• Laminar Flow, or a turbulent flow equivalent like Turbulent Flow, k-ε.
• Heat Transfer in Fluids
In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Reacting Flow. The Reacting Flow feature predefines and controls the couplings
between the separate interfaces in order to facilitate set up of models.

In this section:

• The Nonisothermal Reacting Laminar Flow Interface

• The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface
• The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface
• The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface
• The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
• The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature
• Physics Interface Features

The Nonisothermal Reacting Laminar Flow Interface

The Nonisothermal Reacting Laminar Flow ( ) multiphysics interface is used to
simulate laminar flow and heat transfer coupled to species transport in a gas or liquid.
This interface requires a license for either the Chemical Reaction Engineering Module,
the Battery Design Module, or the Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module.

THE NONISOTHERMAL REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 765

 It combines the Chemistry, Transport of Concentrated Species, Laminar Flow, and Heat
Transfer in Fluids interfaces. The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is added
automatically, couples fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. The species transport
supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable order of
magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The multiphysics coupling takes into account the heat of reaction, enthalpy diffusion,
and contributing mass fluxes. In addition, the temperature dependency of the chemical
properties and reactions are accounted for.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Chemistry interface defines thermodynamic properties and transport properties of

the fluid. Provided that properties of each species have been defined, composition
dependent mixture properties such as the heat capacity, the density, and the heat
conduction are defined. The Chemistry interface also defines reaction rates for species
involved in the chemical reactions added to the system.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. A Transport Properties feature is active by
default on the entire interface selection

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass. A
Fluid Properties feature is active by default on the entire interface selection.

The Heat Transfer interface solves for conservation of energy. A Fluid feature is active
by default on the entire interface selection.

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε Interface

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ε ( ) multiphysics interface is used to
simulate flow in the turbulent regime, heat transfer, and species transport and in a gas
or liquid. This interface requires a license for either the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module, the Battery Design Module, or the Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module.

It combines the Chemistry, Transport of Concentrated Species, Turbulent Flow, k-ε, and
Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces. The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is

766 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

added automatically, couples fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. The species
transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable order
of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The multiphysics coupling takes into account the heat of reaction, enthalpy diffusion,
and contributing mass fluxes. In addition, the temperature dependency of the chemical
properties and reactions are accounted for.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Chemistry interface defines thermodynamic properties and transport properties of

the fluid. Provided that properties of each species have been defined, composition
dependent mixture properties such as the heat capacity, the density, and the heat
conduction are defined. The Chemistry interface also defines reaction rates for species
involved in the chemical reactions added to the system.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transfer close to walls is modeled using
wall functions

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation
k-ε model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Heat Transfer interface solves for conservation of energy. A Fluid feature is active
by default on the entire interface selection. Heat transfer close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω Interface

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-ω ( ) multiphysics interface is used to
simulate flow in the turbulent regime, heat transfer, and species transport and in a gas
or liquid. This interface requires a license for either the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module, the Battery Design Module, or the Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module.

THE NONISOTHERMAL REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 767

 It combines the Chemistry, Transport of Concentrated Species, Turbulent Flow, k-ω, and
Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces. The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is
added automatically, couples fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. The species
transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable order
of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The multiphysics coupling takes into account the heat of reaction, enthalpy diffusion,
and contributing mass fluxes. In addition, the temperature dependency of the chemical
properties and reactions are accounted for.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Chemistry interface defines thermodynamic properties and transport properties of

the fluid. Provided that properties of each species have been defined, composition
dependent mixture properties such as the heat capacity, the density, and the heat
conduction are defined. The Chemistry interface also defines reaction rates for species
involved in the chemical reactions added to the system.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transfer close to walls is modeled using
wall functions

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-ω interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the Wilcox revised
k-ω model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.

The Heat Transfer interface solves for conservation of energy. A Fluid feature is active
by default on the entire interface selection. Heat transfer close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, SST Interface

The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, k-SST ( ) multiphysics interface is used
to simulate flow in the turbulent regime, heat transfer, and species transport and in a
gas or liquid. This interface requires a license for either the Chemical Reaction

768 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Engineering Module, the Battery Design Module, or the Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module.

It combines the Chemistry, Transport of Concentrated Species, Turbulent Flow, k-SST, and
Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces. The Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling, which is
added automatically, couples fluid flow, heat transfer and mass transfer. The species
transport supports both a mixture, where the concentrations are of comparable order
of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes in a solvent.

The multiphysics coupling takes into account the heat of reaction, enthalpy diffusion,
and contributing mass fluxes. In addition, the temperature dependency of the chemical
properties and reactions are accounted for.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Chemistry interface defines thermodynamic properties and transport properties of

the fluid. Provided that properties of each species have been defined, composition
dependent mixture properties such as the heat capacity, the density, and the heat
conduction are defined. The Chemistry interface also defines reaction rates for species
involved in the chemical reactions added to the system.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transfer close to walls is modeled using
wall functions

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k-SST interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the SST model. The
SST model is a low-Reynolds number model which means that it resolves the velocity,
pressure, and concentrations all the way down to the wall. For that reason this physics
interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The SST model
depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore includes a wall
distance equation..

The Heat Transfer interface solves for conservation of energy. A Fluid feature is active
by default on the entire interface selection. Heat transfer close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

THE NONISOTHERMAL REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 769

 The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε Interface
The Nonisothermal Reacting Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε ( ) multiphysics interface is
used to simulate flow in the turbulent regime, heat transfer, and species transport and
in a gas or liquid. This interface requires a license for either the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module, the Battery Design Module, or the Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer
Module.

It combines the Chemistry, Transport of Concentrated Species,

Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε, and Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces. The Reacting Flow
multiphysics coupling, which is added automatically, couples fluid flow, heat transfer
and mass transfer. The species transport supports both a mixture, where the
concentrations are of comparable order of magnitude, and low-concentration solutes
in a solvent.

The multiphysics coupling takes into account the heat of reaction, enthalpy diffusion,
and contributing mass fluxes. In addition, the temperature dependency of the chemical
properties and reactions are accounted for.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2D axial
symmetry, and 3D.

On the constituent physics interfaces:

The Chemistry interface defines thermodynamic properties and transport properties of

the fluid. Provided that properties of each species have been defined, composition
dependent mixture properties such as the heat capacity, the density, and the heat
conduction are defined. The Chemistry interface also defines reaction rates for species
involved in the chemical reactions added to the system.

The Transport of Concentrated Species interface solves for an arbitrary number of mass
fractions. The species equations include transport by convection, diffusion and,
optionally, migration in an electric field. Mass transfer close to walls is modeled using
wall functions

The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
conservation of mass. The fluid flow turbulence is modeled using the AKN
low-Reynolds number k-e model. The low-Reynolds number model resolves the
velocity, pressure, and concentrations all the way down to the wall. For that reason this
physics interface is suited for studying mass transfer at high Schmidt numbers. The

770 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall, and the interface therefore
includes a wall distance equation.

The Heat Transfer interface solves for conservation of energy. A Fluid feature is active
by default on the entire interface selection. Heat transfer close to walls is modeled
using wall functions.

The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature

For the settings of this feature see The Reacting Flow Coupling Feature.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

CHEMISTRY
The available physics features for the Chemistry interface are listed in the section
Feature Nodes Available for the Chemistry Interface in the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module User’s Guide.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

TURBULENT FLOW
The available physics features for a single-phase flow interface using a turbulence
model, for example the Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface, is listed in the section Domain,
Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD Module User’s
Guide.

THE NONISOTHERMAL REACTING FLOW MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES | 771

 TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES
The available physics features for the Transport of Concentrated Species interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of
Concentrated Species Interface.

HEAT TRANSFER
The available physics features for the Heat Transfer interface are listed in the section
The Heat Transfer Features in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

772 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

T he o r y f o r t he Tran sp ort of D i l u t ed
S pe c i e s Inte r f a c e
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface provides a predefined modeling
environment for studying the evolution of chemical species transported by diffusion
and convection. The physics interface assumes that all species present are dilute; that
is, that their concentration is small compared to a solvent fluid or solid. As a rule of
thumb, a mixture containing several species can be considered dilute when the
concentration of the solvent is more than 90 mol%. Due to the dilution, mixture
properties such as density and viscosity can be assumed to correspond to those of the
solvent.

When studying mixtures that are not dilute, the mixture and transport properties
depend on the composition, and a different physics interface is recommended. See The
Transport of Concentrated Species Interface in the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module User’s Guide for more information.

Fick’s law governs the diffusion of the solutes, dilute mixtures, or solutions, while the
phenomenon of ionic migration is sometimes referred to as electrokinetic flow. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface supports the simulations of chemical species
transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D.

In this section:

• Adding Transport Through • Mass Balance Equation

Migration • Mass Sources for Species Transport
• Convective Term Formulation • Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
• Crosswind Diffusion • Supporting Electrolytes
• Danckwerts Inflow Boundary • References
Condition
• Equilibrium Reaction Theory

Note: Some features explained in this section require certain add-on modules. For
details see https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 773

 The section also includes the theory for The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media Interface:

• Adsorption • Mass Balance Equation for

• Convection in Porous Media Transport of Diluted Species in
Porous Media
• Diffusion in Porous Media
• Mass Transport in Fractures
• Dispersion
• Reactions

Mass Balance Equation

The default node attributed to the Transport of Diluted Species interface models
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection and solves the mass
conservation equation for one or more chemical species i:

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i (8-11)
∂t

Equation 8-11 in its form above includes the transport mechanisms diffusion and
convection. If Migration in Electric Field is activated (only available in some add-on
products), the migration mechanism will be added to the equation as well. See more
details in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

• ci is the concentration of the species (SI unit: mol/m3)

• Di denotes the diffusion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• Ri is a reaction rate expression for the species (SI unit: mol/(m3·s))
• u is the mass averaged velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• Ji is the mass flux diffusive flux vector (SI unit: mol/(m2·s))

The mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), is
associated with the mass balance equation above and used in boundary conditions and
flux computations. The Transport of Diluted Species interface always includes mass
transport due to molecular diffusion. In this case the mass flux Ji defines the diffusive
flux vector

J i = – D ∇c i (8-12)

An input field for the diffusion coefficient is available.

774 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

When Migration in Electric Fields is activated, the migration term is also added to
the diffusive flux vector as shown in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

The third term on the left side of Equation 8-11 describes the convective transport due
to a velocity field u. This field can be expressed analytically or obtained from coupling
the physics interface to one that solves for fluid flow, such as Laminar Flow. Note that
all fluid flow interfaces solve for the mass averaged velocity.

On the right-hand side of the mass balance equation (Equation 8-11), Ri represents a
source or sink term, typically due to a chemical reaction or desorption on a porous
matrix. To specify Ri, another node must be added to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface — the Reaction node for example, which includes an input field for specifying
a reaction expression using the variable names of all participating species.

Equilibrium Reaction Theory

The feature Equilibrium Reaction is described in this section. A chemical equilibrium
reaction system is defined by the stoichiometry of the reaction and the relation
between the chemical activities of the chemical species participating in the reaction (the
equilibrium condition).

The kinetics of the reaction is so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all
times in all space coordinates.

The equilibrium condition is commonly based on the stoichiometric coefficients,

νi (dimensionless), of the reaction; the species activities of the reacting species
ai (dimensionless); and an equilibrium constant, Keq (1) according to:

ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ reactants

where the species activities are defined as

ci
a i = γ c, i -------
c a0

where ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3) is the standard molarity, and γc,i (dimensionless) an
activity coefficient.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 775

 Defining the stoichiometric coefficients positive for products and negative for
reactants, the above equilibrium condition can also be written:

νi
K eq = ∏ ai
i

The Equilibrium Reaction node solves for a reaction rate so that the equilibrium
condition is always fulfilled in the domain. It is available for the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module; Battery Design Module; Corrosion Module; Electrochemistry
Module; Electrodeposition Module; and Fuel Cell & Electrolyzer Module.

γc,i is set to unity when the Equilibrium constant is selected on the

Settings window. For nonunity activity coefficients, a user defined
equilibrium condition can be used.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Contradictory constraints arise if the boundary conditions for concentrations or
activities are set so that the domain equilibrium condition is not fulfilled. Special
treatment is therefore needed at Inflow boundaries, where the concentrations are set
for all species in the mass transport interfaces.

One way of avoiding competing constraints on an inflow boundary is to add an

additional reaction coordinate degree of freedom, solved for to create a set of modified
inflow concentrations that fulfill the domain equilibrium condition. The reaction
coordinate gives rise to a concentration shift, which is the offset to the inflow
concentrations provided by the user. The shift for each species obeys the stoichiometry
of the reaction and the equilibrium expression. The modified inflow concentrations are
then used in the boundary conditions for the domain mass transport equations. The
resulting modified inflow concentrations can be seen as the stationary solution for a
batch reactor with the user inflow concentrations as initial concentrations. In addition,
the domain reaction rate degree of freedom of the equilibrium reaction is constrained
to zero on all Inflow boundaries.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND CONCENTRATION BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
No special treatment is made with regards to input concentration values of the
Concentration boundary node. Using this feature, you can explicitly set one or a set of
concentrations, and the equilibrium condition acts on the rest of the concentrations.

776 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

However, there is no solution to the problem if more concentrations than the number
of species minus the number of equilibrium reactions are set using this feature.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

Spurious oscillations may occur in a time-dependent problem if the initial conditions
do not fulfill the equilibrium condition. Since equilibrium reactions are assumed to be
infinitely fast, the solution is to initialize the problem using an additional study step,
solving for a stationary problem with all nonequilibrium reaction rates set to zero.
Manual scaling of the reaction rate dependent variables is needed in this study step.

Convective Term Formulation

The default node attributed to The Transport of Diluted Species Interface assumes
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection (depending on the
modules licensed, a check box to activate migration is available) and implements the
mass balance equation in Equation 8-11.

There are two ways to present a mass balance where chemical species transport occurs
through diffusion and convection. These are the nonconservative and conservative
formulations of the convective term:

∂c
nonconservative: ----- + u ⋅ ∇c = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (8-13)
∂t

∂c
conservative: ----- + ∇ ⋅ ( cu ) = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (8-14)
∂t

and each is treated slightly differently by the solver algorithms. In these equations
Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) is the diffusive flux vector, R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) is a
production or consumption rate expression, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the solvent velocity
field. The diffusion process can be anisotropic, in which case D is a tensor.

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, c∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation above. This is in fact the default
formulation in this physics interface. To switch between the two formulations, click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 777

 Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
Remove the convection term from Equation 8-13 and Equation 8-14 by clearing the
Convection check box in the Transport Mechanisms section for The Transport of
Diluted Species Interface. The equation then becomes

∂----c-
= ∇ ⋅ Ji + R
∂t

Mass Sources for Species Transport

Note: The features below are only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a
detailed overview of which features are available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

There are two types of mass sources in the Transport of Diluted Species interface: point
sources and line sources.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by assuming a mass injection/ejection, Q c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p,c
(SI unit: mol/s), this can be expressed as

·
lim  Qc = q· p,c (8-15)
δV → 0
δV

An alternative way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object’s volume need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p,c test ( c )
·
is added at a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 8-15, Q c must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the
concentration also tends to plus or minus infinity.

778 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 8-15 corresponds to a finite

concentration at a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region
around the point. The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of
the source. A finer mesh gives a smaller affected region but also a more extreme
concentration value. It is important not to mesh too finely around a point source since
this can result in unphysical concentration values. It can also have a negative effect on
the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q l,c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross section δS and then letting δS tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l,c (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

·
lim  Ql,c = q· l,c (8-16)
δS → 0
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is injected/
extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass source,
but requires that effects resulting from the physical object’s volume are neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l,c test ( c )

is added on lines in 3D or at points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added on the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added on geometrical lines in 2D since those
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 779

 For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Battery Design Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Adding Transport Through Migration

Note: Migration is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a detailed
overview of which features are available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

In addition to transport due to convection and diffusion, the Transport of Diluted

Species interface supports ionic species transport by migration. This is done by
selecting the Migration in Electric Field check box under the Transport Mechanisms
section for the physics interface. The mass balance then becomes:

∂c i
+ ∇ ⋅ ( – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i F c i ∇V + c i u ) = R i (8-17)
∂t

where

• ci (SI unit: mol/ m3) denotes the concentration of species i

• Di (SI unit: m2/s) is the diffusion coefficient of species i
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity
• F (SI unit: A·s/mol) refers to Faraday’s constant
• V (SI unit: V) denotes the electric potential
• zi (dimensionless) is the charge number of the ionic species, and
• um,i (SI unit: mol·s/kg) is its ionic mobility

In this case the diffusive flux vector is

780 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 J i = – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i Fc i ∇V

The velocity, u, can be a computed fluid velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface or
a specified function of the spatial variables x, y, and z. The potential can be provided
by an expression or by coupling the system of equations to a current balance, such as
the Electrostatics interface. Sometimes it is assumed to be a supporting electrolyte
present, which simplifies the transport equations. In that case, the modeled charged
species concentration is very low compared to other ions dissolved in the solution.
Thus, the species concentration does not influence the solution’s conductivity and the
net charge within the fluid.

The Nernst–Einstein relation can in many cases be used for relating the species
mobility to the species diffusivity according to

Di
u m, i = --------
RT

where R (SI unit: J/(mol·K)) is the molar gas constant and T (SI unit: K) is the
temperature.

Note: In the Nernst–Planck Equations interface, the ionic species contribute to the
charge transfer in the solution. It includes an electroneutrality condition and also
computes the electric potential field in the electrolyte. For more information, see
Theory for the Nernst–Planck Equations Interface. This interface is included in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

Supporting Electrolytes
In electrolyte solutions, a salt can be added to provide a high electrolyte conductivity
and decrease the ohmic losses in a cell. These solutions are often called supporting
electrolytes, buffer solutions, or carrier electrolytes. The added species, a negative and
a positive ion pair, predominates over all other species. Therefore, the supporting
electrolyte species can be assumed to dominate the current transport in the solution.
In addition, the predominant supporting ions are usually selected so that they do not
react at the electrode surfaces since the high conductivity should be kept through the
process, that is, they should not be electro-active species. This also means that the
concentration gradients of the predominant species in a supporting electrolyte are
usually negligible.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 781

 Modeling and solving for a supporting electrolyte in the Electrostatics or Secondary
Current Distribution interfaces will give a potential distribution that drives the
migration in the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The current density vector is proportional to the sum of all species fluxes as expressed
by Faraday’s law:

i = F  zi Ni
i

The electroneutrality condition ensures that there is always a zero net charge at any
position in a dilute solution. Intuitively, this means that it is impossible to create a
current by manually pumping positive ions in one direction and negative ions in the
other. Therefore, the convective term is canceled out to yield the following expression
for the electrolyte current density, where j denotes the supporting species:

 – z j u m , j F c j ∇φ
2
i = F (8-18)
j

Equation 8-18 is simply Ohm’s law for ionic current transport and can be simplified to

i = – κ ∇φ (8-19)

where κ is the conductivity of the supporting electrolyte. A current balance gives the
current and potential density in the cell

∇⋅i = 0

which, in combination with Equation 8-19, yields:

∇ ⋅ ( – κ ∇φ ) = 0 (8-20)

Equation 8-20 can be easily solved using the Electrostatics or Secondary Current
Distribution interface and, when coupled to the Transport in Diluted Species interface,
the potential distribution shows up in the migration term.

Crosswind Diffusion
Transport of diluted species applications can often result in models with a very high
cell Péclèt number — that is, systems where convection or migration dominates over
diffusion. Streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are of paramount importance
to obtain physically reasonable results. The Transport of Diluted Species interface

782 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

provides two crosswind diffusion options using different formulations. Observe that
crosswind diffusion makes the equation system nonlinear even if the transport
equation is linear.

DO CARMO AND GALEÃO

This is the formulation described in Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The method reduces over- and undershoots to a
minimum, even for anisotropic meshes.

In some cases, the resulting nonlinear equation system can be difficult to converge.
This can happen when the cell Péclèt number is very high and the model contains
many thin layers, such as contact discontinuities. You then have three options:

• Refine the mesh, especially in regions with thin layers.

• Use a nonlinear solver with a constant damping factor less than one.
• Switch to the Codina crosswind formulation.

CODINA
The Codina formulation is described in Ref. 1. It adds diffusion strictly in the direction
orthogonal to the streamline direction. Compared to the do Carmo and Galeão
formulation, the Codina formulation adds less diffusion but is not as efficient at
reducing over- and undershoots. It also does not work as well for anisotropic meshes.
The advantage is that the resulting nonlinear system is easier to converge and that
underresolved gradients are less smeared out.

Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition

Constraining the composition to fixed values at an inlet to a reactor may sometimes
result in issues with unreasonably high reaction rates or singularities at the inlet
boundary. These problems may many times be mitigated by using a flux boundary
condition instead, based on the upstream concentrations and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. In chemical engineering, this type of flux boundary condition is also known
as a Danckwerts condition.

Use the Danckwerts condition to specify inlet conditions for domains where high
reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity to the inlet (Ref. 2).

Given an upstream concentration ci,0, the Danckwerts inflow boundary condition

prescribed the total flux as

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 783

 n ⋅ ( J i + uc i ) = n ⋅ ( uc i, 0 ) (8-21)

Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media

VARIABLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

The following equations for the molar concentrations, ci, describe the transport of
solutes in a variably saturated porous medium for the most general case, when the pore
space is primarily filled with liquid but also contain pockets or immobile gas:

∂ θ ∂
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + (θ g c G, i) + u ⋅ ∇c i =
∂t l i ∂t ∂t (8-22)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D , i + D e , i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

On the left-hand side of Equation 8-22, the first three terms correspond to the
accumulation of species within the liquid, solid, and gas phases, while the last term
describes the convection due to the velocity field u (SI unit: m/s).

In Equation 8-22 ci denotes the concentration of species i in the liquid (SI unit: mol/
m3), cP, i the amount adsorbed to solid particles (moles per unit dry weight of the
solid), and cG, i the concentration of species i in the gas phase.

The equation balances the mass transport throughout the porous medium using the
porosity εp, the liquid volume fraction θl; the dry bulk density, ρ = (1 − εs)ρs, and the
solid phase density ρs.

For saturated porous media, the liquid volume fraction θl is equal to the porosity εp,
but for unsaturated porous media, they are related by the saturation s as θl = εps. The
resulting gas volume fraction in the case of an unsaturated porous medium is

θ g = ε p – θ l = ( 1 – s )ε p

On the right-hand side of Equation 8-22, the first term introduces the spreading of
species due to mechanical mixing resulting from the porous media (dispersion), as well
as from diffusion and volatilization to the gas phase. The dispersion tensor is denoted
DD (SI unit: m2/s) and the effective diffusion by De (SI unit: m2/s).

The last two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 8-22 describe production or
consumption of the species; Ri is a reaction rate expression which can account for
reactions in the liquid, solid, or gas phase, and Si is an arbitrary source term, for
example due to a fluid flow source or sink.

784 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adsorption
The time evolution of the adsorption, the solute transport to or from the solid phase,
is defined by assuming that the amount of solute adsorbed to the solid, cP,i, is a
function of the concentration in the fluid ci. This implies that the solute concentration
in the liquid and solid phase are in instant equilibrium. The adsorption term can be
expanded to give

∂c P, i ∂c i ∂ε p ∂c i ∂ε p
∂ ρc = ρK P,i – c P, i ρ s (8-23)
( P, i ) = ρ – c P, i ρ s ∂ t ∂t
∂t ∂ ci ∂ t ∂t

where KP,i = ∂cP,i/∂ci is the adsorption isotherm.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process where a solute species in the liquid is transported to the
gas phase due to vaporization. Assuming that the amount of solute in the gas phase,
cG,i, is a linear function of the liquid phase concentration, the volatilization term is
defined as

∂c G, i ∂c i ∂θ g ∂c i ∂θ g
∂ = θ g k G, i + k G, i c i (8-24)
θ g c G, i = θ g + k G, i c i ∂ t ∂t
∂t ∂ c i ∂ t ∂ t

where kG,i = ∂cG,i/∂ci is the linear volatilization.

SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

In the case of transport in a saturated porous medium, θl = εp, and the governing
equations are

∂ ε
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + u ⋅ ∇c i = ∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i (8-25)
∂t p i ∂t

Convection in Porous Media

Convection (also called advection) describes the movement of a species, such as a
pollutant, with the bulk fluid velocity. The velocity field u corresponds to a superficial
volume average over a unit volume of the porous medium, including both pores and
matrix. This velocity is sometimes called Darcy velocity, and defined as volume flow

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 785

 rates per unit cross section of the medium. This definition makes the velocity field
continuous across the boundaries between porous regions and regions with free flow.

The velocity field to be used in the Model Inputs section on the physics
interface can, for example, be prescribed using the velocity field from a
Darcy’s Law or a Brinkman Equations interface.

The average linear fluid velocities ua, provides an estimate of the fluid velocity within
the pores:

u
u a = ----- Saturated
εp
u
u a = ---- Unsaturated
θl

where εp is the porosity and θl = sεp the liquid volume fraction, and s the saturation,
a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

Figure 8-3: A block of a porous medium consisting of solids and the pore space between the
solid grains. The average linear velocity describes how fast the fluid moves within the pores.
The Darcy velocity attributes this flow over the entire fluid-solid face.

CONVECTIVE TERM FORMULATION

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface includes two formulations
of the convective term. The conservative formulation of the species equations in
Equation 8-22 is written as:

786 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 ∂ ( θ c ) + ∂ ( ρc ) + ∂ (θ c ) + ∇ ⋅ uc =
P, i ∂ t g G, i
∂t l i ∂t i
(8-26)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, ci∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation described in Equation 8-22.

When using the nonconservative formulation, which is the default, the fluid is assumed
incompressible and divergence free: ∇ ⋅ u = 0. The nonconservative formulation
improves the stability of systems coupled to a momentum equation (fluid flow
equation).

To switch between the two formulations, click the Show button ( ) and
select Advanced Physics Options. In the section Advanced Settings select
either Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The
conservative formulation should be used for compressible flow.

Diffusion in Porous Media

The effective diffusion in porous media, De, depends on the structure of the porous
material and the phases involved. Dependent on whether the transport of diluted
species occurs in free flow, saturated or unsaturated porous media, the effective
diffusivity is defined as:

De = DF Free Flow
εp
D e = ----- D L Saturated Porous Media
τL
θl
D e = ----- D L Unsaturated Porous Media
τL
θl θg
D e = ----- D L + ------ k G D G Unsaturated with Volatilization
τL τG

Here DF, DL, and DG are the single-phase diffusion coefficients for the species diluted
in a fluid, a pure liquid, and a gas phase, respectively (SI unit: m2/s), and τF, τL, and
τG are the corresponding tortuosity factors (dimensionless).

The tortuosity factor accounts for the reduced diffusivity due to the fact that the solid
grains impede Brownian motion. The interface provides predefined expressions to

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 787

 compute the tortuosity factors in partially saturated porous media according to the
Millington and Quirk model (Ref. 12):

–7 ⁄ 3 2 –7 ⁄ 3 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

and Bruggeman model

–5 ⁄ 2 2 –5 ⁄ 2 2
τL = θl εp , τG = θg εp

For saturated porous media θl = εp. The fluid tortuosity for the Millington and Quirk
model is

–1 ⁄ 3
τL = εp

and for the Bruggeman model the tortuosity is defined as

–1 ⁄ 2
τL = εp

User defined expressions for the tortuosity factor can also be applied.

Dispersion
The contribution of dispersion to the mixing of species typically overshadows the
contribution from molecular diffusion, except when the fluid velocity is very small.

The spreading of mass, as a fluid travel through a porous medium is caused by several
contributing effects. Local variations in fluid velocity lead to mechanical mixing
referred to as dispersion occurs because the fluid in the pore space flows around solid
particles, so the velocity field varies within pore channels. The spreading in the
direction parallel to the flow, or longitudinal dispersivity, typically exceeds the
transverse dispersivity from up to an order of magnitude. Being driven by the
concentration gradient alone, molecular diffusion is small relative to the mechanical
dispersion, except at very low fluid velocities.

788 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Figure 8-4: Spreading of fluid around solid particles in a porous medium.

The dispersion is controlled through the dispersion tensor DD. The tensor
components can either be given by user-defined values or expressions or derived from
the directional dispersivities.

Using the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities in 2D, the dispersivity tensor
components are (Ref. 9):

2 2
ui uj
D Dii = α L ------ + α T ------
u u

ui uj
D Dij = D Dji = ( α L – α T ) -----------
u

In these equations, DDii (SI unit: m2/s) are the principal components of the
dispersivity tensor, and DDji and DDji are the cross terms. The parameters αL and αT
(SI unit: m) specify the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities; and ui (SI unit: m/
s) stands for the velocity field components.

In order to facilitate modeling of stratified porous media in 3D, the tensor formulation
by Burnett and Frind (Ref. 10) can be used. Consider a transverse isotropic media,
where the strata are piled up in the z direction, the dispersivity tensor components are:

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 789

 2 2 2
u v w
D Lxx = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
v u w
D Lyy = α 1 ------ + α 2 ------ + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
w u v
D Lzz = α 1 ------- + α 3 ------ + α 3 ------
u u u (8-27)
uv
D Lxy = D Lyx = ( α 1 – α 2 ) -------
u
uw
D Lxz = D Lzx = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u
vw
D Lyz = D Lzy = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u

In Equation 8-27 the fluid velocities u, v, and w correspond to the components of the
velocity field u in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and α1 (SI unit: m) is the
longitudinal dispersivity. If z is the vertical axis, α2 and α3 are the dispersivities in the
transverse horizontal and transverse vertical directions, respectively (SI unit: m).
Setting α2 = α3 gives the expressions for isotropic media shown in Bear (Ref. 9 and
Ref. 11).

Adsorption
As species travel through a porous medium they typically attach to (adsorb), and
detach (desorb) from the solid phase, which slows chemical transport through the
porous medium. Adsorption and desorption respectively reduces or increases species
concentrations in the fluid. The adsorption properties vary between chemicals, so a
plume containing multiple species can separate into components (Ref. 6). The
Adsorption feature includes four predefined and one user defined relationships to
predict the solid concentrations, cPi from the concentration in the liquid phase, ci:

790 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 KL c
c P = c Pmax -------------------- Langmuir
1 + KL c
c N
c P = K F  -------- Freundlich
 c ref
bT c (8-28)
c P = c Pmax ---------------------------------------------- Toth
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------- BET
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

The above equations contains the following parameters:

• Freundlich: Freundlich constant KF (SI unit:·mol/kg), Freundlich exponent NF

(dimensionless), and reference concentration cref (SI unit: mol/m3).
• Langmuir: Langmuir constant KL (SI unit: m3/mol), and adsorption maximum
cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• Toth: Toth constant bT (SI unit: m3/mol), Toth exponent NT (dimensionless), and
adsorption maximum cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• BET (Braunauer-Emmett-Teller): BET constant KB (dimensionless), and a
monolayer adsorption capacity c0 (SI unit: mol/kg) and a Saturation concentration,
cS(SI unit: mol/m3).

These predefined expressions are adsorption isotherms that describe the amount of
species sorbed to the solid. Defined at equilibrium, the switch between liquid and solid
phases is instantaneous.

Using a Species Source feature, arbitrary expressions can be entered to define, for
example, nonequilibrium and temperature-dependent adsorption laws, including
those set out by Fetter (Ref. 7) and Bear and Verruijt (Ref. 8).

The retardation factor, RF, describes how adsorption slows the solute velocity, uc,
relative to the average linear velocity of the fluid, ua, as in

ρ b ∂c P ua
RF = 1 + ----- -------- = -----
θ ∂c uc

If the contaminant moves at the average linear velocity of the fluid for RF = 1. For
RF > 1, the contaminant velocity is smaller than the fluid velocity owing to residence
time on solids.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 791

 Reactions
Chemical reactions of all types influence species transport in porous media. Examples
include biodegradation, radioactive decay, transformation to tracked products,
temperature- and pressure-dependent functions, exothermic reactions, and
endothermic reactions. The reactions represent change in species concentration per
unit volume porous medium per time. Reaction terms are used on the right-hand side
of the governing equation to represent these processes. For reactions in a fluid phase,
multiply the expression by the fluid volume fraction θ. Similarly, solid phase reaction
expressions include the bulk density, ρb, and gas phase reactions include the gas
volume fraction, av.

The following expressions define some common types of reactions:

ln 2
R Li = – θ --------- c i Radioactive decay — liquid
λ Li
ln 2 ∂c Pi
R Pi = – ρ b ---------  ---------- c i Radioactive decay — solid
λ Pi ∂c i
∂c Gi
R Gi = – --------- a v  ----------- c i Radioactive decay — gas
ln 2
λ Gi  ∂c 
R Lk = θζ Li c i Creation from parent c Li — liquid
∂c Pi
R Pk = ρ b ζ Pi  ---------- c i Creation from sorbed parent c Pi — solid
∂c i
∂c Gi
R Gk = – ζa v  ----------- c i Reaction — gas
∂c

where λ is the chemical half life, ζ is a reaction rate, and the subscripts L, P, and G
denote liquid, solid, and gas phases, respectively. In the equations, the reactions either
depend on liquid concentration ci or solid phase concentrations cPi obtained using the
sorption derivative with ci or gas phase concentration cGi depending on the gas volume
fraction, the volatilization, and the liquid concentration.

Reaction rates can vary with results from other equations in your model, such as
temperature. For example, enter the Arrhenius rate law given in Ref. 13:

Ea ( T – TR )
ζ T = ζ R exp ------------------------------ (8-29)
R u TT R

792 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

In Equation 8-29, T denotes the current absolute temperature, TR denotes the
reference absolute temperature, Ea is the activation energy, and Ru is the universal gas
constant.

Mass Transport in Fractures

When thin fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster along the
fracture than in the surrounding media. The transport of chemical species therefore
also occur also faster in the direction of the fractures.

The fluid flow in a fracture can be modeled using Darcy’s law formulated in a thin
sheet of porous medium (a fracture):

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

Here u is the tangential Darcy velocity, κ is the fracture permeability, μ the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and ∇tp is the tangential gradient of the fluid pressure.

The equation to solve for mass transport of species ci in a thin fracture, embedded in
a porous media, is derived from Equation 8-22. The resulting equation is:

∂ρ b c P, i ∂ε p c i
d fr  ------------------ + ------------- + ∇ t ⋅ ( D e, i ∇ t c i ) + u ⋅ ∇ t c i = d fr R i + d fr S i + n 0 (8-30)
∂t ∂t

Here dfr is the fracture thickness, cP, i the amount of species adsorbed to (or desorbed
from) the porous matrix (moles per unit dry weight of the solid), εp is the fracture
porosity, and De is the effective diffusivity. The first two terms on the right hand side
represent source terms from reactions, and n0 corresponds to out-of plane flux from
the adjacent porous domain.

In order to arrive at the tangential differential equation, the gradient is split into the
contributions normal and tangential to the fracture:

∇c i = ∇ n c i + ∇ t c i

The normal gradient is defined in the direction normal to the boundary representing
the fracture and the tangential gradient is defined along the boundary. Assuming that
the variations in the normal (thin) direction of the fracture are negligible compared to
those in the tangential direction, the gradient is simplified as:

∇c i = ∇ t c i

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 793

 Using The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface, the transport along
fracture boundaries alone is solved for. In this case the transport in the surrounding
porous media neglected and the out-of plane flux n0 vanishes.

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 8-30. See for more information about the physics interface
solving the equation on boundaries only.

References
1. R. Codina, “A discontinuity-capturing crosswind-dissipation for the finite element
solution of the convection-diffusion equation”, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 110, pp. 325–342, 1993.

2. P.V. Danckwerts, “Continuous flow systems: Distribution of residence times”,

Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, 1953.

3. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

4. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

5. D.E Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, ISBN-13:

978-1483130262, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1986.

6. D.M. Mackay, D.L. Freyberg, P.V. Roberts, and J.A. Cherry, “A Natural Gradient
Experiment on Solute Transport in a Sand Aquifer: 1. Approach and Overview of
Plume Movement”, Water Resourc. Res., vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 2017–2030, 1986.

7. C.W. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, 1999.

8. J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, D. Reidel

Publishing, 1994.

9. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

10. R.D. Burnett and E.O. Frind, “An Alternating Direction Galerkin Technique for
Simulation of Groundwater Contaminant Transport in Three Dimensions: 2.
Dimensionality Effects”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 695–705, 1987.

11. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

794 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

12. R.J. Millington and J.M. Quirk, “Permeability of Porous Solids”, Trans. Faraday
Soc., vol. 57, pp. 1200–1207, 1961.

13. I. Langmuir, “Chemical Reactions at Low Temperatures”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,

vol. 37, 1915.

14. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

About Turbulent Mixing

A flow field obtained using a turbulence model does not explicitly contain the small
eddies. These unresolved eddies still have a profound effect on the species transport,
an effect known as turbulent mixing.

The Transport of Diluted Species interface and the Transport of Concentrated Species
interface support the inclusion of turbulent mixing via the gradient-diffusion
hypothesis which adds the following contribution to the diffusion coefficient tensor:

νT
---------
-I (8-31)
Sc T

where νT is the turbulent kinematic viscosity, ScT is the turbulent Schmidt number and
I is the unit matrix. While having the form of a diffusive contribution, Equation 8-31
really models a convective phenomenon and it can therefore only be applied along with
convection.

The Schmidt number is typically given a value between 0.7 and 0.72, but it can range
between 0.3 and 1.3 (at least) depending on the application.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 795

 Theory for the Transport of
Concentrated Species Interface
The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface theory is described in this section:

• Multicomponent Mass Transport

• Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation
• Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law Approximation
• Multicomponent Thermal Diffusion
• Turbulent Mixing
• Regularization of Reaction Rate Expression
• References for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface

Multicomponent Mass Transport

Suppose a reacting flow consists of a mixture with i = 1, …, Q species and j = 1, …, N
reactions. Equation 8-2 then describes the mass transport for an individual species:

∂ ρω
( i ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρω i u ) = – ∇ ⋅ j i + R i (8-32)
∂t

where, ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) denotes the mixture density and u (SI unit: m/s) the mass
averaged velocity of the mixture. The remaining variables are specific for each of the
species, i, being described by the mass transfer equation:

• ωi is the mass fraction (1)

• ji (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)) is the mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, and
• Ri (SI unit: kg/ (m3·s)) is the rate expression describing its production or
consumption.

The relative mass flux vector ji can include contributions due to molecular diffusion
and thermal diffusion.

Summation of the transport equations over all present species gives Equation 8-33 for
the conservation of mass

796 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 ∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (8-33)
∂t

assuming that
Q Q Q

 ωi = 1 ,  ji = 0 ,  Ri = 0
i=1 i=1 i=1

Using the mass conservation equation, the species transport for an individual species,
i, is given by:

ρ ∂ ( ω i ) + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )ω i = – ∇ ⋅ j i + R i (8-34)
∂t

Q − 1 of the species equations are independent and possible to solve for using
Equation 8-34. To compute the mass fraction of the remaining species, COMSOL
Multiphysics uses the fact that the sum of the mass fractions is equal to 1:
Q

ω1 = 1 –  ωi (8-35)
i=2

Multicomponent Diffusion: Mixture-Averaged Approximation

The mixture-averaged diffusion model assumes that the relative mass flux due to
molecular diffusion is governed by a Fick’s law type approximation.

Assuming that the diffusive flux, relative to the mass averaged velocity, is proportional
to the mole fraction gradient, the mass flux is defined as:

m ∇x i
j md, i = – ρ i D i --------- (8-36)
xi

Here ρi is the density, and xi the mole fraction of species i. Using the definition of the
species density and mole fraction

ωi
ρ i = ρω i , x i = ------- M
Mi

Equation 8-36 can be expressed in terms of the mass fractions (ωi) in the manner of

m ∇M
j md, i = –  ρD i ∇ω i + ρω i D i ---------
m
 M

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 797

 Using Equation 8-36 together with the Maxwell–Stefan equations, where isobaric and
isothermal conditions have been assumed, the following expression for the
mixture-averaged diffusion coefficients can be derived (Ref. 3):

m 1 – ωi
D i = -------------------------- (8-37)
xk

N
---------
k≠iD
ik

If instead the diffusive flux (relative to the mass averaged velocity) is assumed
proportional to the mass fraction gradient, the mass flux is defined as:

m* ∇ω i m*
j md, i = – ρ i D i ---------- = – ρD i ∇ω i (8-38)
ωi

For this assumption, using Equation 8-38 together with the Maxwell–Stefan
equations, also assuming isobaric and isothermal conditions, the following expression
for the mixture-averaged diffusion coefficients can be derived (Ref. 3):

1 xk xi ωk
k ≠ i --------
D ik 1 – ω i k ≠ i D ik
N N
----------- = - + --------------- --------- (8-39)
m*
Di

THE MIXTURE-AVERAGED DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT

When using the mixture-averaged model, the diffusion is proportional to a single
diffusion coefficient. The coefficient describes the diffusion of species i relative to the
remaining mixture and is referred to as the mixture-averaged diffusion coefficient. The
coefficient is explicitly given in terms of the multicomponent Maxwell–Stefan
diffusivities Dik. For low-density gas mixtures, the Dik components can be replaced by
the binary diffusivities for the species pairs present.

MIXTURE DIFFUSION CORRECTION

It should be noted that models for the multicomponent diffusivities based on Fick’s
law are approximations. One drawback of this is that the net diffusive mass flux, the
sum of all mass fluxes relative to the mass averaged velocity, is not constrained to zero.
To account for this we add a flux, defined by a correction velocity uc, to enforce a zero
net diffusive flux in the manner of:

i = 1 jmd, i = i = 1 ρωi ( ud,i + uc ) =

N N
0 (8-40)

Hence the correction velocity is:

798 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 i = 1 ωi ud,i
N
uc = – (8-41)

Here ud,i is the diffusion velocity resulting from the flux assumption in Equation 8-36
or Equation 8-38. Note that the correction velocity is a constant correction (same for
all species), but varies in space.

Using the correction velocity together with Equation 8-36 (flux proportional to the
mole fraction gradient), the resulting diffusive flux is

m ∇M Mi
i = 1 ------
m N m
j md, i = – ρD i ∇ω i – ρω i D i --------- + ρω i - D ∇x i (8-42)
M M i

If instead Equation 8-38 is used (flux proportional to the mass fraction gradient), the
resulting diffusive flux is

i = 1 Di
m* N m*
j md, i = – ρD i ∇ω i + ρω i ∇ω i (8-43)

ADDITIONAL TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

Apart from molecular diffusion, transport due to thermal diffusion can be accounted
for by adding the following term to the diffusive flux:

T ∇T
j i = ∇ ⋅  D i --------
 T

T
Here D i (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the thermal diffusion coefficient.

Multispecies Diffusion: Fick’s Law Approximation

Using a Fick’s law approximation, the relative mass flux due to molecular diffusion is
governed by

F ∇x i
j md, i = – ρ i D i, kl --------- (8-44)
xi

when assuming that the diffusive flux is proportional to the mole fraction gradient. If
instead assuming that it is proportional to the mass fraction it becomes

F
j md, i = – ρD i, kl ∇ω i (8-45)
F
In the equations above D i, kl represents a general diffusion matrix (SI unit: m2/s)
describing the diffusion of species i into the mixture. This form makes it possible to

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 799

 use any diffusion coefficient, matrix, or empirical model based on Fick’s law. For
example, in situations when the mass transport is not dominated by diffusion, an
alternative is to use the diffusion coefficients at infinite dilution,

F 0
D i, kk = D i

These coefficients are typically more readily available compared to the binary diffusion
diffusivities, especially for liquid mixtures.

The mixture diffusion correction described above for the mixture-averaged diffusion
can also be applied in this case. Correspondingly, the resulting diffusive flux is

F ∇M Mi
i = 1 ------
F N F
j md, i = – ρD i, kl ∇ω i – ρω i D i, kl --------- + ρω i - D ∇x (8-46)
M M i, kl i

when using Equation 8-44 and

i = 1 Di, kl ∇ωi
F N F
j md, i = – ρD i, kl ∇ω i + ρω i (8-47)

when instead using Equation 8-45.

When using the Fick’s Law approximation, Additional Transport Mechanisms can be
accounted for in the same manner as described above for the mixture-averaged
approximation.

Multicomponent Thermal Diffusion

Mass diffusion in multicomponent mixtures due to temperature gradients is referred
to as the Soret effect. This occurs in mixtures with high temperature gradients and
large variations in molecular weight (or size) of the species. Typically species with high
molecular weight accumulate in lower temperature regions while the diffusion due to
the Soret effect transports species with low molecular weight to higher temperature
regions. In COMSOL Multiphysics, thermal diffusion is included by prescribing the
T
thermal diffusion coefficients D i . In a multicomponent mixture, the sum of the
thermal diffusion coefficients is zero:
Q

 Di
T
= 0
i=1

800 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Turbulent Mixing
A flow field obtained using a turbulence model does not explicitly contain the small
eddies. These unresolved eddies still have a profound effect on the species transport,
an effect known as turbulent mixing.

The Transport of Concentrated Species Interface supports the inclusion of turbulent

mixing via the gradient-diffusion hypothesis. In the case of mixture-averaged diffusion,
it adds the following contribution to the diffusion coefficient for each species:

νT
--------
- (8-48)
Sc T

while for Fick’s law diffusion, it adds the following contribution to the diffusion
coefficient tensor:

νT
--------
-I (8-49)
Sc T

Here, νT is the turbulent kinematic viscosity, ScT is the turbulent Schmidt number and
I is the unit matrix. While having the form of diffusive contributions, Equation 8-48
and Equation 8-49 really model a convective phenomenon and they can therefore only
be applied along with convection.

The Schmidt number is typically given a value between 0.7 and 0.72, but it can range
between 0.3 and 1.3 (at least) depending on the application.

Regularization of Reaction Rate Expression

The flexibility of COMSOL means that a reaction can result in nearly any reaction rate
contribution Ric to a mass fraction ωi. But a reactant, ωr, can physically only be
consumed if ωr > 0 and a product, ωk, can only be formed if ωk < 1. The Reaction
feature in Transport of Concentrated Species Interface contains a way to regularize
make the rate expression contributions comply to these restrictions.

When selected the “core”, or unregularized reaction rate contribution, Ric, to a mass
fraction ωi is replaced by

c c c c
1 Ri – Ri 1 Ri + Ri
R i = --- -------------------------------- max ( ω i, 0 ) + --- -----------------------------------------
- max ( 1 – ω i, 0 ) (8-50)
2 max ( ω , ω dl ) 2 max ( 1 – ω , ω dl )
i i i i

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF CONCENTRATED SPECIES INTERFACE | 801

 The first term on the right hand side of Equation 8-50 is active if Ric < 0, that is if ωi
is a reactant. The reaction rate contribution, Ri, is equal to the “core” reaction rate,
Ric, as long as ωi > ωidl. As ωi approaches zero, the regularization damps out negative
Ric and for ωi < 0, Ri for reactant ωi is equal to zero.

The second term on the right hand side of Equation 8-50 is active if Ric > 0, that is if
ωi is a product. The reaction rate contribution, Ri, is equal to the “core” reaction rate,
Ric, as long as ωi < 1−ωidl. As ωi approaches one, the regularization damps out
positive Ric and for ωi > 1, Ri for product ωi is equal to zero.

The damping limits, ωidl, should be in an order of magnitude that can be considered
numerical noise for species i. The damping limits are per default set to 1e−6, which is
appropriate for most applications. It can be advantageous to lower some limits when
working with for example catalytic trace species and the limits can sometimes be raised
to gain additional robustness.

References for the Transport of Concentrated Species Interface

1. C.F. Curtiss and R.B. Bird, “Multicomponent Diffusion”, Ind. Chem. Res., vol. 38
pp. 2515–2522, 1999.

2. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2005.

3. R.J. Kee, M.E. Coltrin, and P. Glarborg, Chemically Reacting Flow, John Wiley &
Sons, 2003.

802 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Theory for the Reacting Flow
Interfaces
The following sections describe theory applicable for the Reacting Flow interfaces:

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Mass Transport

• The Stefan Velocity
• The Chemical Reaction Rate
• Turbulent Mass Transport Models
• Mass Transport Wall Functions
• Turbulent Reactions
• The Reaction Source Term for Turbulent Flow
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition
• References for the Reacting Flow Interfaces

Pseudo Time Stepping for Mass Transport

In order to improve the solution robustness, pseudo time stepping can be used for the
Transport of Concentrated Species interface when solving a stationary model. Using
pseudo time stepping, a fictitious time derivative term:

ω i – nojac ( ω i )
ρ ------------------------------------
Δt̃

is added to the left-hand side of the mass fraction equations. Here ρ is the fluid mixture
density, ωi is the mass fraction (dimensionless) of species i, and Δt̃ is the pseudo time
step. Since ωi−nojac(ωi) is always zero, this term does not affect the final solution. It
does, however, affect the discrete equation system and effectively transforms a
nonlinear iteration into a time step of size Δt̃ .

For a description of the pseudo time step term for the Navier-Stokes
equations and the pseudo time step see Pseudo Time Stepping for
Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 803

 The Stefan Velocity
Heterogeneous reactions on fluid-solid surfaces can affect the mass, momentum, and
energy balances at the interface separating the fluid and the solid. On the reacting
surface, the production or destruction rate, rs,i (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), of a fluid phase
species is balanced by the total mass flux of the species. The mass balance for species i
on a boundary representing a fluid-solid interface is given by:

n ⋅ ( j i + ρω i u ) = r s,i M i (8-51)

Here, n is the unit normal pointing out of the fluid domain, u is the mass averaged
velocity of the fluid mixture (SI unit: m/s), ji denotes the mass flux of species i relative
to relative to the mixture (typically due to diffusion), and Mi is the species molar mass
(SI unit: kg/mol). Summing the mass balances at the surface, over all species, results
in an effective mixture velocity:

n ⋅ ρu s =  rs,i Mi (8-52)
i=1

referred to as the Stefan velocity, here denoted us. To reach Equation 8-52 the fact
that the sum of all mass fractions is one, and that the sum of all relative diffusive fluxes
is zero, was used.

Equation 8-52 implies that surface reactions result in a net flux between the surface
and the domain. A net flux in turn corresponds to an effective convective velocity at
the domain boundary; the Stefan velocity. It should be noted here that when solving
for mass transport inside a fluid domain, an outer boundary of the domain corresponds
to a position just outside of the actual physical wall (on the fluid side). The domain
boundary does not coincide with the physical wall.

In most reacting flow models, the species mass fractions in the fluid domain are solved
for without including the surface concentrations (mol per area) on exterior walls. One
reason for this is that the surface reaction rates are often not known. In this case,
surface reactions can be modeled either by applying a mass flux or prescribing the mass
fraction, or a combination of both, on fluid boundaries adjacent to the reacting
surface. The Stefan velocity on a fluid domain boundary is then defined as the net mass
flux resulting from the boundary conditions applied:

804 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 N

n ⋅ ρu s =  n ⋅ ( j0, i + ρω0, i u ) (8-53)

i=1

Here, the first term contains contributions from boundary conditions prescribing the
mass flux, while the second contains contributions from boundary conditions
prescribing the mass fractions. Contributions to the Stefan velocity can be added by
selecting Account for Stefan velocity in the Flux or Mass Fraction features in The
Transport of Concentrated Species interface.

The resulting Stefan velocity based on mass transport boundary conditions is

computed as:

 n ⋅ j 0, i
i=1
n ⋅ u s = ------------------------------------
- (8-54)
N
 
ρ  1 –  ω i, 0
 i 

Using a Reacting Flow interface, the Stefan velocity, defined in the manner of
Equation 8-54, is automatically computed and applied on boundaries corresponding
to walls in the coupled fluid flow interface. The Stefan velocity is prescribed in the wall
normal direction on the wall selection.

The Chemical Reaction Rate

For laminar flow, or when the Turbulent-reaction model is set to None in a Reaction
feature (in Transport of Concentrated Species), the default (Automatic) reaction rate
used by the Reaction feature is based on the mass action law. Consider a general
reaction belonging to a set of j reactions and involving i species:

f (8-55)
kj
aA + bB + ... r
xX + yY + ...
kj

For such a reaction set, the reaction rates rj (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)), can be described by
the mass action law:

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 805

 f –ν ν
∏
r
rj = kj c i ij – k j ∏ c i ij (8-56)
i ∈ react i ∈ prod
f r
Here, k j and k j denote the forward and reverse rate constants, respectively. The
concentration of species i is denoted ci (SI unit: mol/m3). The stoichiometric
coefficients are denoted νij, and are defined to be negative for reactants and positive
for products. In practice, a reaction seldom involves more than two species colliding
in a reacting step, which means that a kinetic expression is usually of order 2 or less
(with respect to the involved concentrations).

In addition to the concentration dependence, the temperature dependence can be

included by using the predefined Arrhenius expressions for the rate constants:

k = AT exp  – -----------
n E
 R g T

Here, A denotes the frequency factor, n the temperature exponent, E the activation
energy (SI unit: J/mol) and Rg the gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol·K). The
pre-exponential factor, including the frequency factor A and the temperature factor
Tn, is given the units (m3/mol)α − 1/s, where α is the order of the reaction (with
respect to the concentrations).

Turbulent Mass Transport Models

The RANS turbulence models included in the Reacting Flow interfaces are based on
averaging of the fluid flow equations. Applying a corresponding decomposition of the
fluctuating mass fraction, into mean and fluctuating parts, and averaging the mass
transport equations, additional unclosed terms are introduced in the equations. These
terms need to be modeled in order to close the set of equations. The most important
terms, containing the correlations of the velocity and mass fraction fluctuations,
referred to as the turbulent mass transport fluxes, are given by:

∂ ( ρu i ″ω″ )
---------------------------
∂x i

Here the double primes denote Favre (density-based) fluctuations. In the case of
varying density flow, Favre averaging is favored over Reynolds averaging since it
reduces the number of unclosed terms and renders the equation on the same form as
the incompressible RANS equations. For more background on averaging, see
Turbulence Modeling.

806 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The most common way to model this term is to use a gradient based assumption,
where the additional turbulent transport is related to the turbulent viscosity through a
turbulent Schmidt number ScT:

μ T ∂ω̃ ∂ω̃
ρu i ″ω″ = – --------- -------- = – ρD T -------- (8-57)
Sc T ∂x i ∂x i

Here ω̃ denotes the Favre averaged mass fraction which is the quantity solved for.

Using a RANS turbulence model, the turbulent mass flux is defined from
Equation 8-57, and the equation solved for each species is:

ρ ∂ ( ω̃ i ) + ρ ( ũ ⋅ ∇ )ω̃ i =
∂t
νT ∇M T ∇T
∇ ⋅  ρ  D i + --------- ∇ω̃ i + ρω̃ i D i --------- + D i -------- + ρω̃ i z i u m, i F ∇V + R i
 Sc T M T

where the molecular diffusion coefficient, Di, is given by the diffusion model
(Mixture-Average or Fick’s Law).

When modeling transport of dilute solutes in a solvent, for example using the
Transport of Diluted Species interface, the species concentration are solved for and the
most important unclosed turbulent transport terms correspond to

∂ ( u i'c' )
------------------
∂x i

Here primes indicate turbulent fluctuations from a Reynolds averaging. Using a

gradient based assumption, the additional turbulent transport is modeled as

η T ∂c ∂c
u i'c' = – --------- -------- = – D T -------- (8-58)
Sc T ∂x i ∂x i

where c represents the average concentration. Using a RANS turbulence model the
equations solved for the concentration of each species is:

∂c
----- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )c i =
∂t
(8-59)
νT
∇ ⋅   D i + --------- ∇c i + c i z i u m, i F ∇V + R i
 Sc T 

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 807

 KAYS-CRAWFORD
Assuming that the turbulent transport mechanisms of heat and mass processes are
analogous, the turbulent Schmidt number is defined by (Ref. 1):

 1 0.3Pe T  –1
Sc T =  ---------------- + ------------------- – ( 0.3Pe T ) 2 [ 1 – e –1 ⁄ ( 0.3Pe T Sc T∞ ) ]

 2Sc T∞ Sc T∞ 

where the Schmidt number at infinity is ScT∞ = 0.85, and the turbulent Peclet number
is defined as the ratio of the turbulent to molecular viscosity times the Schmidt
number:

νT
Pe T = ------ Sc
ν

HIGH SCHMIDT NUMBER MODEL

In the case of high Schmidt numbers, which is typical for mass transport in liquids, the
mass transfer near walls can be significantly different than that for Schmidt numbers of
order unity. A diffusion layer near a solid wall, due to, for example, a reaction on the
wall, does not have the same properties as the (momentum) boundary layer. Most
importantly the diffusion layer thickness is significantly smaller than the boundary layer
thickness for high Schmidt numbers. To correctly capture the mass flux at the wall, the
wall resolution required is dictated by the diffusion layer rather than by the boundary
layer.

The High Schmidt number model is based on the model by Kubacki and Dick (Ref. 2)
and is available when using the Low-Reynolds k-ε turbulence model or the SST
turbulence model. In this case the fluid flow is resolved all the way to the physical wall
and consequently, and species boundary equations are applied directly on the wall
(without using wall functions).

In the near wall region, where the species transport is limited by diffusion, the mass
diffusivity is modeled using an analytical function of the nondimensional wall distance
due to Na and Hanratty (Ref. 3):

D T,w m
------------ = b ( l * )
ν

808 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The nondimensional wall distance applied, l * , corresponds to that defined by the
turbulence model. The value of the constants b and m are given in Table 8-1.
TABLE 8-1: NA AND HANRATTY PARAMETERS

SCHMIDT NUMBER b m
0.1 < Sc < 5 7.3·10-4 3
5 < Sc < 50 5.3·10-4 3
Sc > 50 4.63·10-4 3.38

Further out from the wall, where the mass transport is governed by the turbulent
transport, the transport is modeled using a turbulent Schmidt number of the form
(Ref. 2):

νT νT 3 –1
Sc T,c =  0.5882 + 0.228  ------ – 0.0441  ------ [ 1 – e –5.165 ⁄ ( ν T ⁄ ν ) ]
  ν  ν 

In order to combine the two descriptions, the blending function by Kader (Ref. 4) is
used:

νT ( –Γ ) ( –1 ⁄ Γ )
D T = ------------ e + D T,w e
Sc T,c

where

4
0.01 ( l * ) -
Γ = -----------------------
( 1 + 5l * )

Mass Transport Wall Functions

Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions applied for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain of the fluid. This gap is often ignored when the computational
geometry is drawn.

Assuming that the turbulent heat and mass transfer in the near-wall region are
analogous, the same type of wall functions used for the temperature (Ref. 8) is also
applicable for the mass transport. The mass transfer wall function is formulated as a
function of the molecular and turbulent Schmidt numbers of each species, instead of
the corresponding Prandtl numbers.

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 809

 Assume that there is a mass fraction ωi,w just outside the wall and that it is in
equilibrium with the surface chemistry. The mass flux, for species i, between the wall
and a fluid with a mass fraction of ωi,f at the lift-off position is:

ρC μ1 / 4 k 1 / 2 ( ω i, w – ω i, f )
m wf = -----------------------------------------------------------
-
ω i+

where ρ is the fluid density, Cμ is a turbulence modeling constant, and k is the

turbulent kinetic energy. ω i+ is the dimensionless mass fraction given by (Ref. 8):

+
Scδ w for δ w
+ < δ+
w1

 15Sc 2 / 3 – 500
---------- + ≤ δ+ < δ+
for δ w1
ω i+ =  δ +2  w w2
w
Sc T
--------- lnδ w
+ +β for δ w2
+ ≤ δ+
κ w

where in turn

δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k 10 -
+ = ------------------------------
δw + = ------------
δ w1
μ Sc 1 / 3
κ-
+ = 10 10 -------- μ
δ w2 Sc = ----------------
Sc T ρD i, m
Sc T κ
β = 15Sc 2 / 3 – ---------  1 + ln  1000 --------- 
2κ v Sc T

κv is the von Karman constant, and Di,m the mean species diffusion coefficient. The
latter corresponds directly to the mixture-averaged diffusion coefficient when using
the Mixture-average diffusion model. Using the Fick’s law diffusion model, the mean
diffusion coefficient is computed as 1/N·tr(Di), where Di is the diffusion tensor and N
is the dimension of the model.

The computational result should be checked so that the distance between the
computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is almost everywhere small compared to
any geometrical quantity of interest. The distance δw is available as a postprocessing
variable (delta_w) on boundaries.

810 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Turbulent Reactions
In turbulent flow the reaction rate is significantly affected by the turbulence. Turbulent
fluctuations can increase the reaction rate due to the increased mixing, but it can also
quench it through removal of species or the heat required for ignition. The interaction
between the flow and the reactions can be quantified through the Damköhler number
Da:

τT
Da = ------
τc

which compares the time scale of the largest turbulent flow structures (the integral
time scale), to the chemical time scale. In the limit of large Damköhler numbers
Da >> 1, the reactive time scale is significantly smaller than that of the turbulence. In
this regime the inner structure of a reaction zone is thin enough not to be affected by
turbulence. The reacting regions are, however, convected and wrinkled by the
turbulence. In this case the global reaction rate is proportional to the chemical reaction
rate times the surface of the reacting regions. In the limit of small Damköhler numbers
Da << 1, the chemical time scale is much larger than that of the turbulent flow. In this
case the global reaction rate is controlled by the chemistry, while the turbulence acts
by continuously mixing the species. This regime is referred to as a “perfectly stirred
reactor”.

MEAN VALUE CLOSURE

A mean turbulent production rate can be obtained by directly applying the mean
concentrations and temperature in the kinetic reaction rate expressions:

R i = ν i M i r MVC,i

where νi denotes the species stoichiometric coefficient, Mi the molar mass

(SI unit: kg/mol), and rMVC,i is the reaction rate from Equation 8-56 using mean
quantities.

This is referred to as mean value closure of the turbulent reaction rate, and corresponds
to keeping the first term in a Taylor series expansion of the turbulent reaction rate
following a Reynolds decomposition of the fluctuating variables (Ref. 5). The mean
value closure is directly applicable in the perfectly-stirred-reactor limit (Da << 1). In
this case the turbulence is able to mix the species in the sense of changing the mean
concentration, but the turbulent fluctuations do not affect the chemical reaction rate.
The mean value closure is also applicable in the limit of low turbulence levels since the
turbulent fluctuations tend to zero as the laminar flow regime is approached.

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 811

 EDDY DISSIPATION MODEL
The eddy-dissipation model for the mean reaction rate originally developed by
Magnusson and Hjertager (Ref. 6) for non-premixed combustion. Using this reaction
model, the mean production rate of species i is defined as:

α ωr ωp
R i = ν i M i ------ ρ ⋅ min min  ------------- , β   -------------- = ν i M i r ED,i
τT νr Mr ν p M p
p

The model assumes that both the Reynolds and Damköhler numbers are sufficiently
high for the reaction rate to be limited by the turbulent mixing time-scale τT. The
reaction can hence at most progress at the rate at which fresh reactants are mixed, at
the molecular level, by the turbulence present. Furthermore the reaction rate is limited
by the deficient reactant; the reactant with the lowest local concentration. When the
model parameter β is finite, the existence of product species is also required for
reaction, modeling the activation energy required for reaction (ignition). For gaseous
non-premixed combustion the model parameters have been found to correspond to
(Ref. 6):

α = 4 , β = 0.5

For liquid reactions it is recommended that the model parameters are calibrated against
experimental or simulation data. Using a mix of the mean value closure and a modified
version of the eddy-dissipation model Bakker and Fasano (Ref. 7) found the following
parameter values

α 2 = 0.08 , α 1 = β 1 = β 2 = ∞

to give good results for a competitive reaction pair when compared with experimental
results.

A common approximation for the turbulence mixing time-scale τT is τ T ≈ k ⁄ ε

(Ref. 5). Due to realizability constraints, a more accurate approximation is however

τ T = min  ---, -----------------------

k 1
(8-60)
 ε C μ 3λ max

where in turn

1
λ max = --- S ij S ij
2

for 2D and

812 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 2S ij S ij
λ max = ------------------
-
3

for 3D and 2D axisymmetry. Equation 8-60 is directly applicable to the k-ε model. For
the k-ω and SST turbulence models, Equation 8-60 reads

τ T = min  --------- 
1
1 - ---------------------
,
β * ω β * 3λ max

Equation 8-60 is used also for the low-Reynolds k-ε model even though k/ε is not
actually the turbulence mixing time scale. To obtain a consistent turbulence mixing
time scale for low-Reynolds k-ε, k/ε needs to be multiplied by a damping function that
goes to zero at solid walls. Ref. 5 does however notice that τT is not a relevant time
scale close to walls since it is too small. The damping function is therefore neglected in
the eddy-dissipation model.

The Reaction Source Term for Turbulent Flow

For turbulent flow, or when the Turbulent-reaction model is set to Eddy-dissipation in
the Reaction feature (in Transport of Concentrated Species), the reaction source term
is computed as the minimum of the mean value closure and that from the eddy
dissipation model:

R i = ν i M i ⋅ min r MVC,i, r EDC,i

This approach combines the regimes of the separate models. For fast reactions the
reaction rate is limited by the turbulent mixing. At the same time, in regions with low
turbulence levels, or low kinetic reactions rates, the latter limits the production rate.

Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

When the Reacting Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the mass fraction fields
that are discontinuous over the fan. For each species, ωi, an outlet mass fraction
condition is applied:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet mass fraction ωi, avg is defined by:
 

 up ( u ⋅ nρ ) dS ω i, avg =
   down ( u ⋅ nρωi ) dS
Γ Γ

THEORY FOR THE REACTING FLOW INTERFACES | 813

 • If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature Tavg is defined
by:
 

 down ( u ⋅ nρ ) dS ω i, avg =
   up ( u ⋅ nρωi ) dS
Γ Γ

This means that there is no diffusion over the interior fan, and no migration either.

References for the Reacting Flow Interfaces

1. W.M. Kays, “Turbulent Prandtl Number — Where Are We?”, ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, vol. 116, pp. 284–295, 1994.

2. S. Kubacki and E. Dick, “Simulation of Impinging Mass Transfer at High Schmidt

Number with Algebraic Models”, Progress in Computational Fluid Dynamics, vol.
11, no. 1, pp. 30–41, 2011.

3. Y. Na and T.J. Hanratty, “Limiting Behavior of Turbulent Scalar Transport Close to

the Wall”, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 43, pp. 1749–1758, 2000.

4. B.A. Kader, “Temperature and Concentration Profiles in Fully Turbulent Boundary

Layers”, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 24, pp. 1541–1544, 1981.

5. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante, Theoretical and Numerical Combustion, 2nd. ed.,

R.T. Edwards, Philadelphia, 2005.

6. B.F. Magnussen and B.H. Hjertager, “On Mathematical Modeling of Turbulent

Combustion with Special Emphasis on Soot Formation and Combustion”, 16th Symp.
(Int.) on Combustion. Comb. Inst., Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, pp. 719–729, 1976.

7. A. Bakker and J.B. Fasano, “Time Dependent, Turbulent Mixing and Chemical
Reactions in Stirred Tank”, AIChE Symposium Series 299, vol. 90, pp. 71–78, 1993.

8. D. Lacasse, È. Turgeon, and D. Pelletier, “On the Judicious Use of the k-ε Model,
Wall Functions and Adaptivity”, Int.J. of Thermal Sciences, vol. 43, pp. 925–938,
2004.

814 | CHAPTER 8: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 9

Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

The physics interfaces described in this section are found under the Thin-Film Flow
branch ( ).

In this chapter

• The Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

815
 T he T hi n- Fi lm Fl ow In t erfaces
In this section:

• The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface

• The Thin-Film Flow, Domain Interface
• The Thin-Film Flow, Edge Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film Flow Branch
Interfaces

The physics interfaces found under the Thin-Film Flow branch ( ) when adding a
physics interface describe momentum transport. These physics interfaces can be added
either singularly or in combination with other physics interfaces describing mass and
energy transfer. The thin-film flow interfaces are shown in Table 9-1.
TABLE 9-1: THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES DEFAULT SETTINGS

PHYSICS INTERFACE LABEL NAME SPACE DIMENSION GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

Thin-Film Flow, Shell tffs 3D Boundaries

Thin-Film Flow, Edge tffs 2D, 2D axisymmetric Boundaries
Thin-Film Flow, Domain tff 2D Domains

Each of the physics interfaces can be configured to solve either the standard Reynolds
Equation (with a material or user-defined density specified at the absolute pressure), or
to solve the Modified Reynolds Equation, which should be used for gas flows. The
Modified Reynolds Equation assumes the ideal gas law and applies when gas pressure
changes in the flow itself result in significant density changes.

Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface

The Thin-Film Flow, Shell (tffs) interface ( ), found under the Thin-Film Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve the Reynolds equation
or the modified Reynolds equation in a narrow channel that is represented by a surface
within the geometry. It is used for lubrication, elastohydrodynamics, or gas damping
simulations when the fluid channel is thin enough for the Reynolds equation or the

816 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

Modified Reynolds equation to apply. The physics interface is available for 3D
geometries.

This physics interface is defined in a boundary mode, which means that the boundary
level is the highest level for which this physics interface has equations and features; it
does not have any features or equations on the domain level. The boundary level
represents a reference surface on which the flow is solved. On one side of the boundary
level there is a wall and on the other a base surface, neither of which is represented in
the geometry. The wall and base surfaces are orientated with respect to the reference
surface normal as shown in Figure 9-1. Fluid flows in the gap between the wall and the
base.

Figure 9-1: Diagram illustrating the orientation of the wall and the base surfaces with
respect to the reference surface in the Thin-Film Flow interfaces. A vector from the
reference surface to the corresponding point on the wall always points in the −nref
direction, where nref is the reference surface normal. Similarly a vector from the reference
surface to the corresponding point on the base points in the +nref direction. The height of
the wall above the reference surface (hw) and the height of the base below the reference
surface (hb) are also shown in the figure.

Using equations on the reference surface, the physics interface computes the pressure
in a narrow gap between the wall and the base. When modeling the flow, it is assumed
that the total gap height, h = hw+hb, is much smaller than the typical lateral dimension
L of the reference surface. The physics interface is used to model laminar flow in thin
gaps or channels. A lubricating oil between two rotating cylinders is an example of this.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid-Film Properties, Border, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, you can add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Thin-Film Flow, Shell to select physics features from the context
menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 817

 The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tffs.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Select an Equation type — Reynolds equation (the default) or Modified Reynolds equation.

CAVITATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Show
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Select the Cavitation
check box to use when modeling bearings, for example. Then enter a Cavitation
transition width (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 MPa.

Under normal operating conditions, the gases dissolved in the lubricant cause
cavitation in the diverging clearance between the journal and the bearing. This
happens because the pressure in the lubricant drops below the saturation pressure.

See the theory section for Cavitation for more information.

Note: Cavitation is only available in the Thin-Film Flow, Shell physics interface with a
CFD Module license. It is not available for the Thin-Film Damping boundary
condition, which can be added to the physics interfaces in the Structural Mechanics
area.

REFERENCE PRESSURE
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm]. This
pressure represents the ambient pressure and fluid loads are computed without
accounting for this pressure.

818 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Pressure pf. The name can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a component.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces
• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

• Journal Bearing: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Thin-Film_Flow/journal_bearing
• Tilted Pad Thrust Bearing: Application Library path
CFD_Module/Thin-Film_Flow/tilted_pad_bearing

The Thin-Film Flow, Domain Interface

The Thin-Film Flow, Domain (tff) interface ( ), found under the Thin-Film Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve the Reynolds equation
or the modified Reynolds equation in a narrow channel that is represented by a domain
within the geometry. It is used for lubrication or gas damping simulations when the
fluid channel is thin enough for the Reynolds equation or the Modified Reynolds
equation to apply. The physics interface is available for 2D geometries.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid-Film Properties, Border (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Thin-Film Flow, Domain to select
physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tff.

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 819

 The rest of the settings are the same as for The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces
• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

The Thin-Film Flow, Edge Interface

The Thin-Film Flow, Edge (tffs) interface ( ) is used to solve the Reynolds equation
or the modified Reynolds equation in a narrow channel that is represented by an edge
within the geometry. It is used for lubrication, elastohydrodynamics, or gas damping
simulations when the fluid channel is thin enough for the Reynolds equation or the
Modified Reynolds equation to apply. The physics interface is for 2D and 2D
axisymmetric components.

The rest of the settings are the same as for The Thin-Film Flow, Shell Interface.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces
• Theory for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

820 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Thin-Film
Flow Branch Interfaces
For the physics interfaces under the Thin-Film Flow branch, the following domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in
this section:

• Border • Perforations
• Fluid-Film Properties • Outlet
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Wall
• Interior Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid-Film Properties
Use the Fluid-Film Properties node to set the wall properties, base properties, fluid
properties, and the film flow model.

REFERENCE SURFACE PROPERTIES

In the Thin-Film Flow, Shell (tffs) and Thin-Film Flow, Edge (tffs) interfaces, the Reference
normal orientation setting allows you to reverse the direction of the reference surface
normal used by the physics interface. By default this is set to Same direction as geometry
normal. To reverse the direction, select Opposite direction to geometry normal.

In the Thin-Film Flow, Domain (tff) interface, the Reference surface normal orientation
setting allows you to set the direction of the reference normal so that it either points
out of or into the plane of the domain. By default this is set to Reference surface normal
points out of plane, such that the reference surface normal is given by {0,0,1}. Selecting
Reference surface normal points into plane sets the reference surface normal to {0,0,-1}.

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 821

 WALL PROPERTIES
Enter a value or expression for the Height of wall above reference plane hw1 (SI unit: m).
The default is 10 μm.

By default the Additional wall displacement is User defined. Enter values or expressions
for uw (SI unit: m). The defaults are 0 m. Alternatively select a feature input (defined
by a separate physics interface) or None from the list.

When using a feature input to define an additional displacement based on the

movement of a structure, refer to Figure 9-1 to decide whether the additional
displacement should be added to the wall or the base.

• If the reference normal points out of the structure for which the displacement is
provided, the structure should be considered to be the wall, and its displacement
should be added to the additional wall displacement.
If the reference normal points into the structure for which the displacement is
provided, the structure is the base and its displacement should be added to the
additional base displacement.To determine the reference normal orientation before
fully solving the model, click Show Default Solver ( ) on the Study toolbar (or
right-click the Study 1 node and select Show Default Solver). Then expand the
Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solver 1 node, right-click the Dependent variables
sub-node and select Compute to Selected.

You can then add a 2D or 3D plot group with an Arrow Surface plot (in 3D) ( ) or
Arrow Line plot (in 2D) ( ), and use the Replace Expression ( ) button to plot the
Reference surface normal.

Note that the orientation of the reference surface normal can be changed using the
Reference normal orientation setting in the Reference Surface Properties section.

Select a Wall velocity vw (SI unit: m/s) — None (the default), Calculate from wall
displacement, or User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions for the
components of vw (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.

822 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

BASE PROPERTIES
See Wall Properties above for details to help you decide whether the additional
displacement should be added to the wall or the base.

Enter a value or expression for the Height of base below reference plane hb1 (SI unit: m).
The default is 0 m.

By default Additional base displacement is User defined. Enter values or expressions for
ub (SI unit: m). The defaults are 0 m. Or select None from the list.

Select a Base velocity vb (SI unit: m/s) — None (the default), Calculate from base
displacement, or User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions for the
components of vb (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is taken From material. For User defined
enter a different value or expression. The default is 0 Pa·s.

With the default options, the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is taken From material. For
User defined enter a different value or expression. The default is 0 kg/m3. If the
Modified Reynolds Equation is being solved, the density is determined automatically by
the ideal gas law. If cavitation is enabled, the density is assumed to take the form
ρ=ρc exp(βpf) where pf is the fluid pressure, ρc is the density at the cavitation pressure,
and β is the compressibility. (SI unit: 1/Pa). In this case enter the values for the Density
at cavitation pressure ρc (SI unit: Pa) and the Compressibility β (SI unit: 1/Pa).

FILM FLOW MODEL

Select a Film flow model — No-slip walls (the default), Slip at walls, User defined-relative
flow function, or User defined-general. The film flow model is used to compute the mean
fluid velocity as a function of the pressure gradient, the wall velocity, and the base
velocity. Within the gap the fluid velocity profile is a linear combination of the
Poiseuille and Couette velocity profiles.

No-slip Walls
This flow model assumes no slip at both the wall and base surfaces. Thus the average
fluid velocity is computed by assuming that the fluid velocity at the wall and base is
equal to the wall and base velocity, respectively.

Slip at Walls
Use Slip at walls when slip occurs at the wall and/or the base. In this case the difference
between the wall or base velocity and the fluid velocity is proportional to the tangential
part of the of the normal stress tensor component. The slip length divided by the fluid

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 823

 viscosity is the constant of proportionality in this relationship. The mean fluid velocity
is computed using this assumption, given the pressure gradient and the wall and base
velocities.

Enter a Slip length, wall Lsw (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 μm. Select the Use different
slip length for base check box to enter a Slip length, base Lsb (SI unit: m). The default
is 0.1 μm.

For the Modified Reynolds Equation it is possible to use the gas mean free path to specify
the slip length. Change the Type of Slip setting (which defaults to Slip Length with the
settings described above) to Mean free path and same accommodation coefficients or to
Mean free path and different accommodation coefficients.

• For Mean free path and same accommodation coefficients enter a value for the Wall
and base accommodation coefficient α (dimensionless). The default is 0.9.
• For Mean free path and different accommodation coefficients enter values for the Wall
accommodation coefficient αw (dimensionless, default 0.9) and the Base
accommodation coefficient αb (dimensionless, default 0.9).

Select an option to define the Mean free path — Compute from material properties (the
default), User defined expression, or User defined with reference pressure.

• For User defined expression enter an expression for the Mean free path λ (SI unit: m).
The default expression is ((70[nm])*(1[atm]))/(tffs.ptot).
• For User defined with reference pressure enter values for the Mean free path at
reference pressure λ0 (SI unit: m; the default is 70 nm), and for the Mean free path
reference pressure pλ0 (SI unit: Pa; the default is 1 atm).

Rarefied-Total Accommodation (Modified Reynolds Equation Only)

The Rarefied-total accommodation option provides a rarefied gas model that assumes
total accommodation at the wall and the base. This model is accurate to within 5% over
the range 0<Kn<880 (here Kn is the Knudsen number, which is the ratio of the film
thickness to the mean free path). An empirical function, fitted to stationary solutions
of the Boltzmann equation, is used to define the Poiseuille component of the flow.

824 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

Select an option to define the Mean free path — Compute from material properties (the
default), User defined expression, or User defined with reference pressure.

• For User defined expression enter an expression for the Mean free path λ (SI unit: m).
The default expression is ((70[nm])*(1[atm]))/(tffs.ptot).
• For User defined with reference pressure enter values for the Mean free path at
reference pressure λ0 (SI unit: m; the default is 70 nm) and for the Mean free path
reference pressure pλ0 (SI unit: Pa; the default is 1 atm).

Select a Force model. Select:

• Normal-pressure forces only (the default) to include only the normal pressure forces
in the model.
• Couette (slide film) forces only to include only the shear forces generated from an
empirical model of the rarefied flow developed for pure Couette flows.
• Shear and normal forces to include both the shear and pressure forces, combining the
other two force models.

Rarefied-General Accommodation (Modified Reynolds Equation Only)

The Rarefied-general accommodation option provides a rarefied gas model that assumes
the same accommodation coefficient, α, at the wall and the base. This model is
accurate to within 1% over the ranges 0.7<α<1 and 0.01<Kn<100 (here Kn is the
Knudsen number, which is the ratio of the film thickness to the mean free path). An
empirical function, fitted to stationary solutions of the Boltzmann equation, is used to
define the Poiseuille component of the flow.

Select an option to define the Mean free path — Compute from material properties (the
default), User defined expression, or User defined with reference pressure.

• For User defined expression enter an expression for the Mean free path λ (SI unit: m).
The default expression is 70[nm]*1[atm]/tffs.ptot.
• For User defined with reference pressure enter values for the Mean free path at
reference pressure λ0 (SI unit: m, the default is 70 nm) and for the Mean free path
reference pressure pλ0 (SI unit: Pa, the default is 1 atm).

Select a Force model. Select:

• Normal-pressure forces only (the default) to include only the normal pressure forces
in the model.

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 825

 • Couette (slide film) forces only to include only the shear forces generated from an
empirical model of the rarefied flow developed for pure Couette flows.
• Shear and normal forces to include both the shear and pressure forces, combining the
other two force models.

User Defined-relative Flow Function

The User defined-relative flow function option enables user-defined models in which an
effective fluid viscosity is employed. The fluid viscosity is divided by an additional
factor Qch, which can be defined as an arbitrary expression in the GUI. It is also
possible to define the expressions for the fluid forces on the wall and on the base (these
are included as feature inputs in other physics interfaces).

Enter values or expressions for:

• Relative flow rate function Qch (dimensionless). The default is 0.

• Fluid load on wall fw (SI unit: N/m2). The defaults are 0 N/m2.
• Fluid load on base fb (SI unit: N/m2). The defaults are 0 N/m2.

User Defined - General

The User defined-general option allows for arbitrary flow models to be defined. Both
the Poiseuille and Couette terms in the mean velocity can be defined arbitrarily. It is
also possible to define the expressions for the fluid forces on the wall and on the base,
(these are included as feature inputs in other physics interfaces).

Enter values or expressions for:

• Poiseuille mean fluid velocity coefficient vave,P (SI unit: m3⋅s/kg). The default is
0 m3⋅s/kg.
• Couette mean fluid velocity component vave,C (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
• Fluid load on wall fw (SI unit: N/m2). The defaults are 0 N/m2.
• Fluid load on base fb (SI unit: N/m2). The defaults are 0 N/m2.

Arrow Line and Arrow Surface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Border
Use the Border node to set a pressure condition at the border and the border flow type.

826 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

The Border flow condition is used to account for the pressure drop caused by the flow
converging into the gap, outside the thin layer. The acoustic elongation options does
this by adding additional thickness to the thin layer beyond the edge of the geometry
(assuming a pressure gradient in this layer equal to that at the boundary). The
Out-of-plane motion calculates the pressure gradient due to circulation of the fluid
caused by motion of the wall or base surfaces using a predefined model. Alternatively
the pressure gradient at the boundary can be specified using an arbitrary expression,
which allows for more sophisticated, user-defined models.

BORDER SETTINGS
Select a Border condition — Zero pressure (the default), Pressure, or Border flow. When
the Cavitation check box is selected for the physics interface, Starvation is also available.

For Pressure enter a Pressure pf0 (SI unit: Pa) to define pf = pf0 on the boundary, edge,
or point. The default is 0 Pa. If the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics
interface level is 0, pf0 is the absolute pressure. Otherwise, pf0 is the relative pressure.

For Border flow select a Border flow type — Acoustic boundary condition-absolute
elongation, Acoustic boundary condition-relative elongation, Out-of-plane motion, or User
defined.

• For Acoustic Boundary condition-absolute elongation enter a Border elongation ΔL

(SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 μm.
• For Acoustic boundary condition-relative elongation enter a Relative border elongation
ΔLr (dimensionless). The default is 0.7.
• For Out-of-plane motion enter the Model coefficients η, ζ, χ with defaults 0, 0, 1,
respectively. Also enter the Slip length, Λ (SI unit: m). The default slip length uses
an if condition to set the slip length equal to that defined in the Fluid-Film
Properties node if a suitable Film flow model is selected. If the Slip length is not
defined in the Fluid-Film Properties node, it defaults to 0.1μm.
Note that the coefficients can be specified according to the results given in the paper
by Gallis and Torczynski (M. A. Gallis and J. R. Torczynski, “An Improved
Reynolds-Equation Model for Gas Damping of Microbeam Motion”, Journal of
Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 13, pp. 653–659, 2004). The following
values are recommended:

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 827

 Λ
1 + 8.834  ----
 h
χ = ----------------------------------
Λ
1 + 5.118  ----
h
Λ
0.634 + 1.572  ----
 h
η = ----------------------------------------------
Λ
1 + 0.537  ----
h
Λ
0.445 + 11.20  ----
 h
ζ = ----------------------------------------------
Λ
1 + 5.510  ----
h

where h is the gap height. The above equations are valid in the range 0 ≤ Λ/h ≤ 1.
• For User defined enter a Normal pressure gradient (SI unit: N/m3). The default is
pf/(0.1 μm) N/m3.
• For Starvation enter a value for the Fluid fraction θ0 (dimensionless). The default is
0.6.

Perforations
Use the Perforations node for applications in MEMS devices, where the phenomenon
of squeeze-film damping is important. A free-hanging thin plate or the substrate often
has an array of etch holes that allow the gas in between to escape. The perforations
feature acts as a sink for gas that is proportional to both the ambient pressure and to
the pressure difference with respect to the ambient on the other side of the perforated
surface. The constant of proportionality is known as the admittance, Y, and can either
be defined directly or determined from the model due to Bao (M. Bao and H. Yang
“Squeeze film air damping in MEMS”, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 136,
no. 1, pp. 3–27, 2014). The ambient pressure (defined at the level of the parent physics
interface or Thin-Film Damping feature) is assumed to be the reference pressure
specified at the physics interface level.

Note that this feature applies only when the walls do not have tangential movement.

PERFORATIONS
Select a Perforation admittance — User defined (the default) or Bao model.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for Y (SI unit: m2⋅s/kg).

828 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

For Bao model, choose a Perforation shape — Square (the default) or Circular. Then
enter the following as applicable:

• Side length sh (SI unit: m).

• Hole radius rh (SI unit: m).
• Hole length lh (SI unit: m).
• Hole density nh (SI unit: 1/m2).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. If more
than one set of initial values is required, add additional Initial Values nodes from the
Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or an expression for the initial value of the Pressure pf (SI unit: Pa).

Inlet
Use the Inlet node to define an edge or point where fluid enters the gap.

INLET SETTINGS
Select an Inlet condition — Zero pressure (the default), Pressure, or Normal inflow
velocity. When the Cavitation check box is selected for the physics interface (see
Cavitation), Starvation is also available.

• For Zero pressure pf = 0 applies on the boundary, edge, or point.

• For Pressure enter a Pressure pf0 (SI unit: Pa) to impose pf = pf0 on the boundary,
edge, or point. The default is 0 Pa. If the reference pressure pref, defined at the
physics interface level is 0, pf0 is the absolute pressure. Otherwise, pf0 is the relative
pressure.
• For Normal inflow velocity enter a Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.
• For Starvation enter a value for the Fluid fraction θ0 (dimensionless). The default is
0.6.

THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 829

 Outlet
The Outlet node defines an edge or point where fluid leaves the gap.

OUTLET SETTINGS
Select an Outlet condition — Zero pressure (the default), Pressure, Normal outflow
velocity, or Outflow. When the Cavitation check box is selected for the physics interface
(see Cavitation), Starvation is also available.

• For Zero pressure, pf = 0 applies on the boundary, edge, or point.

• For Pressure, enter a Pressure pf0 (SI unit: Pa) to impose pf = pf0 on the boundary,
edge, or point. The default is 0 Pa. If the reference pressure pref, defined at the
physics interface level is 0, pf0 is the absolute pressure. Otherwise, pf0 is the relative
pressure.
• For Normal outflow velocity, enter a Normal outflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.
• For Outflow, the fluid is allowed to leave the gap without explicitly imposing a value
of pressure or velocity.
• For Starvation, enter a value for the Fluid fraction θ0 (dimensionless). The default is
0.6.

Wall
The Wall node prevents fluid flow in the direction perpendicular to the boundary.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall feature is similar to the Wall feature but it applies to both sides of an
interior boundary. It allows for discontinuities in the pressure, and can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node sets the perpendicular component of the average velocity in the
gap to zero.

830 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the different versions of the Thin-Film Flow interfaces are described in
this section:

• Thin-Film Flow
• The Reynolds Equation
• Flow Models
• The Modified Reynolds Equation — Gas Flows
• Flow Models for Rarefied Gases
• Frequency-Domain Formulation
• Boundary Conditions
• Cavitation
• References for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

Thin-Film Flow
Figure 9-2 shows a typical configuration for the flow of fluid in a thin layer. The upper
boundary is referred to as the wall, and the lower boundary is referred to as the base.
Damping or lubrication forces operate on both surfaces.

In many cases the gap is sufficiently small for the flow in the thin film to be isothermal.
Usually the gap thickness, h, is much smaller than the lateral dimensions of the
geometry, L. If this is the case it is possible to neglect inertial effects in the fluid in
comparison to viscous effects (for MEMS devices this assumption is reasonable below
MHz frequencies). Additionally, the curvature of the reference surface can be ignored
when h/L«1. Under these assumptions the Reynolds equation applies. For gas flows
under the same conditions it is possible to derive a modified form of the Reynolds
Equation, which uses the ideal gas law to eliminate the density from the equation
system. Such a modified Reynolds equation can even be adapted to model the flow of
rarefied gases.

Different terminology is used for thin-film flow in different fields of physics. In

tribology the term lubrication is frequently used, especially when the fluid is a liquid.
In resonant MEMS devices, flow in the thin layer of gas separating a device from the

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 831

 substrate on which it is fabricated often provides significant damping. In this case
there is usually a distinction between squeeze-film damping, when the direction of
motion of the structure is predominantly perpendicular to the reference plane, and
slide-film damping for motion predominantly parallel to the reference plane.

Figure 9-2: An example illustrating a typical configuration for thin-film flow. A

reference surface with normal nref sits in a narrow gap between a wall and base. In
COMSOL Multiphysics, the vector nref points into the base and out of the wall. The wall
moves with a displacement uwall and velocity vwall from its initial position. Similarly the
base moves from its initial position with displacement ubase and velocity vbase. The
compression of the fluid results in an excess pressure, pf, above the reference pressure, pref,
and a fluid velocity in the gap. At a point on the reference surface the average value of the
fluid velocity along a line perpendicular to the surface is given by the in plane vector vave.
The motion of the fluid results in forces on the wall (Fwall) and on the base (Fbase). The
distance to the wall above the reference surface is hw while the base resides a distance hb
below the reference surface. The total size of the gap is h=hw+hb. At a given time
hw=hw1−nref ⋅uwall and hb=hb1+nref ⋅ubase where hw1 and hb1 are the initial distances
to the wall and base, respectively.

The Reynolds Equation

The equations of fluid flow in thin films are usually formulated on a reference surface
in the Eulerian frame. Consider a cylinder, fixed with respect to a stationary reference
surface, as shown in Figure 9-3.

832 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 dA

Figure 9-3: Reference cylinder, fixed with respect to the stationary reference surface, in a
small gap between two surfaces (the wall and the base). The cylinder has outward normal,
nc. Its area, projected onto the reference surface, is dA.

The cylinder is fixed with respect to the reference surface, but its height can change
due to changes in the position of the base and the wall. Considering the flow in the
reference plane, the rate at which mass accumulates within the reference cylinder is
determined by the divergence of the mass flow field in the reference plane:

d ( ρh )
= – ∇ t ⋅ ( ρhv av ) (9-1)
dt

where h=hw+hb and the tangential velocity, vav represents the mean velocity of the
flow in the reference plane. Particular care must be taken with respect to the definition
of h. The above equation applies if h is measured with respect to a fixed point on the
reference surface as a function of time. The reference surface itself must be fixed in
space and obviously cannot deform as time progresses. Equations represented on the
reference surface are described as Eulerian, that is they are defined in a frame that is
fixed with respect to the motion of the fluid or of the body. Fluid flow problems are
usually formulated in the Eulerian frame, and COMSOL Multiphysics adopts this
convention in most of its fluid flow interfaces. It is useful to note that the Eulerian

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 833

 frame is usually called the spatial frame within the COMSOL Multiphysics interface.
When a structure deforms in COMSOL Multiphysics, the spatial frame changes shape.

The wall and the base can, and often do, move with respect to the reference surface.
The wall and base are usually the surfaces of mechanical components which are
deforming as a result of the pressure building up within the region of fluid flow. When
describing the physics of a deforming solid, it is often convenient to work in the
Lagrangian frame, which is fixed with respect to a small control volume of the solid.
As the solid deforms, the Lagrangian frame moves along with the material contained
within the control volume. Using the Lagrangian frame for describing structural
deformation means that changes in the local density and material orientation as a result
of the distortion of the control volume do not need to be accounted for by
complicated transformations. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the Lagrangian frame,
usually referred to as the material frame, is used for describing structural deformations.
When a structure deforms in COMSOL Multiphysics, the material frame remains in
the original configuration of the structure, and the deformation is accounted for by the
underlying equations.

Because of the mixed Eulerian-Lagrangian approach adopted within COMSOL

Multiphysics, particular care must be taken with the formulation of the Reynolds
equations. Typically it is not desirable to represent the geometry of the thin film itself
directly, because it is often much smaller than the other components in the model. The
equations apply on a single surface in the model, the reference surface. Since we do not
want the reference surface to deform, the equations are added in the material frame
(even though this frame is normally used in a Lagrangian approach) and manual
transformations are added to the system to account for the fact that the structural
equations also exist in the material frame, and employ a truly Lagrangian approach.

The situation encountered when both the wall and the base undergo a displacement is
depicted in Figure 9-4. The Eulerian wall height changes from an initial value hw1 to
a final value hw. Similarly the base height changes from an initial value hb1 to hb.

834 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 uw
uw⋅nref
wall uw⋅∇thw1

hw1
hw

reference
surface X

nref hb
hb1
base
ub⋅∇thb1

ub -ub⋅nref

Figure 9-4: Diagram showing the displacement of the wall and the base with respect to the
reference surface, and the corresponding change in the height of the channel.

From the figure it is clear that:

h w = h w1 – u w ⋅ n ref – u w ⋅ ∇ t h w1
h b = h b1 + u b ⋅ n ref – u b ⋅ ∇ t h b1 (9-2)
h = hw + hb

It should be noted that similar corrections should be applied to the velocity of the wall,
if it is computed from the structural displacement. That is the velocity should be
modified by a term proportional to its spatial gradient. This correction term, is
however, a second order term, and consequently it is usually negligible in practical
circumstances. It is neglected in the thin film flow interface.

Consequently, provided that the definitions of the wall and base height from
Equation 9-2 are used, the Reynolds equation takes the form:

∂ ( ρh ) ∇
+ t ⋅ ( hρv av ) = 0 (9-3)
∂t

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 835

 The definition of the average flow velocity, vav, together with the forces that act on the
structure, remain to be specified.

Flow Models
The Navier-Stokes equations can be nondimensionalized for a domain whose width
(h0) is much smaller than its lateral dimension(s) (l0) (see Ref. 1 for a detailed
discussion). When Re(h0/l0)2<<1, and terms of order (h0/l0)2 are neglected, the
Navier-Stokes equations reduce to a modified form of the Stokes equation, which must
be considered in conjunction with the continuity relation.

wall

reference
surface

base

Figure 9-5: The coordinate system employed for the derivation of the average flow velocity.

The equations are most conveniently expressed by considering a local coordinate

system in which x’ and y’ are tangent to the plane of the reference surface, and z’ is
perpendicular to the surface, as illustrated in Figure 9-5. Using this coordinate system:

836 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂p f ∂  ∂v x'
= μ
∂ x' ∂ z'  ∂ z' 
∂p f ∂  ∂v y'
= μ
∂ y' ∂ z'  ∂ z' 
∂p
= 0
∂ z'

Here pf is the pressure resulting from the fluid flow, μ is the fluid viscosity, and (vx’,vy’)
is the fluid velocity in the reference plane (which varies in the z’ direction).

These equations can be integrated directly, yielding the in-plane velocity distributions,
by making the assumption that the viscosity represents the mean viscosity through the
film thickness. The following equations are derived:

∂v x' z' ∂p f C 1x' ∂v y' z' ∂p f ---------

C 1y'
= --- + ---------- = --- + - (9-4)
∂ z' μ ∂ x' μ ∂ z' μ ∂ y' μ

z ∂p f C 1x' z' z ∂p f C 1y' z'

2 2
v x' = ------- + -------------- + C 2x' v y' = ------- + -------------- + C 2y' (9-5)
2μ ∂ x' μ 2μ ∂ y' μ

The constants C1x’, C2x’, C1y’, and C2y’ are determined by the boundary conditions.
Equation 9-4 shows that the flow is a linear combination of laminar Poiseuille and
Couette flows. The velocity profile is quadratic in form, as shown in Equation 9-5.

The average flow rate in the reference plane, vav , is given by:

hw
1
 vx' dz'
2 2
--- ( h w – h w h b + h b ) ∂p f h w – h b
h --------------------------------------------- + -------------------- C + C 2x'
v av = – h b
1
= --- 6μ ∂ x' 2μ 1x'
hw h 2 2
( h w – h w h b + h b ) ∂p f h w – h b
--1- v y' dz'
h  ---------------------------------------------
6μ ∂ y'
+ -------------------- C + C 2y'
2μ 1y'
–hb

The forces acting on the walls are determined by the normal component of the viscous
stress tensor, τ, at the walls (τn - where n is the normal that points out of the fluid
domain). The viscous stress tensor takes the form:

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 837

 ∂v x'  ∂v y' ∂v x'  ∂v z' ∂v x'
– p f + 2μ μ + μ +
∂ x'  ∂ x' ∂ y'   ∂ x' ∂ z' 

τ = μ ( ∇v + ( ∇v ) ) – pI = μ  ∂v x' + ∂v y' – p + 2μ ∂v y' μ  ∂v z + ∂v y'

T
 ∂ y' ∂ x'  f ∂ y'  ∂ y' ∂ z' 
∂v x' ∂v z'  ∂v y' ∂v z ∂v z'
μ  + μ + – p f + 2μ
∂ z' ∂ x'   ∂ z' ∂ y'  ∂ z'

Neglecting the gradient terms, which are of order h0/l0, results in the following form
for the stress tensor:

∂v x'
–pf 0 μ
∂ z'

τ≈ ∂v y' (9-6)
0 –pf μ
∂ z'
∂v x' ∂v y'
μ μ –pf
∂ z' ∂ z'

The components of the stress tensor can be expressed in terms of the velocity and
pressure gradients using Equation 9-4. Note that the normals to both the wall and the
base are parallel to the z’ direction, to zeroth order in h0/l0. The forces acting on the
base and the wall are therefore given by:

h w ∂p f C 1x' h b ∂p f C 1x'
------- + ---------- ------ + ----------
μ ∂ x' μ μ ∂ x' μ
f w = h ∂p C f b = h ∂p C
w
- f + ---------
------ 1y'
- -----b- f + ---------
1y'
-
μ ∂ y' μ μ ∂ y' μ
pf –pf

GENERAL SLIP BOUNDARY CONDITION

Assuming a slip length of Lsw at the wall and a slip length of Lsb at the base, the general
slip boundary conditions are given by:

838 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 b L sb ∂v x'
v x' ( z' = – h b ) – v x' = --------- τ z'x' ( z' = – h b ) = L sb ( z' = – h b )
μ ∂ z'

b L sb ∂v y'
v y' ( z' = – h b ) – v y' = --------- τ z'y' ( z' = – h b ) = L sb ( z' = – h b )
μ ∂ z'

w L sw ∂v x'
v x' ( z' = h w ) – v x' = – ---------- τ z'x' ( z' = h w ) = – L sw ( z' = h w )
μ ∂ z'

w L sw ∂v y'
v y' ( z' = h w ) – v y' = – ---------- τ · ( z' = h w ) = – L sw ( z' = h w )
μ z'y' ∂ z'

For non-identical slip lengths the constants C1x’, C2x’, C1y’, and C2y’ take the following
values:

w b 2 2
μ ( v x' – v x' ) h b – h w – 2L sw h w + 2L sb h b ∂p f
C 1x' = ------------------------------------ – --------------------------------------------------------------------------
h + L sw + L sb 2 ( h + L sb + L sw ) ∂ x'
w b
v x' ( h b + L sb ) + v x' ( h w + L sw )
C 2x' = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
h + L sw + L sb
2 2
h w ( h b + L sb ) + h b ( h w + L sw ) + 2h w h b ( L sw + L sb ) + 2hL sw L sb ∂p f
– ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )μ ∂ x'
w b 2 2
μ ( v y' – v y' ) h b – h w – 2L sw h w + 2L sb h b ∂p f
C 1y' = ------------------------------------ – --------------------------------------------------------------------------
h + L sw + L sb 2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ y'
w b
v y' ( h b + L sb ) + v y' ( h w + L sw )
C 2y' = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
h + L sw + L sb
2 2
h w ( h b + L sb ) + h b ( h w + L sw ) + 2h w h b ( L sw + L sb ) + 2hL sw L sb ∂p f
– ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )μ ∂ y'

The average flow rate becomes:

w b w b
h ( v x' + v x' ) + 2 ( L sw v x' + L sb v x' ) h ( h 2 + 4h ( L sw + L sb ) + 12L sb L sw ) ∂p f
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- – ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) 12μ ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ x'
v av =
w b w b
h ( v y' + v y' ) + 2 ( L sw v y' + L sb v y' ) h ( h 2 + 4h ( L sw + L sb ) + 12L sb L sw ) ∂p f
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- – ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) 12μ ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ y'

which can be expressed in vector notation as:

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 839

 1 T
v av = -------------------------------------------- ( I – n r n r ) ( ( h + 2L sw )v w + ( h + 2L sb )v b )
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )
2
h ( h + 4h ( L sw + L sb ) + 12L sb L sw )
– --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ∇ t p f
12μ ( h + L sw + L sb )

The above equation can be written on the form:

v av = v av, c – v av, p ∇ t p f (9-7)

where vav,c is a term associated with Couette flow, and vav,p is a coefficient associated
with Poiseuille flow (see Table 9-2 below).

The forces acting on the two boundaries are given by:

b w
h ( h + 2L sb ) ∂p f ( v x' – v x' )μ
– -------------------------------------------- + ----------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ x' ( h + L sw + L sb )
fw = b w
h ( h + 2L sb ) ∂p f ( v y' – v y' )μ
– -------------------------------------------- + ----------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ y' ( h + L sw + L sb )
pf
(9-8)
w b
h ( h + 2L sw ) ∂p f ( v x'
– v x' )μ
– -------------------------------------------- + ----------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ x' ( h + L sw + L sb )
fb = w b
h ( h + 2L sw ) ∂p f ( v y' – v y' )μ
– -------------------------------------------- + ----------------------------------------
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) ∂ y' ( h + L sw + L sb )
–pf

Note that the z’ direction corresponds to the −nr direction. The x’ and y’ directions
correspond to the two tangent vectors in the plane. Using vector notation the forces
become:

h ( h + 2L sb ) μ T b w
f w = – -------------------------------------------- ∇ t p f + ------------------------------------ ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v ) + p f n w
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) h + L sw + L sb
h ( h + 2L sw ) μ T w b
f b = – -------------------------------------------- ∇ t p f + ------------------------------------ ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v ) + p f n b
2 ( h + L sw + L sb ) h + L sw + L sb

In Equation 9-8 it is assumed that nw=−nr and nb=nr. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the
accuracy of the force terms is improved slightly over the usual approximation (which

840 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

neglects the slope of the wall and base as it is of order h0/l0) by using the following
equations for nw and nb:

nw = ( – nr – ∇t hw )

nb = ( nr – ∇t hw )

These definitions are derived from Equation 9-4 and Equation 9-5 and include the
additional area that the pressure acts on as a result of the wall slope.

Once again, the force terms can be written on the form:

f w = – f w, p ∇ t p f + f w, c
(9-9)
f b = – f b, p ∇ t p f + f b, c

where fw,p is the Poiseuille coefficient for the force on the wall, and fw,c incorporates
the Couette and normal forces (due to the pressure) on the wall. Similarly, fb,p is the
Poiseuille coefficient for the force on the base, and fb,c incorporates the Couette and
normal forces (due to the pressure) on the base.

The cases of identical slip length and non-slip are limiting cases of the formulas derived
above. The main results are summarized in Table 9-2, where the constants defined in
Equation 9-7 and Equation 9-9 are used.

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 841

 TABLE 9-2: EQUATION VARIABLES FOR VARIOUS FLOW MODELS

VARIABLE DEFINITION

General Slip Flow Model

v av, c 1 T
-------------------------------------------
- ( I – n r n r ) ( ( h + 2L sb )v w + ( h + 2L sw )v b )
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )

v av, p 2
h ( h + 4h ( L sw + L sb ) + 12L sb L sw )
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
12μ ( h + L sw + L sb )
μ T
- ( I – nr nr ) ( vb – vw ) + pf n
-----------------------------------
f w, c h + L sw + L sb w

f w, p h ( h + 2L sb )
-------------------------------------------
-
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )

f b, c μ T w b
------------------------------------ ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v ) + p f n
h + L sw + L sb b

f b, p h ( h + 2L sw )
-------------------------------------------
-
2 ( h + L sw + L sb )

Equal Slip Lengths Flow Model Lsw=Lsb=L

v av, c 1 T
--- ( I – n r n r ) ( v w + v b )
2
v av, p 2
( h + 6L s h ) ⁄ ( 12μ )

f w, c μ -
-------------------
T b w
( I – nr nr ) ( v – v ) + pf nw
h + 2L s

f w, p h⁄2

f b, c μ -
-------------------
T w b
( I – nr nr ) ( v – v ) + pf nb
h + 2L s

f b, p h⁄2

842 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

TABLE 9-2: EQUATION VARIABLES FOR VARIOUS FLOW MODELS

VARIABLE DEFINITION

Non-Slip Flow Model Lsw=Lsb=0

v av, c 1 T
--- ( I – n r n r ) ( v w + v b )
2
v av, p
2
h ⁄ ( 12μ )

--μ- ( I – n r n r ) ( v b – v w ) + p f n
f w, c T
h w

f w, p h⁄2

--μ- ( I – n r n r ) ( v w – v b ) + p f n
f b, c T
h b

f b, p h⁄2

The Modified Reynolds Equation — Gas Flows

Thin-film gas flows are often isothermal, and in many cases the ideal gas law can be
assumed. Under these circumstances, the ideal gas law can be written on the form:

RT 0
p A = ----------- ρ
Mn

where T0 is the (constant) temperature of the gas, Mn is the molar mass of the gas, and
R is the universal gas constant. Here the total gas pressure, pA = pref+pf, where pA is
the absolute pressure and pf is the pressure developed as a result of the flow.
Substituting this relation into Equation 9-3 and dividing through by the constant
Mn/RT0 results in a modified form of the Reynolds equation:

∂ p
( h ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( hp A v av ) = 0 (9-10)
∂t A

This equation can be used to model isothermal flows of ideal gases. The average flow
rate and the forces acting on the bearings are computed in the same manner as for the
standard Reynolds equation.

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 843

 SLIP BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR GASES
For a gas, the slip length is often expressed using the mean free path, λ, and a tangential
momentum accommodation coefficient, α. The following definition of the mean free
path is used by COMSOL Multiphysics in the Thin-Film Flow interfaces:

1
---
μ 2RT 2
λ = ---  ------------
p  Mn 

This definition is different from the one in Ref. 5, and the variable in the physics
interfaces is named Equivalent free path, not mean free path, following the definition
and naming given in Ref. 3.

The slip length is then defined as:

π 2–α
L s = ------- λ  -------------
2 α

Values for the tangential-momentum-accommodation coefficients for various gas

surface combinations are given in Ref. 2.

Flow Models for Rarefied Gases

For gases at low pressure, the ratio of the gas mean free path, λ, to the gap size (known
as the Knudsen number: Kn = λ/h) grows. For Knudsen numbers greater than 0.1,
the gas cannot be treated using the continuum Navier-Stokes equations and the
Boltzmann equation must be solved instead.

At steady state, the solutions to the linearized Boltzmann equation for isothermal flow
in a narrow gap between parallel plates can be expressed as a combination of Poiseuille
and Couette flows. This is analogous to the solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations
in the limit of small h0/l0. Provided that the surfaces of the wall and base are identical
(which is normally the case in many practical applications), the Couette contribution
to the bulk fluid velocity is unchanged (it remains the mean of the wall and base
velocities for identical surfaces). The Poiseuille contribution to the flow is more
complicated for a rarefied gas. A practical approach, pioneered by Fukui and Kaneko
(Ref. 4) is to solve the linearized Boltzmann BGK equation over a range of Knudsen
numbers and to provide an empirical fit to the flow. This results in the following form
for the average velocity of the flow:

844 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 2
1 T h
v av = --- ( I – n r n r ) ( v w + v b ) – ---------------- ∇ t p
2 12μ eff
(9-11)
μ
μ eff = ----------------------------------------
Q ( Kn , α w , α b )

where Q(Kn, αw , αb) is a nondimensional function of the Knudsen number (Kn) and
the tangential momentum accommodation coefficient at the wall (αw) and base (αb).
Q(Kn, αw , αb) is obtained by solving the linearized Boltzmann BGK equation for
steady Poiseuille flow with a range of Knudsen numbers and slip coefficients. This
approach assumes that stationary solutions of the Boltzmann equation apply inside the
gap, that is, that the flow can be treated as quasi static.

Fukui and Kaneko provided data on Q(Kn, αw , αb) for the case where αw=αb
(Ref. 5), which was subsequently fitted to different empirical formulas by Veijola and
others (Ref. 6). Note also that additional, more accurate, data is available in Ref. 7.
Veijola provided two empirical formulas, which apply under different circumstances
with various degrees of accuracy:

• αw=αb=1 (available as the option Rarefied-Total Accommodation in COMSOL

Multiphysics):
1.159
Q ( Kn ,1 , 1 ) = 1 + 9.638Kn

(accurate to within 5% in the range 0<Kn<880)

• αw=αb=α (available as the option Rarefied-General Accommodation in COMSOL
Multiphysics):
˜
6Q ( D, α ) 1
Q ( Kn ,α ,α ) = ------------------------- D = --------
D Kn
0.17
˜ α - ------------------------------------
1.3 ( 1 – α )
- ln  ---  + --------
D 1 1- 0.64αD
Q ( D, α ) = ---- + -------------------- + 4.1 + + ------------------------------------
6 α 1.34 π  D  6.4
1 + 0.08D
1.83
1 + 1.12D
0.72

(accurate to within 1% in the ranges D>0.01, 0.7<α<1 and 0.01<Kn<100).

Both of these empirical models are available as flow models with the options listed.
Additionally, a user-defined relative flow rate function can be defined (which could, for
example, be based on an interpolation function derived from the original data in

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 845

 Ref. 7). Data on the tangential momentum accommodation coefficients for various
gas-surface combinations is available in Ref. 2.

Various definitions of the mean free path are used in the literature,
frequently without explanation. For compatibility with the existing
literature on thin-film flow, COMSOL Multiphysics uses the same mean
free path definition as Veijola and others.

In this definition the mean free path and Knudsen number are defined as:

1 1
--- ---
μ 2RT 2 μ 2RT 2
λ = ---  ------------ Kn = -------  ------------ (9-12)
p  Mn  ph  M n 

where μ is the gas viscosity, p is the gas pressure, R is the molar gas constant, T is the
temperature, and Mn is the molar mass of the gas. Ref. 2 also employs this definition
of the mean free path.

In many applications the forces acting on the wall and base are important. The pressure
in the gas can be computed correctly by solving Equations 9-10 and 9-11. However,
this approach provides only the normal component of the traction acting on the wall
and base. To obtain the shear forces, the approach adopted by Torczynski and Gallis
(Ref. 8) is used. They produced an empirical expression for the shear force that has the
correct behavior in the free molecular flow and continuum limits as well as in the limits
for the accommodation coefficient. Torczynski and Gallis solve the problem of pure
Couette flow and derive an empirical function for the slip length that predicts the
correct forces for the flow in the gap in several limiting cases. Their empirical
expression for the slip length is given by:

2 – α 2λ  d1 α 
L s = ------------- -----------  1 + --------------------------------------------- (9-13)
α πμ  1 + ( 2d Kn ) ⁄ π 2

846 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

where d1≈0.15 and d2≈0.59. In principle d1 and d2 are variables themselves, but they
were found to be constant to within the accuracy of the DSMC experiments used to
derive their values.

The slip length in Equation 9-13 (which is used in COMSOL

Multiphysics) differs slightly from the equivalent expression in Ref. 8 as a
result of a different definition of the mean free path (Torczynski and
Gallis’ mean free path is different from Equation 9-12 by a factor of
√π/2).

Equation 9-7 gives the following expressions for the shear forces on the wall and base
for pure Couette flow:

shear μ T b w
fw = -------------------- ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v )
h + 2L s
shear μ T w b
fb = -------------------- ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v )
h + 2L s

where Ls is taken from Equation 9-13.

A general flow incorporates both Poiseuille and Couette terms. Assuming that the
Poiseuille and Couette flows can be superposed, the forces become:

h μ T b w
f w = – --- ∇ t p + -------------------- ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v ) – pn r
2 h + 2L s
(9-14)
h μ T w b
f b = – --- ∇ t p + -------------------- ( I – n r n r ) ( v – v ) + pn r
2 h + 2L s

here Ls is derived from Equation 9-13 and p is obtained by solving Equation 9-10
with Equation 9-11. Strictly speaking, Torczynski and Gallis’ result applies for Couette
flow only and was derived for a more general variable-soft-sphere gas rather than for
the linearized BGK equations, using numerical simulations. From a practical
perspective, it seems likely that solutions of the linearized BGK equations would also
be fitted by these expressions, and in that case it should be possible to combine the

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 847

 forces using superposition. In the absence of a detailed proof Equation 9-14 is not the
default option for the force model, but is available as an additional option.

Both Veijola and others (Ref. 6) and Cercignani and others (Ref. 6)
provided data for the relative flow rate Q(Kn, σsw, σsb) in specific cases
where the wall and base have different accommodation coefficients. Since
no details on how to compute the forces acting on the walls for highly
rarefied gases were published, these models are not currently supported
in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Frequency-Domain Formulation
In the frequency domain it is necessary to make additional simplifications to the
equation system to produce a fully linearized equation set. In the general case, the
physical quantities in the Reynolds and flow equations take the form:

h w = h w1 + h˜ w h b = h b1 + h˜ b h = h w1 + h b1 + h˜ w + h˜ b = h 1 + h˜

p f = p˜f p A = p ref + p˜f

v w = v˜ w v b = v˜ b

Here the tilde denotes a harmonically varying component. The components marked
with the subscript 1 are static offsets to the harmonic terms. In order to linearize the
equation system, it is necessary to assume that the offsets are much larger than the
harmonic components. Practically speaking this means that the harmonically varying
pressures induced by the flow should be significantly smaller than the ambient
pressure, and the harmonic changes in the gap size due to the wall and base
displacements should be significantly less than the gap height itself. Given these
assumptions, the average fluid velocity can also be written on the form:

v av = v˜ av

since in general both the Couette and Poiseuille terms vary harmonically to first-order
accuracy.

Substituting these terms into the Reynolds equation gives:

∂ ρ h
( ( 1 + h˜ ) ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( ρ ( h 1 + h˜ )ṽ av ) = 0
∂t

848 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

In the frequency domain, the total absolute pressure pA is set to the reference pressure
pref because the deviation from the reference pressure pf in this case represents an
oscillating component and cannot be added to the pressure in a straightforward
manner. ρ is defined as a function of pA and so contains no small harmonic component.
The products of small harmonic terms result in second-order effects (at double the
frequency of interest) and can be neglected provided the harmonic terms are much
smaller than the static terms. The Reynolds equation therefore reduces to:

∂
ρ (h˜ ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( ρh 1 v˜ av ) = 0
∂t

Note that:

∂ ( h˜ ) = v˜ ⋅ n – v˜ ⋅ n – v˜ ⋅ ∇ h – v˜ ⋅ ∇ h
b ref w ref b t b1 w t w1 (9-15)
∂t

So the following result holds:

ρ ( v˜ b ⋅ n ref – v˜ w ⋅ n ref – v˜ b ⋅ ∇ t h b1 – v˜ w ⋅ ∇ t h w1 ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( ρh 1 v˜ av ) = 0 (9-16)

Dropping the tildes leads to the form of the equation shown in the equation display:

ρ ( v b ⋅ n ref – v w ⋅ n ref – v w ⋅ ∇ t h w1 – v b ⋅ ∇ t h b1 ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( ρh 1 v av ) = 0

The modified Reynolds Equation takes the following form:

∂ p
(( + p˜f ) ( h 1 + h˜ ) ) + ∇ t ⋅ ( ( p ref + p˜f ) ( h 1 + h˜ )ṽ av ) = 0 (9-17)
∂ t ref

Linearizing Equation 9-17 gives:

∂ h˜ h ∂ p˜
p ref + 1 + ∇ t ⋅ ( p ref h 1 v˜ av ) = 0
∂t ∂t f

Equation 9-15 can be used to substitute for the time derivative of the harmonic
component of h in the above equation, yielding:

p ref ( v˜ b ⋅ n ref – v˜ w ⋅ n ref – v˜ b ⋅ ∇ t h b1 – v˜ w ⋅ ∇ t h w1 )

∂ (9-18)
+ h 1 (p˜f) + ∇ t ⋅ ( p ref h 1 v˜ av ) = 0
∂t

Dropping the tildes and using complex notation to express the time derivative of pf
gives:

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 849

 p ref ( v b ⋅ n ref – v w ⋅ n ref – v w ⋅ ∇ t h w1 – v b ⋅ ∇ t h b1 )
+ iωh 1 p f + ∇ t ⋅ ( p ref h 1 v av ) = 0

Equation 9-16 and Equation 9-18 are used as the basis for the frequency domain
formulation in the Thin-Film Flow interfaces. It is important to note that these
equations are independent of the harmonic components of the displacement, since
those terms lead to second-order contributions to the frequency-domain response
(that is, they produce a response proportional to the square of the harmonic term,
which results in a signal at twice the driving frequency).

Since the frequency domain results do not depend on the variation in the
displacement, the additional displacement setting has no effect on the
solution in a frequency-domain problem (unless the velocity is computed
from it by selecting Calculate from wall displacement or Calculate from base
displacement in the wall and base velocity settings, respectively). This is
reflected in the equations given above (and in the equation display in the
physics interface) but can be nonintuitive, particularly when setting up a
model that is coupled with a structural analysis. If the velocity of both the
wall and the base is set to zero, then in the frequency domain there is no
response.

Boundary Conditions
Most of the boundary conditions either constrain the flow into the system by
prescribing a fluid velocity or constrain the pressure at the boundary. The border flow
condition is slightly more complex, requiring the gradient of the pressure to be set by
specifying the value of the gradient of the pressure in the anti-normal direction such
that:

– n ⋅ ∇p = Γ

The Border flow type selection list enables four ways that the value of Γ can be specified:

• The User defined option allows the value of Γ to be directly entered as an expression
in a text field. This allows for arbitrary normal pressure gradients.
• The two Acoustic elongation options assume a linear gradient in the pressure outside
the domain away from the boundary. The pressure gradient is calculated by dividing
the pressure at the boundary, pf, by an elongation length, ΔL. The elongation

850 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 length can either be specified as an absolute length or as a fraction of the domain
width, such that:
pf
– n ⋅ ∇p = --------
ΔL

• The Out-of-plane motion option calculates the pressure gradient at the boundary
using a model detailed in Ref. 9. This model is suitable for including the effects of
gas damping when fluid in a thin gap is subjected to out-of-plane motion of the
walls or base (for example, when a microbeam is oscillating above an extended
surface). When this option is selected, text fields are provided to specify the required
coefficients (ζ,η,χ) and the pressure gradient is defined according to

12μU-  6Λ – 1 p – p ∞
– n ⋅ ∇p = ζ --------------
2 
1 + χ ------- + ---------------
-
ηh h ηh
2

where U is the out-of-plane velocity, Λ is the slip length at the walls, and p∞ is the
ambient pressure far from the boundary away from the domain.

Cavitation
Several types of cavitation can occur in thin film flow. When the flow pressure drops
below the ambient pressure, the air and other gases dissolved within the fluid are
released. This phenomenon, characteristic of loaded bearings, is known as cavitation
or gaseous cavitation. In some cases involving high frequency varying loads, as in
internal combustion engines, the pressure might drop below the fluid vapor pressure,
which is lower than the ambient pressure. In this case, bubbles are formed by rapid
evaporation or boiling of the fluid. This phenomenon is known as vapor cavitation.
The cavitation feature in COMSOL Multiphysics is designed to address gaseous
cavitation.

The implementation of the cavitation feature is based on a modified version of the

Elrod’s algorithm (Ref. 10 and Ref. 11). This algorithm automatically predicts film
rupture and reformation in bearings and offers a reasonable compromise between
accuracy and practicality. It is applicable to heavily and moderately loaded bearings but
it is not suitable when surface tension plays an important role.

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 851

 Elrod and Adam’s algorithm is based on the JFO cavitation theory, a widely accepted
and adopted theory developed by Jakobson (Ref. 12), Floberg (Ref. 13 and Ref. 14),
and Olsson (Ref. 15). The JFO theory divides the flow in two regions:

• A full film region where the pressure varies but is limited from below by the
cavitation pressure.
• A cavitation region where only part of the volume is occupied by the fluid. Because
of the presence of the gas in the void fraction, the pressure in this region is assumed
to be constant and equal to the cavitation pressure.

Elrod and Adams derived a general form of the Reynolds equation, Equation 9-1, by
introducing a switch function, g, equal to 1 in the full film region and 0 in the
cavitation region. This switch function allows for solving a single equation for both the
full film and the cavitation region and leads to a modified version of Equation 9-7:

v av = v av, c – gv av, p ∇tp f

where the second and third terms on the left-hand side correspond to the average
Couette and average Poiseuille velocities, respectively. This switch function sets the
average Poiseuille velocity to zero in the cavitation region.

Because the average Poiseuille velocity is set to zero in the cavitation

region, the density needs to be a function of the pressure variable and is
defined as

βp f
ρ = ρc e

where β is the compressibility, and ρc is the density at the cavitation

pressure. A density that is not pressure dependent would lead to empty
equations in the cavitation region since the pressure variable pf would no
longer present in the governing equations.

A variable θ can be defined, given by:

ρ
θ = -----
ρc

In the cavitation region (θ < 1) θ represents the fractional film content.

852 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

NOTE ABOUT RESULTS POSTPROCESSING
While the pressure is constant and equal to the cavitation pressure in the cavitation
region, the computed pressure is negative in this region. The value of this negative
pressure can be physically be interpreted as the volume fraction of fluid in the
cavitation region. The actual or physical pressure, available in the postprocessing
section as tffs.p, is equal to the computed pressure in the full film region (θ ≥ 1) and
equal to the cavitation pressure in the cavitation region (θ < 1).

References for the Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

1. B.J. Hamrock, S.R. Schmid and B.O. Jacobson, Fundamentals of Fluid Film
Lubrication, Marcel Dekker, 2004.

2. F. Sharipov, “Data on the Velocity Slip and Temperature Jump on a Gas-Solid

Interface”, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 40, no. 2, 023101, 2011.

3. Felix Sharipov, Rarefied Gas Dynamics: Fundamentals for Research and Practice,
Wiley, 2016.

4. S. Fukui and R. Kaneko, “Analysis of Ultra-Thin Gas Film Lubrication Based on

Linearized Boltzmann Equation: First Report — Derivation of a Generalized
Lubrication Equation Including Thermal Creep Flow”, J. Tribology, vol. 110, no. 2,
pp. 253–261, 1988.

5. S. Fukui and R. Kaneko, “A Database for Interpolation of Poiseuille Flow Rates for
High Knudsen Number Lubrication”, Transactions of the ASME, vol. 112, pp. 78–
83, 1990.

6. T. Veijola, H. Kuisma, and J. Lahdenperä, “The Influence of Gas-surface Interaction

on Gas Film Damping in a Silicon Accelerometer”, Sensors and Actuators, vol. A 66,
pp. 83–92, 1998.

7. C. Cercignani, Maria Lampis, and Silvia Lorenzani “Variational Approach to Gas

Flows in Microchannels”, Physics of Fluids, vol. 16, no. 9, 2004.

8. J.R. Torczynski and M.A. Gallis, “DSMC-Based Shear-Stress/Velocity-Slip

Boundary Condition for Navier-Stokes Couette-Flow Simulations”, 27th
International Symposium on Rarefied Gas Dynamics (2010), AIP Conf. Proc. vol.
1333, pp. 802–807, 2011.

9. M. A. Gallis and J. R. Torczynski, “An Improved Reynolds-Equation Model for Gas

Damping of Microbeam Motion”, Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol.
13, pp. 653–659, 2004.

THEORY FOR THE THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 853

 10. H. G.Elrod, “A Cavitation Algorithm”, J. Lubrication Technology, vol. 103, no.
3, pp. 350–354, 1981.

11. H. G. Elrod and M. L. Adams, “A computer program for cavitation and starvation
problems”, Cavitation and related phenomena in lubrication, Proceedings of the
1st Leeds–Lyon Symposium on Tribology, University of Leeds, UK, 1974.

12. B. Jacobson and L. Floberg, “The finite journal bearing considering vaporization”,
Transactions of Chalmers University Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, vol. 190, pp. 1–
119, 1957.

13. L. Floberg, “On journal bearing lubrication considering the tensile strength of the
liquid lubricant”, Transactions of the Machine Elements Division, Lund Technical
University, Lund, Sweden, pp. 1–26, 1973.

14. L. Floberg, “Cavitation boundary conditions with regard to the number of

streamers and tensile strength of the liquid,” Cavitation and related phenomena in
lubrication, Proceedings of the 1st Leeds–Lyon Symposium on Tribology, University
of Leeds, UK, pp. 31–36 (Mechanical Engineering Publications Ltd, London, UK),
1974.

15. K.O. Olsson, “Cavitation in dynamically loaded bearings”, Transactions of

Chalmers University Technology, Göteborg, Sweden, vol. 308, 1965.

854 | CHAPTER 9: THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES

 10

Shallow Water Interface

The physics interface described in this section is found under the Shallow Water
Equations branch ( ).

In this chapter

• The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

855
 T he S ha llo w W at er E q u at i on s, Ti me
Explicit Interface
In this section:

• The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow Water Equations
Interface

Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit Interface

The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit (swe) interface ( ), found under the
Shallow Water Equations branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve
the Shallow Water equations in a 1D or 2D geometry. These equations model the flow
of a free surface in a fluid under the assumption that the horizontal scale is much
greater than the vertical length scale. They are frequently used for modeling both
oceanographic and atmospheric fluid flow. Models of such systems can be used to
predict areas affected by pollution, coastal erosion, and polar ice-cap melting, provided
the fluid layer is shallow enough.

Comprehensive modeling of such phenomena using physical descriptions such as the

Navier–Stokes equations can often be problematic, due to the scale of the modeling
domains as well as the resolution of free surfaces. The shallow water equations, of
which there are a number of representations, provide an easier description of such
phenomena.

A typical configuration for the flow of fluid in a shallow layer is shown in

Figure 10-1.This physics interface approximates free surface problems where the
thickness h of the fluid layer, or water depth, is small compared to the lateral
dimensions of the geometry. The lower boundary of the fluid is treated as a
nonpenetrable wall and has a height hb(x, y) over a reference xy-plane placed at z = 0.
The topography of the bottom is assumed constant in time. Using the shallow water
equations, the water depth h and water flux q are computed in a reduced dimension

856 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

of the problem. Free surface problems that would require a 3D geometry when
modeled with the Navier–Stokes equations can be modeled in 2D instead. 2D
problems can also be reduced to 1D.
z
y

hb
H

Figure 10-1: An example illustrating a typical configuration for shallow water equations.
A water layer of thickness h flows over a nonflat bottom with topography represented by hb.
The total height of the free surface over the reference xy plane at z = 0 is represented by H.
The gravity points downward (−z direction) and gives rise to a hydrostatic pressure
ranging from 0 atm at the free surface to a value of gρh at the bottom.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Domain Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, you can add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit to select physics features
from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is swe.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 857

 PHYSICAL MODEL
Select a value for Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s). The default value is gconst. It
should be a global quantity.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

Select the CFL number. This CFL number will be used when defining the Cell time scale
expression swe.wtc used in the Time-Explicit Solver if the Time stepping is set to From
expressions. Note that the method will be unstable for CFL numbers larger than 1.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Explicit Solver

DISCRETIZATION
The Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit interface uses Nodal discontinuous
Lagrange functions with Constant Element order.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Water depth h (SI unit: m) and the
Water flux q (SI unit: m2 /s). The names can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a component.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow Water
Equations Interface
• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

• Dam Breaking on a Column, Shallow Water Equations: Application

Library path
CFD_Module/Shallow_Water_Equations/dam_break_column_sw
• Tsunami Runup onto a Complex 3D Beach, Monai Valley:
Application Library path
CFD_Module/Shallow_Water_Equations/monai_runup

858 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Shallow
Water Equations Interface
For the Shallow Water Equations interface, the following domain, boundary, edge,
point, and pair nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described in this section:

• Domain Properties • Outlet

• Domain Source • Symmetry
• Initial Values • Wall
• Inlet • Water Source
• Interior Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Domain Properties
Use the Domain Properties node to set the bottom topography and material properties.

BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY
The Bottom height (SI unit: m) is defined as a user defined expression. It can depend
on the geometry coordinates, but it is expected to be constant in time. The default is
set to 0 m.

MATERIAL
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is taken User defined. Enter a different value or
expression. The default is 1000 kg/m3. The density can also be set From material. In
that case, select the Material to use. By default, the material used is the Domain material.
This corresponds to the material currently applied to the domain in question.

The value of the density is not used when solving but to compute the hydrostatic
pressure and pressure force.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 859

 Domain Source
The Domain Source node specifies a momentum source on the right hand-side of the
momentum equation

∂q
+ ∇ ⋅  u ⊗ q + g --- I = – gh B ∇h B + F
h
∂t 2

This source term can model different effects, such as bottom friction, the Coriolis
force, or wind stresses.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the water depth and water flux that serve
as an initial condition for a transient simulation. If more than one set of initial values
is required, add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Initial values — Primitive variables (the
default), or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select Specify water depth (the default) or Specify total height.

• For Specify water depth provide a value or an expression for the water depth. The
default is 0 m.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the initial water depth
is calculated as

h = max ( 0, H – h b )

The variable used to define the water flux q will depend on the selection of the Initial
values selection list:

• For Primitive variables provide a value or an expression for the components of the
velocity u. The default is 0 m /s. The initial water depth is then calculated as

q = hu

• For Conservative variables provide a value or an expression for the components of

the water flux q. The default is 0 m2 /s.

860 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

Inlet
Use the Inlet node to define boundaries where the fluid enters the domain. This
condition uses the HLLC Riemann Solver (Ref. 1) to determine the incoming and
outgoing characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Input State— Primitive variables (the default),
or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select User defined (the default), From domain values, or Specify
total height.

• For User defined provide a value or an expression for the water depth h0. The default
is 0 m.
• When From domain values is selected, the value of the water depth used to defined
the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at
supercritical inlets both water depth and water flux should be specified.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H0. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the external water
depth is calculated as

h 0 = max ( 0, H 0 – h b )

The variable used to define the water flux q0 will depend on the Input state:

• For Primitive variables the velocity is provided. If User defined is select, provide a
value or an expression for the components of the velocity u0. The default is 0 m /s.
The incoming water flux is then calculated as

q0 = h0 u0

If From domain values is selected, the value of the velocity used to defined the
external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at supercritical
inlets both water depth and water flux should be specified.
• For Conservative variables the water flux is required. If User defined is select, provide
a value or an expression for the components of the water flux q0. The default value
is 0 m2 /s. If From domain values is selected, the value of the water flux used to
defined the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that at
supercritical inlets both water depth and water flux should be specified.

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 861

 Outlet
The Outlet node defines boundaries where the fluid leaves the domain. This condition
uses the HLLC Riemann Solver (Ref. 1) to determine the incoming and outgoing
characteristics and provide the appropriate flux.

FLOW PROPERTIES
Select the set of variables to be defined in Input State — Primitive variables (the
default), or Conservative variables.

For the Water depth, select User defined (the default), From domain values, or Specify
total height.

• For User defined provide a value or an expression for the water depth h0. The default
is 0 m.
• When From domain values is selected, the value of the water depth used to defined
the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that in
supercritical outlets both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain
values.
• For Specify total height provide a value or an expression for the Total height of the
water column H0. The default is 0 m. When using this option, the external water
depth is calculated as

h 0 = max ( 0, H 0 – h b )

The variable used to define the external water flux q0 will depend on the Input state:

• For Primitive variables the velocity is provided. If User defined is select, provide a
value or an expression for the components of the velocity u0. The default is 0 m /s.
The outgoing water flux is then calculated as

q0 = h0 u0

If From domain values is selected, the value of the velocity used to defined the
external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. Note that in supercritical
outlets both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain values.
• For Conservative variables the water flux is required. If User defined is select, provide
a value or an expression for the components of the water flux q0. The default value
is 0 m2 /s. If From domain values is selected, the value of the water flux used to
defined the external state is taken from the solution at the boundary. In supercritical
outlets both water depth and water flux should be taken from domain values.

862 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions preventing fluid flow in the
direction perpendicular to the boundary. A no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0, is
enforced. Since viscous effects are neglected, no boundary layer develops.

The no-penetration condition is imposed weakly setting the following flux:

Γh ⋅ n = 0

2
h
– Γ q ⋅ n = g ------ n
2

• Theory for the Shallow Water Equations Interface

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, u ⋅ n = 0.
This node sets the same flux condition as the Wall feature.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides an Axial Symmetry node
prescribing u ⋅ n = 0 on the axial symmetry boundaries.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall node prevents fluid flow in the direction perpendicular to the
boundary. It can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except that
it applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the
dependent variables across the boundary. The Interior Wall condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-penetration condition on interior
curves and surfaces instead.

Water Source
The Water Source node specifies a height source in the continuity equation

THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS, TIME EXPLICIT INTERFACE | 863

 ∂h
+∇⋅q = Q
∂t

864 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

Theory for the Shallow Water
Equations Interface
This section describes the theory for the Shallow Water Equations, Time Explicit
interface:

• The Shallow Water Equations

• The Numerical Method
• Wave Speed and Flow Regimes
• Forces on Boundaries
• References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces

The Shallow Water Equations

Figure 10-2 shows a typical configuration for the flow of fluid in a shallow layer. The
upper boundary is referred to as the free surface and the lower boundary of the water
layer is referred to as the bottom. The bottom height, hb, is measured with respect to
a reference xy-plane placed at z = 0 and it is assumed to be constant in time. The total
height of the free surface is denoted H. The height of the water layer is typically
measured in relation to the bottom height and denoted h. In dry regions, h = 0 and
H = hb.

The equations of continuity and momentum of incompressible inviscid flow subjected

T
to gravity in the vertical direction ( g = [ 0, 0, – g ] ) are

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (10-1)

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u 1 ∂p
+u +v +w = – --- (10-2)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ∂x

∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p
+u +v +w = – --- (10-3)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂y

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 865

 ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w 1 ∂p
+u +v +w = – --- – g (10-4)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ρ ∂z

z
y

hb
H

Figure 10-2: An example illustrating a typical configuration for shallow water equations.
A water layer of thickness h flows over a nonflat bottom with topography represented by hb.
The total height of the free surface over the reference xy plane at z = 0 is represented by H.
The gravity points downward (−z direction) and gives rise to a hydrostatic pressure
ranging from 0 atm at the free surface to a value of p = ρgh at the bottom.

Assuming that the water depth h is much smaller than the lateral dimensions of the
Dw
geometry, the vertical accelerations can be neglected, --------- = 0 , and Equation 10-4
Dt
reduces to the hydrostatic pressure relation

∂p
= – ρg  p = ρg ( h + h b – z ) (10-5)
∂z
∂p ∂p
Both h(x, y) and hb(x, y) are independent of z, implying that = = 0.
∂x ∂y
Equation 10-2 and Equation 10-3 then reduces to

∂u ∂u ∂u ∂
+u +v = –g ( h + hb ) (10-6)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂x

∂v ∂v ∂v
+u +v = –g ∂ ( h + hb ) (10-7)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y

which is the momentum equation of the 2D shallow water equations in

nonconservative form. Note that u and v represent the horizontal velocity components
averaged over h.

866 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

The continuity equation is recovered from Equation 10-1 when assuming no
penetration on both the free surface and bottom boundaries:

∂h ∂
+ uh + ∂ vh = 0 (10-8)
∂t ∂x ∂y

See Chapter 2 in Ref. 1 for more details. Equation 10-6, Equation 10-7, and
Equation 10-8 can be combined to express the shallow water equations in conservative
form

∂h ∂q x ∂q y
+ + = 0
∂t ∂x ∂y

∂q x ∂  2
∂ ∂h b
+  uq x + g ------ + ( uq y ) = – gh
h
(10-9)
∂t ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x

∂q y ∂ 2 ∂h b
+ ( vq x ) + ∂  vq x + g ------ = – gh
h
(10-10)
∂t ∂x ∂y  2  ∂y

qx and qy are the components of the water flux in the x and y directions, respectively.
T
The vector q = [ q x, q y, 0 ] can be obtained from the horizontally averaged velocity
T
u = [ u, v, 0 ] as

q = uh (10-11)

Two different sets of variables are used in the context of the shallow water equations:
the conservative variables h and q, and the primitive variables h and u.

The Numerical Method

The physics interface solves the shallow water equations using the Discontinuous
Galerkin (DG) method in space together with explicit time stepping. The
computations are restricted to transient problems. The basis functions are the nodal
discontinuous Lagrange shape functions with constant order.

The numerical method used solves wave problems of the form

∂w
da + ∇ ⋅ Γ(w) = f
∂t

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 867

 When solving the shallow water equations, da is an identity matrix, w is the vector of
conservative variables, Γ represents the conservative fluxes, and f includes the source
terms:

w = h
q

T
Γh q
Γ(w) = = 2
Γq h
q ⊗ u + g ------ I
2

0
f =
– gh∇h b

Here, Γh and Γq represent the fluxes of the continuity and momentum equations,
respectively.

Discontinuous Galerkin methods use shape functions that are continuous in the
interior of each mesh element, but discontinuous across element boundaries. A
numerical flux must be defined between element boundaries and the dependent
variables are not required to be continuous on faces between adjacent mesh elements.
The default numerical flux is the Lax-Friedrichs flux, which uses an average of the
physical fluxes together with a penalty term.

After discretization in space, the system of equations is integrated in time. The

standard procedure is to use an explicit Runge-Kutta method. The physics interface uses
the third-order SSP (strong stability preserving) Runge–Kutta method per default.

The time step in explicit computations is limited by the CFL condition; see Time
Explicit Integrator in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. The maximum
stable time step is proportional to the smallest mesh element size h and inversely
proportional to the maximum wave speed in the domain. On unstructured meshes
with local refinement regions only a few elements are small, yet these dictate the overall
time step for the whole problem. In such cases, the use of Local Time Stepping is

868 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

advisable. COMSOL Multiphysics provides the Adams-Bashforth 3 (local) time stepping
method.

Theory for the Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

The bottom topography hb is entered as a user-defined expression. In order to ensure

that its gradient can be evaluated and is constant on every element, it is first projected
onto the variable swe.hb_linear using linear Lagrangian shape functions. For
plotting purposes, the provided expression for hb is also projected onto the variable
swe.hb_constant using the same piecewise discontinuous shape functions as for h.
These projections are done in a Stationary study step that must be computed before
the Time Dependent study step is used to compute the shallow water equations. When
starting a new model from the Model Wizard, the stationary study step is added per
default when selecting a Time Dependent study.

Wave Speed and Flow Regimes

The fluxes of the momentum and continuity equations, Γ(w), provide information
about the speed of the waves. The eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix of the fluxes
T
evaluated at a direction provided by an arbitrary unit vector n = [ n x, n y, 0 ] are

λ 1 = u ⋅ n – c, λ 2 = u ⋅ n, λ 3 = u ⋅ n + c

where c is the wave celerity,

c = gh

The eigenvalues of the Jacobian of the fluxes provide information about the velocity at
which information is propagated. When |u ⋅ n| > c, the eigenvalues have different sign
and information is propagated both upward and downward. If |u ⋅ n| < c, all
eigenvalues have the same sign and all waves travel in the same direction.

The Froude number Fr is a dimensionless number typically used to define the flow
regime by specifying the ratio of the inertial forces to gravity forces. In case of the
Shallow Water Equations, it is defined as

u
Fr = -------
c

THEORY FOR THE SHALLOW WATER EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 869

 The flow regime can be divided into subcritical flow, Fr < 1, and supercritial flow,
Fr > 1. This classification is specially important when defining boundary conditions.
In supercritical flows, all characteristics must be specified at inlets and extrapolated
from the domain at outlets. In subcritical flows, the characteristics are partially
specified from exterior values and partially extrapolated from interior values for both
inlets and outlets.

Forces on Boundaries
The physics interface provides variables to compute the pressure force acting on
boundaries. In the shallow water equations the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic

p = ρg ( h + h b – z )

The pressure force per unit length on a boundary can be obtained integrating along h

0
2
h
Fp =  ρgzn dz = ρg ------ n
2
h

The components of the vector Fp are available as variables in the Shallow Water
Equations, Time Explicit physics interface and can be accessed in 2D using swe.Fpx
and swe.Fpy. In 1D only the swe.Fpx component is defined. Note that these variables
represent a force per unit length; the total force on a boundary is obtained integrating
over the whole boundary.

The Dam Breaking on a Column, Shallow Water Equations Application

Library model is an example of how to use these variables. Application
Library path CFD_Module/Shallow_Water_Equations/dam_break_column_sw

References for the Shallow Water Equations Interfaces

1. E.F. Toro, Shock capturing methods for free-surface shallow flows, John Wiley &
Sons, 2001.

870 | CHAPTER 10: SHALLOW WATER INTERFACE

 11

Mathematics, Moving Interface Branch

The Level Set and Phase Field Moving interfaces are available under the
Mathematics>Moving Interface branch ( ). Also see Modeling Multiphase Flow to
help you choose the best interface to start with.

In this chapter:

• The Level Set Interface

• The Phase Field Interface
• The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces
• The Ternary Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces
• Theory for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

871
 T he L e v e l S e t In t erfac e
The Level Set (ls) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ) when adding an interface, is used to track moving interfaces in fluid-flow
models by solving a transport equation for the level set function. Simulations using the
Level Set interface are always time dependent since the position of an interface almost
always depends on its history.

The main node is the Level Set Model feature, which adds the level set equation and
provides an interface for defining the level set properties and the velocity field.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Level Set Model, No Flow (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Level Set to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ls.

STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select
Stabilization in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Both are active by default and should remain selected for optimal
performance.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

872 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Level Set interface uses Linear elements. When coupling the physics
interface to a fluid flow interface by means of The Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
Coupling Feature, exact conservation of the integral of φ is obtained using the
nonconservative form provided that the discretization order of the level set variable is
equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Level set variable phi. The name can be
changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a
model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Level Set Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Flow Interfaces

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 873

 Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Level Set Interface
The Level Set Interface has the following domain, boundary and pair nodes described.

• Continuity • Periodic Condition (see Periodic

• Initial Values Boundary Conditions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
• Inlet
Manual)
• Level Set Model
• Symmetry1
• No Flow
• Thin Barrier
• Open Boundary
• Outlet1
1 Described for the Laminar Flow interface.

Boundary conditions for axial symmetry boundaries are not required. For
the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically provides a suitable
boundary condition and adds an Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the
axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Level Set Model

The Level Set Model node adds the following transport equation governing a level set
function φ

∂φ ∇φ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ----------
∂t ∇φ

and provides the options to define the associated level set parameters and the velocity
field.

874 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

LEVEL SET PARAMETERS
Enter a value or expression for the Reinitialization parameter γ (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 1 m/s.

Enter a value or expression for the Parameter controlling interface thickness els
(SI unit: m). The default expression is ls.hmax/2, which means that the value is half
of the maximum mesh element size in the region through which the interface passes.

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the level set
function through convection.

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the level set variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the separating interface, can
be specified in two ways. The level set function can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the level set function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Level set variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 ( φ = 0 ) or Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the level set variable φ .

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 ( φ = 0 )
and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

See Initializing the Level Set Function.

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 875

 Inlet

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 ( φ = 0 )
• Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 )
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function φ must
be specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default
is 0.

No Flow
The No Flow node adds a boundary condition that represents boundaries where there
is no flow across the boundary. This is the default boundary condition.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up transport across boundaries where both convective inflow and
outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the domain,
an exterior value of the level set function is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Level Set interface.

LEVEL SET CONDITION

Specify Level Set Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 ( φ = 0 )
• Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 )
• Specify level set function explicitly

When the Specify level set function explicitly is selected, the level set function φ must
be specified explicitly. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1, where the default
is 0.

876 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier feature is available on interior boundaries and introduces a
discontinuity in the level set variable across the boundary. A No Flow condition is
prescribed on each side. This node can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the level set variable is continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the No Flow node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 877

 The Phase Field Interface
The Phase Field (pf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving interfaces by
solving two transport equations, one for the phase field variable, φ , and one for the
mixing energy density, ψ. The position of the interface is determined by minimizing
the free energy.

The main node is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase field equations
and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase Field Model, Wetted Wall (the default boundary condition), Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Phase Field to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pf.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
settings options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Phase Field interface uses Linear elements.

878 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields) Phase field variable φ and Phase
field help variable ψ. If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface
• Theory for the Phase Field Interface

Phase Separation: Application Library path

CFD_Module/Multiphase_Flow/phase_separation

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Phase Field Interface
The Phase Field Interface includes the following domain, boundary, and pair nodes,
listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Periodic Condition (see Periodic Boundary

• Continuity
Conditions in the COMSOL Multiphysics
• Initial Values
Reference Manual)
• Inlet
• Phase Field Model
• Interior Wetted Wall
• Symmetry
• Outlet
• Wetted Wall

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 879

 Phase Field Model
The Phase Field Model node adds the equations described in The Equations for the
Phase Field Method. The node defines the associated phase field parameters including
surface tension and interface thickness.

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

• Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

• Parameter controlling interface thickness epf (SI unit: m). The default expression is
pf.hmax/2, which means that the value is half of the maximum mesh element size
in the region through which the interface passes.
• Mobility tuning parameter χ (SI unit: m·s/kg). This parameter determines the time
scale of the Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related
time scale for the interface. Select User defined (default) or Calculate from velocity.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the mobility tunning parameter χ.
The default is 1 m·s/kg, which is a good starting point for most models.

For Calculate from velocity enter a value for the expected velocity at the interface U
(SI unit: m/s). χ is then computed as:
Uh max
χ = ------------------
3 2σε

where hmax is the largest mesh cell size.

Keep the χ parameter value large enough to maintain a constant interface

thickness but still low enough to not damp the convective motion. A too
high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of droplets.

EXTERNAL FREE ENERGY

Add a source of external free energy to the phase field equations. This modifies the last
term on the right-hand side of the equation:

2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
λ ∂φ

The external free energy f (SI unit: J/m3) is a user-defined free energy. In most cases,
the external free energy can be set to zero. Manually differentiate the expression for

880 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

the external free energy with respect to φ and then enter it into the φ -derivative of
external free energy field ∂f ⁄ ∂φ .

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the phase field
variables through convection.

Additional Sources of Free Energy

Initial Values
Use the Initial Values node to define the initial values of the phase field variable.

INITIAL VALUES
The initial positions of the two fluids, and consequently the fluid-fluid interface, can
be specified in two ways. The phase field variable can be specified explicitly, using any
type of variable or expression. Alternatively the fluid occupying the current domain
selection can be specified. Using the former method, a Time Dependent study step can
directly be solved. Using the latter method, a Phase Initialization study step is needed
in order to initialize the phase field function across the fluid-fluid interface.

Specify the Phase field variable as one of the following:

• To specify the fluid occupying the domain, select Specify phase (default). Then select
the check box Fluid 1 ( φ = – 1 ) or Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ).
• For User defined enter a value or expression for the phase field variable φ .

If the Phase Initialization ( ) study step is being used, for the

initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 ( φ = – 1 )
and the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 881

 Inlet

SETTINGS
Specify Phase field Condition according to one of the following options:

• Fluid 1 ( φ = – 1 )
• Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 )
• Specify phase field function explicitly

When Specify phase field function explicitly is selected, the phase field function φ must
be specified in the entire domain. The value must be in the range from -1 to 1, where
the default is 1.

Wetted Wall
The Wetted Wall node is the default boundary condition representing wetted walls.
Along a wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified, and across it, the
mass flow is zero. This is prescribed by

2 2
n ⋅ ε ∇φ = ε cos ( θ w ) ∇φ

in combination with

γλ
n ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ = 0
ε

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young's equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (11-1)

where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

WETTED WALL
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw (SI
unit: rad). The default value is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values
or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase
2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

882 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Interior Wetted Wall
The Interior Wetted Wall feature is available on interior boundaries. It is similar to the
Wetted Wall condition except that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary and
introduces a discontinuity of the phase field variables across the boundary. This node
can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Along an interior wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified on both
sides of the boundary, and across it, the mass flow is zero.

WETTED WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw. The default value is π/2 rad.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the phase field variables are continuous across the pair.

The parts of the boundary where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination
boundary and vice versa will get conditions from other boundary conditions under the
physics interface acting as fallback boundary conditions on the nonoverlapping parts.
By default, the Wetted Wall node is used as fallback unless another feature has been
selected for the boundary.

About Identity and Contact Pairs

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right-click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity.

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 883

 The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces
The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Shell (pftffs) interface ( ) and the Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow, Edge (pftffs) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving Interface
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, are used to track moving interfaces by
solving two transport equations, one for the phase field variable, φ , and one for the
mixing energy density, ψ, in thin-film flows. The fluids are assumed to flow in a narrow
channel, that is represented, within the geometry, by a surface in the Phase Field
Thin-Film Flow, Shell (pftffs) interface and an edge in the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge
(pftffs) interface. The position of the interface is determined by minimizing the free
energy.

The main node is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase field thin-film
flow equations and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties.

When the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Shell (pftffs) physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder — Phase Field Model, Wetted
Wall (the default boundary condition), Initial Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. And
when the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge (pftffs) physics interface is added, the
following default nodes are also added in the Model Builder — Phase Field Model, Initial
Values, and Initial Values, Fluid 2. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Phase Field
Thin-Film Flow, Shell (pftffs) or Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge (pftffs) to select physics
features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is pftffs.

884 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this sections, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
settings options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Specify the Convective term as Nonconservative form (default) or Conservative form.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interface uses Linear elements.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields) Phase field variable φ and Phase
field help variable ψ. If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be
unique within a model.

• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

• Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces
• Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow
Interfaces
The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces include the following boundary, edge and
point nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Initial Values • Phase Field Model

• Inlet • Symmetry
• Interior Wetted Wall • Wetted Wall
• Outlet

THE PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 885

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Phase Field Model

The Equations for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method are added in the Phase Field
Model node. The node defines the associated phase field parameters including surface
tension and interface thickness.

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

• Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

• Parameter controlling interface thickness epf (SI unit: m). The default expression is
pf.hmax/2, which means that the value is half of the maximum mesh element size
in the region through which the interface passes.
• Mobility tuning parameter χ (SI unit: m·s/kg). This parameter determines the time
scale of the Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related
time scale for the interface. Select User defined (default) or Calculate from velocity.
For User defined enter a value or expression for the mobility tunning parameter χ.
The default is 1 m·s/kg, which is a good starting point for most models.

For Calculate from velocity enter a value for the expected velocity at the interface U
(SI unit: m/s). χ is then computed as:
Uh max
χ = ------------------
3 2σε

where hmax is the largest mesh cell size.

Keep the χ parameter value large enough to maintain a constant interface

thickness but still low enough to not damp the convective motion. A too
high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of droplets.

EXTERNAL FREE ENERGY

Add a source of external free energy to the phase field equations. This modifies the last
term on the right-hand side of the equation:

886 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

 2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ t ⋅ ε ∇ t φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
λ ∂φ

The external free energy f (SI unit: J/m3) is a user-defined free energy. In most cases,
the external free energy can be set to zero. Manually differentiate the expression for
the external free energy with respect to φ and then enter it into the φ -derivative of
external free energy field ∂f ⁄ ∂φ .

CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s). The applied velocity field transports the phase field
variables through convection.

Additional Sources of Free Energy

Wetted Wall
The Wetted Wall node is the default boundary condition representing wetted walls.
Along a wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified, and across it, the
mass flow is zero. This is prescribed by

2 2
n ⋅ ε ∇ t φ = ε cos ( θ w ) ∇ t φ

in combination with

γλ
n ⋅ -----2- ∇ t ψ = 0
ε

The contact angle θw can be defined directly or from Young's equation, which
considers the components of the forces in the plane of the surface:

σ cos ( θ w ) + γ s2 = γ s1 (11-2)

where γs1 is the surface energy density on the fluid 1 — solid (wall) interface and γs2
is the surface energy density on the fluid 2 — solid (wall) interface.

WETTED WALL
Select an option from the Specify contact angle list — Directly (the default) or Through
Young’s equation. For Directly enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw (SI

THE PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 887

 unit: rad). The default value is π/2 radians. For Through Young’s equation enter values
or expressions for Phase 1-Solid surface energy density γs1 (SI unit: J/m2) and Phase
2-Solid surface energy density γs2 (SI unit: J/m2).

The wetted wall condtion is not available for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow, Edge (pftffs)
interface.

Interior Wetted Wall

The Interior Wetted Wall feature is available on interior boundaries. It is similar to the
Wetted Wall condition except that it applies on both sides of an interior boundary and
introduces a discontinuity of the phase field variables across the boundary. This node
can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

Along an interior wetted wall the contact angle for the fluid, θw, is specified on both
sides of the boundary, and across it, the mass flow is zero.

WETTED WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Contact angle θw. The default value is π/2 rad.

The interior wetted wall condtion is not available for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow,
Edge (pftffs) interface.

888 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

The Ternary Phase Field Interface
The Ternary Phase Field (terpf) interface ( ), found under the Mathematics>Moving
Interface branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to track moving
interfaces separating three different phases. The interface solves four transport
equations: two equations governing phase field variables, φ A and φ B , and two
equations for the corresponding generalized chemical potentials, ηA and ηB. The
position of the interfaces are determined by minimization of the free energy.

The phase field variables are defined such that they represent the volume fraction of
the respective phase. The volume fraction of the third phase not solved for, but
computed from the natural constraint that the sum of the volume fractions of all phases
is one.

The main node of the interface is the Phase Field Model feature, which adds the phase
field equations and provides an interface for defining the phase field model properties
such as surface tensions and parameters controlling the interface thickness.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Mixture Properties, Wetted Wall and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Ternary Phase Field to select physics features from the context
menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is terpf.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the dependent variables (fields):

• Phase field variable, fluid A phiA

• Phase field variable, fluid B phiB

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 889

 • Generalized chemical potential of fluid A etaA
• Generalized chemical potential of fluid B etaB

If required, edit the any of the names, but dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces includes the following domain, boundary,
and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking the
interface node to access the context menu (all users).

• Initial Values • Phase Field Model

• Inlet • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wetted Wall

Mixture Properties
The Mixture Properties node adds the equations described in The Equations of the
Ternary Phase Field Method. The node defines the associated phase field parameters,
including the surface tension coefficients and parameters controlling the thickness of
the interfaces.

MODEL INPUTS
The surface tension coefficients can be defined through user inputs, variables, or by
selecting a material. For the latter option, an additional input, the temperature, may
be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,

890 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

PHASE FIELD PARAMETERS

Define the following phase field parameters. Enter a value or expression for the:

• Parameter controlling interface thickness ε. The default expression applied is

terpf.hmax*sqrt(2), which means that the thickness is related to the maximum
mesh element size in the domain. If the element size in the regions passed by the
interfaces is known beforehand, it is recommended to apply a value of ε in that
order.
• Mobility tuning parameter M0. This parameter determines the time scale of the
Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and it thereby also governs the diffusion-related time scale
for the interface. Keep the mobility tuning parameter value large enough to
maintain a constant interface thickness but still low enough to not damp the
convective motion. A too high mobility can also lead to excessive diffusion of
droplets. By default, M0 is set to 1·10−4 m3/s, which is a good starting point for
most models.
• Additional free bulk energy Λ. When needed, add a user-defined expression for the
additional bulk energy.

SURFACE TENSION
Specify the surface tension coefficients for the three types of interfaces present.

• To use a predefined expression, select Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or

Library coefficient, liquid/liquid interface. Then select an option from the list that
displays below (Water/Air, Glycerol/Air, and so forth).
• For User defined, enter a value or expression for the surface tension coefficient.

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 891

 CONVECTION
Enter values or expressions for the components (u, v, and w in 3D, for example) of the
Velocity field u. The applied velocity field transports the phase field variables through
convection.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the phase field variables that can serve as
initial conditions for a transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for Phase field variable A and the Phase field variable
B corresponding to the mass fraction of the respective phase. The value must be in the
range from 0 to 1.

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective flow
of the phases into the adjacent domain.

INLET
Specify phase field variables, corresponding to the volume fractions, of phase A and
phase B. The value must be in the range from 0 to 1. The volume fraction of phase C
will be evaluated such that the sum of all mass fractions equals one.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
φ i = φ i, 0 , n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

for phases i = A and B.

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net convective
outflow from the domain.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

892 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

for phases i = A and B.

Symmetry
Use this condition on boundaries that represent a geometrical symmetry line across
which the flow of the fluid phases is zero.

Mathematically this boundary condition imposes

M0
n ⋅ -------- ∇η i = 0
Σi

for phases i = A and B.

Wetted Wall
Use this node to represent a solid wall along which the contact angles between the
separating interfaces and the wall should be prescribed.

WETTED WALL
Enter values or expressions for the contact angles for the three interfaces types:

• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase C θα.

• The Contact angle of interface from phase B to phase C θβ.
• The Contact angle of interface from phase A to phase B θγ.

THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 893

 The definition of the contact angles with respect to the wall are shown in the figure
below.

Figure 11-1: Definitions of the contact angels in the Wetted Wall feature of the Ternary
Phase Field interface.

894 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Theory for the Level Set Interface
Fluid flow with moving interfaces or boundaries occur in a number of different
applications, such as fluid-structure interaction, multiphase flows, and flexible
membranes moving in a liquid. One way to track moving interfaces is to use a level set
method. A certain contour line of the globally defined function, the level set function,
then represents the interface between the phases. For The Level Set Interface the
fluid-fluid interface can be advected with an arbitrary velocity field.

In this section:

• The Level Set Method

• Conservative and Nonconservative Form
• Initializing the Level Set Function
• Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface
• Reference for the Level Set Interface

The Level Set Method

The level set method is a technique to represent moving interfaces or boundaries using
a fixed mesh. It is useful for problems where the computational domain can be divided
into two domains separated by an interface. Each of the two domains can consist of
several parts. Figure 11-2 shows an example where one of the domains consists of two
separated parts. The interface is represented by a certain level set or isocontour of a
globally defined function, the level set function φ . In COMSOL Multiphysics, φ is a
smooth step function that equals zero (0) in one domain and one (1) in the other.
Across the interface, there is a smooth transition from zero to one. The interface is

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 895

 defined by the 0.5 isocontour, or level set, of φ . Figure 11-3 shows the level set
representation of the interface in Figure 11-2.

Figure 11-2: An example of two domains divided by an interface. In this case, one of the
domains consists of two parts. Figure 11-3 shows the corresponding level set representation.

Figure 11-3: A surface plot of the level set function corresponding to Figure 11-2.

The physics interface solves Equation 11-3 in order to move the interface with the
velocity field u:

∂φ ∇φ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅  ε∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (11-3)
∂t ∇φ

The terms on the left-hand side give the correct motion of the interface, while those
on the right-hand side are necessary for numerical stability. The parameter, ε,
determines the thickness of the region where φ varies smoothly from zero to one and
is typically of the same order as the size of the elements of the mesh. By default, ε is

896 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

constant within each domain and equals the largest value of the mesh size, h, within
the domain. The parameter γ determines the amount of reinitialization or stabilization
of the level set function. It needs to be tuned for each specific problem. If γ is too small,
the thickness of the interface might not remain constant and oscillations in φ can
appear because of numerical instabilities. On the other hand, if γ is too large the
interface moves incorrectly. A suitable value for γ is the maximum magnitude of the
velocity field u.

Conservative and Nonconservative Form

If the velocity is divergence free, that is, if

∇⋅u = 0 (11-4)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 11-4 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

∂φ ∇φ
+ ∇ ⋅ ( uφ ) = γ∇ ⋅  ε∇φ – φ ( 1 – φ ) ---------- (11-5)
∂t  ∇φ 

in Settings window for The Level Set Interface.

Using the conservative level set form, exact numerical conservation of the integral of
φ is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the level set function approximately, but
this is sufficient for most applications.

When the Level Set interface is coupled to a fluid flow interface by means of The
Two-Phase Flow, Level Set Coupling Feature, exact conservation of the integral of φ
is obtained using the nonconservative form provided that the discretization order of
the level set variable is equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

Rising Bubble: path CFD_Module/Multiphase_Tutorials/rising_bubble_2daxi

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 897

 Initializing the Level Set Function
If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the level set
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For that study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the level set function
according to the following expression:

1
φ 0 = -------------------------
–D ⁄ ε
-
1 + e wi

in domains initially outside the interface and

1 -
φ 0 = -----------------------
D ⁄ε
1 + e wi

in domains initially inside the interface. Here, inside refers to domains where φ < 0.5
and outside refers to domains where φ > 0.5 .

f the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, for the
initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes should use Specify phase: Fluid 1 ( φ = 0 )
and the other Specify phase: Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

• The Level Set Interface

• Studies and Solvers and Time Dependent with Initialization in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables For Geometric Properties of the Interface

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

∇φ
n = ---------- (11-6)
∇φ φ = 0.5

898 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal ls.intnorm.

Reference for the Level Set Interface

1. E. Olsson and G. Kreiss, “A Conservative Level Set Method for Two Phase Flow,”
J. Comput. Phys., vol. 210, pp. 225–246, 2005.

THEORY FOR THE LEVEL SET INTERFACE | 899

 Theory for the Phase Field Interface
The Phase Field Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations for the Phase Field Method
• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms
• Additional Sources of Free Energy
• Initializing the Phase Field Function
• Variables and Expressions
• Reference for the Phase Field Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the interfacial layer is governed by a phase field variable, φ . The surface
tension force is added to the Navier-Stokes equations as a body force by multiplying
the chemical potential of the system by the gradient of the phase field variable.

The evolution of the phase field variable is governed by the Cahn-Hilliard equation,
which is a 4th-order PDE. The Phase Field interface decomposes the Cahn-Hilliard
equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn-Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of two immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion,
and anchoring energy. For simple two-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained,
which results in a rather simple expression for the free energy.

The Equations for the Phase Field Method

The free energy is a functional of a dimensionless phase field parameter, φ :

900 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

   --2- ε ∇φ + f ( φ, T ) dV =
1
 ftot dV
2 2
F ( φ, ∇φ, T ) =


where ε is a measure of the interface thickness. Equation 11-7 describes the evolution
of the phase field parameter:

∂φ ∂f tot ∂f tot
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ )φ = ∇ ⋅ γ∇  –∇⋅ (11-7)
∂t ∂φ ∂ ∇φ 

where ftot (SI unit: J/m3) is the total free energy density of the system, and u
(SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field for the advection. The right-hand side of
Equation 11-7 aims to minimize the total free energy with a relaxation time controlled
by the mobility γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg).

The free energy density of an isothermal mixture of two immiscible fluids is the sum
of the mixing energy and elastic energy. The mixing energy assumes the
Ginzburg-Landau form:

1 2 λ 2 2
f mix ( φ, ∇φ ) = --- λ ∇φ + --------2- ( φ – 1 )
2 4ε

where φ is the dimensionless phase field variable, defined such that the volume fraction
of the components of the fluid are (1+ φ )/2 and (1− φ )/2. The quantity λ
(SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a capillary width that
scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are related to the
surface tension coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- --- (11-8)
3 ε

The PDE governing the phase field variable is the Cahn-Hilliard equation:

∂φ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = ∇ ⋅ γ ∇G (11-9)
∂t

where G (SI unit: Pa) is the chemical potential and γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg) is the mobility.
The mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and must be
large enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness but small enough so that the
convective terms are not overly damped. In COMSOL Multiphysics the mobility is
determined by a mobility tuning parameter that is a function of the interface thickness
γ = χε2. The chemical potential is:

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 901

 2
2 φ( φ – 1 )
G = λ – ∇ φ + ----------------------
2
- (11-10)
ε

The Cahn-Hilliard equation forces φ to take a value of 1 or −1 except in a very thin

region on the fluid-fluid interface. The Phase Field interface breaks Equation 11-9 up
into two second-order PDEs:

∂φ γλ
+ u ⋅ ∇φ = ∇ ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ (11-11)
∂t ε

2 2
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ (11-12)

Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

If the velocity field is divergence free, that is, if

∇⋅u = 0 (11-13)

the volume (area for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the boundaries. To obtain exact numerical
conservation in cases where Equation 11-13 is not fully satisfied, switch to the
conservative form

∂φ γλ
+ ∇ ⋅ uφ = ∇ ⋅ -----2- ∇ψ
∂t ε

Using the conservative phase field form, exact numerical conservation of the integral
of φ is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the phase field function approximately, but
this is sufficient for most applications.

When the Phase Field interface is coupled to a fluid flow interface by means of The
Two-Phase Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature, conservation of the integral of φ
using the nonconservative form can be improved provided that the discretization order
of the phase field variables is equal to or lower than the order of the pressure.

902 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Additional Sources of Free Energy
In some cases, the expression for the free energy can include other sources. It is
possible to incorporate these by modifying Equation 11-12:

2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ ⋅ ε ∇φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(11-14)
 λ  ∂φ

where f is a user-defined free energy (SI unit: J/m3).

The expression for the external free energy must be manually

differentiated with respect to φ and then entered into the ∂f ⁄ ∂φ field.
In most cases, the external free energy is zero.

Initializing the Phase Field Function

If the study type Transient with Phase Initialization is used in the model, the phase field
variable is first initialized so that it varies smoothly between zero and one over the
interface. For this study, two study steps are created, Phase Initialization and Time
Dependent. The Phase Initialization step solves for the distance to the initial interface,
Dwi. The Time Dependent step then uses the initial condition for the phase field
function according to the following expression:

D wi
φ 0 = – tanh  ----------
2ε

in Fluid 1 and

D wi
φ 0 = tanh  ----------
 2ε

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 903

 in Fluid 2. These expressions are based on a steady, analytic solution to
Equation 11-11 and Equation 11-12 for a straight, non-moving interface.

If the Transient with Phase Initialization ( ) study is being used, for the
initialization to work it is crucial that there are two Initial Values nodes.
One of the Initial Values nodes is set to Specify phase: Fluid 1 ( φ = – 1 )
and the other to Specify phase: Fluid 2 ( φ = 1 ). The initial fluid-fluid
interface is then automatically placed on all interior boundaries between
both phases. The smooth initialization is not used in domains with User
defined initial values.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Variables and Expressions

The physics interface defines the chemical potential, which can be rewritten in terms
of the dependent variable ψ,

λψ
G = ------2-
ε

and the surface tension force F = G∇ φ .

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

∇φ
n = ---------- (11-15)
∇φ φ = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal pf.intnorm.

The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) of the interface can be computed by entering the
following expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

904 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Reference for the Phase Field Interface
1. P. Yue, C. Zhou, J.J. Feng, C.F. Ollivier-Gooch, and H.H. Hu, “Phase-field
Simulations of Interfacial Dynamics in Viscoelastic Fluids Using Finite Elements with
Adaptive Meshing,” J. Comp. Phys., vol. 219, pp. 47–67, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 905

 Theory for the Phase Field Thin-Film
Flow Interfaces
The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces’ theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method

• The Equations for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method
• Conservative and Nonconservative Forms
• Additional Sources of Free Energy
• Initializing the Phase Field Function
• Variables and Expressions
• Reference for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

About the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method

The phase field thin-film flow method offers an attractive alternative to more
established methods for solving multiphase flow problems in narrow channels
represented by a surface or an edge within the geometry. Instead of directly tracking
the interface between two fluids, the interfacial layer is governed by a phase field
variable, φ . The surface tension force is added to the momentum equation as a body
force by multiplying the chemical potential of the system by the gradient of the phase
field variable.

The evolution of the phase field variable is governed by the Cahn-Hilliard equation,
which is a 4th-order PDE. The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interface decomposes the
Cahn-Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn-Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of two immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion,
and anchoring energy. For simple two-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained,
which results in a rather simple expression for the free energy.

906 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

The Equations for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Method
The free energy is a functional of a dimensionless phase field parameter, φ :

  --2- ε ∇ t φ + f ( φ, T ) dV =
1
 ftot dV
2 2
F ( φ, ∇ t φ, T ) =


where ε is a measure of the interface thickness. Equation 11-16 describes the evolution
of the phase field parameter:

∂φ  ∂f tot ∂f tot 
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ t )φ = ∇ t ⋅ γ∇ t  – ∇t ⋅  (11-16)
∂t  ∂ φ ∂ ∇ t φ

where ftot (SI unit: J/m3) is the total free energy density of the system, and u
(SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field for the advection. The right-hand side of
Equation 11-16 aims to minimize the total free energy with a relaxation time
controlled by the mobility γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg).

The free energy density of an isothermal mixture of two immiscible fluids is the sum
of the mixing energy and elastic energy. The mixing energy assumes the
Ginzburg-Landau form:

1 2 λ 2 2
f mix ( φ, ∇ t φ ) = --- λ ∇ t φ + --------2- ( φ – 1 )
2 4ε

where φ is the dimensionless phase field variable, defined such that the volume fraction
of the components of the fluid are (1+ φ )/2 and (1− φ )/2. The quantity λ
(SI unit: N) is the mixing energy density and ε (SI unit: m) is a capillary width that
scales with the thickness of the interface. These two parameters are related to the
surface tension coefficient, σ (SI unit: N/m), through the equation

2 2λ
σ = ----------- --- (11-17)
3 ε

The PDE governing the phase field variable is the Cahn-Hilliard equation:

∂φ
+ u ⋅ ∇ t φ = ∇ t ⋅ γ∇ t G (11-18)
∂t

where G (SI unit: Pa) is the chemical potential and γ (SI unit: m3·s/kg) is the mobility.
The mobility determines the time scale of the Cahn-Hilliard diffusion and must be
large enough to retain a constant interfacial thickness but small enough so that the

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 907

 convective terms are not overly damped. In COMSOL Multiphysics the mobility is
determined by a mobility tuning parameter that is a function of the interface thickness
γ = χε2. The chemical potential is:

2
2 φ(φ – 1)
G = λ – ∇ t φ + ----------------------
2
- (11-19)
ε

The Cahn-Hilliard equation forces φ to take a value of 1 or −1 except in a very thin

region on the fluid-fluid interface. The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interface breaks
Equation 11-9 up into two second-order PDEs:

∂φ γλ
+ u ⋅ ∇ t φ = ∇ t ⋅ -----2- ∇ t ψ (11-20)
∂t ε

2 2
ψ = – ∇ t ⋅ ε ∇ t φ + ( φ – 1 )φ (11-21)

Conservative and Nonconservative Forms

If the velocity field is divergence free, that is, if

∇t ⋅ u = 0 (11-22)

the area (length for 2D problems) bounded by the interface should be conserved if
there is no inflow or outflow through the edges (nodes for 2D problems). To obtain
exact numerical conservation in cases where Equation 11-22 is not fully satisfied,
switch to the conservative form

∂φ γλ
+ ∇ t ⋅ uφ = ∇ t ⋅ -----2- ∇ t ψ
∂t ε

Using the conservative phase field form, exact numerical conservation of the integral
of φ is obtained. However, the nonconservative form is better suited for numerical
calculations and usually converges more easily. The nonconservative form, which is the
default form, only conserves the integral of the phase field function approximately, but
this is sufficient for most applications.

When the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow interface is coupled to a Thin-Film Flow
interface by means of The Two-Phase Thin-Film Flow, Phase Field Coupling Feature,
conservation of the integral of φ using the nonconservative form can be improved

908 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

provided that the discretization order of the phase field variables is equal to or lower
than the order of the film pressure.

Additional Sources of Free Energy

In some cases, the expression for the free energy can include other sources. It is
possible to incorporate these by modifying Equation 11-21:

2
ε ∂f
ψ = – ∇ t ⋅ ε ∇ t φ + ( φ – 1 )φ +  -----
2 2
(11-23)
λ ∂φ

where f is a user-defined free energy (SI unit: J/m3).

The expression for the external free energy must be manually

differentiated with respect to φ and then entered into the ∂f ⁄ ∂φ field.
In most cases, the external free energy is zero.

Initializing the Phase Field Function

See Initializing the Phase Field Function.

Variables and Expressions

The physics interface defines the chemical potential, which can be rewritten in terms
of the dependent variable ψ,

λψ
G = -------
2
ε

and the surface tension force F = G∇ t φ .

Geometric properties of the interface are often needed. The unit normal to the
interface is given by

∇t φ
n = ------------ (11-24)
∇t φ
φ = 0.5

This variable is available in the physics interface as the interface normal

pftffs.intnorm.

THEORY FOR THE PHASE FIELD THIN-FILM FLOW INTERFACES | 909

 The mean curvature (SI unit: 1/m) of the interface can be computed by entering the
following expression:

G
κ = 2 ( 1 + φ ) ( 1 – φ ) ----
σ

Reference for the Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces

See Reference for the Phase Field Interface.

910 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

Theory for the Ternary Phase Field
Interface
The Phase Field Thin-Film Flow Interfaces theory is described in this section:

• About the Phase Field Method

• The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method
• Reference for the Phase Field Interface

About the Phase Field Method

The phase field method offers an attractive alternative to more established methods for
solving multiphase flow problems. Instead of directly tracking the interface between
two fluids, the separating interface is identified as the region across which the phase
field variables of the two adjacent phases varies between its two limiting values. The
surface tension force is added to the Navier-Stokes equations as a body force by
multiplying the chemical potentials of the phases by the gradient of the corresponding
phase field variable.

The evolution of each phase field variable is governed by the Cahn-Hilliard equation,
which is a 4th-order PDE. The Ternary Phase Field interface decomposes each
Cahn-Hilliard equation into two second-order PDEs.

For the level set method, the fluid interface is simply advected with the flow field. The
Cahn-Hilliard equation, on the other hand, does not only convect the fluid interface,
but it also ensures that the total energy of the system diminishes correctly. The phase
field method thus includes more physics than the level set method.

The free energy of a system of immiscible fluids consists of mixing, bulk distortion, and
anchoring energy. For simple three-phase flows, only the mixing energy is retained.

The Equations of the Ternary Phase Field Method

The ternary phase field model implemented in COMSOL is based the work of Boyer
and co-workers in Ref. 1. The model is designed in order to study the evolution of the
three immiscible phases, denoted phase A, phase B, and phase C, respectively. Each
phase is represented by a phase field variable φ , which takes values between 0 and 1.
The phase field variables satisfies the constraint

THEORY FOR THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 911

  φi = 0 (11-25)
i = A, B , C

and density of each phase is assumed to be constant. This implies that the phase field
variable corresponds directly to the volume fraction of the phase in question.

The free energy of the three phase system is defined as a function of the phase field
variables in the manner of:

2 2 2 2 2 2
F = σ AB φ A φ B + σ AC φ A φ C + σ BC φ B φ C +
(11-26)
2 2 2
φ A φ B φ C ( Σ A φ A + Σ B φ B + Σ C φ C ) + Λφ A φ B φ C

Here the σij denotes the surface tension coefficient of the interface separating phase i
and j, and the capillary parameters Σi are defined as

Σ i = σ ij + σ ik – σ jk (11-27)

and Λ is a function or parameter specifying the additional free bulk energy. By default
Λ is zero. In this case it can be seen that the free energy in Equation 11-26 represents
the mixing energy, since only interfaces between two phases (where two phase field
variables varies between the limiting values) contributes to the free energy.

The Cahn-Hilliard equations to be solved for each phase p = A, B, C are

∂φ ∂u j φ i ∂ M 0 ∂η i
--------i + ------------- = --------  -------- --------
∂t ∂x j ∂x j  Σ i ∂x j 
(11-28)
4Σ T 1  ∂F ∂F   3
 ---- ∂η i
∂ -  -------
η i = ----------
ε  - -------- -------- – --- -------
 Σ j  ∂φ i – ∂φ j  4 εΣ j ∂x j  ∂x j 
-
j≠i

It can be noted that the Cahn-Hilliard equation is originally a 4th-order PDE. In

COMSOL Multiphysics, that PDE is split up into two second-order PDEs by
introducing an additional dependent variable, the generalized potential η, one for each
phase. In order to satisfy Equation 11-26, two sets of the equations shown in
Equation 11-28 are solved, those for phase A and phase B. The phase field variable,
and correspondingly the mass fraction, for fluid C is computed from Equation 11-26.

In Equation 11-28 ε (SI unit: 1/m) is a parameter controlling the interface thickness,
M0 (SI unit: m3/s) is a molecular mobility parameter, and the parameter ΣT is defined
as

912 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH

 3 1 1 1
------ = ------- + ------- + ------- (11-29)
ΣT ΣA ΣB ΣC

Reference for the Ternary Phase Field Interface

1. F. Boyer, C. Lapuerta, S. Minjeaud, B. Piar, and M. Quintard,
“Cahn-Hilliard/Navier-Stokes model for the simulation of three-phase flows”,
Transport in Porous Media, vol. 28, pp. 463–484, 2010.

THEORY FOR THE TERNARY PHASE FIELD INTERFACE | 913

914 | CHAPTER 11: MATHEMATICS, MOVING INTERFACE BRANCH
 12

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains application-specific terms used in the CFD

Module software and documentation. For finite element modeling terms,
mathematical terms, and geometry and CAD terms, see the glossary in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to more information
about a term, see the index.

915
 Glossary of Terms
Algebraic yPlus turbulence model Low-Reynolds number, algebraic turbulence
model that solves for the wall distance, y+ (in viscous units).

anisotropy Directional dependence. Is often obtained from homogenization of

regular structures, for example, monolithic structures in tubular reactors.

Boussinesq approximation An approximate method to include buoyancy effects, for

which the density variation is only taken into account in the buoyancy term.

Brinkman equations A set of equations extending Darcy’s law in order to include

transport of momentum through shear in porous media flow.

boundary layer Region in a fluid close to a solid surface. This region is characterized
by large gradients in velocity and other properties. In turbulent flow it is often treated
with approximate methods because of the difficulty to resolve the large gradients.

bubbly flow Flow with gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid.

conjugate heat transfer heat transfer that takes place in both a solid and a fluid.

creeping flow Models the Navier-Stokes equations without the contribution of the
inertial term. This is often referred to as Stokes flow and is applicable when viscous flow
dominates, such as in very small channels or microfluidic devices.

crosswind diffusion A numerical technique for stabilization of convection-dominated

PDEs by artificially adding diffusion perpendicular to the direction of the streamlines.
It reduces oscillations near sharp gradients.

Darcy’s law Equation that gives the velocity vector as proportional to the pressure
gradient. Often used to describe flow in porous media.

Euler flow Flow of an inviscid fluid. Often used to approximate high speed
compressible flows.

Euler-Euler model A two-phase flow model that treats both phases as interpenetrating
continua.

916 | CHAPTER 12: GLOSSARY

Fick’s laws The first law states that the diffusive flux of a solute infinitely diluted in a
solvent is proportional to its concentration gradient. The second law introduces the
first law into a differential material balance for the temporal evolution of the solute.

fluid-structure interaction (FSI) When a fluid flow affects the deformation of a solid
object and vice versa.

fully developed laminar flow Laminar flow along a channel or pipe that only has
velocity components in the streamwise direction. The velocity profile does not change
downstream.

Hagen-Poiseuille equation See Poiseuille’s law.

heterogeneous reaction Reaction that takes place at the interface between two phases.

homogeneous reaction Reaction that takes place in the bulk of a solution.

intrinsic volume averages The physical properties of the fluid, such as density,
viscosity, and pressure.

k-ε turbulence model A two-equation RANS model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, and the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, ε. Utilizes wall
functions to describe the flow close to solid walls.

k-ω turbulence model A two-equation RANS model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, and the specific dissipation rate, ω. Utilizes wall functions to describe
the flow close to solid walls.

L-VEL turbulence model Low-Reynolds number, algebraic turbulence model that

+
solves for the tangential velocity near walls, u (in viscous units).

law of the wall See wall function.

low-Reynolds k-ε turbulence model Two-equation RANS model that solves for the
turbulence kinetic energy, k, and the dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy, ε.
Includes damping functions to be able to describe regions with low Reynolds numbers,
for example close to solid walls.

low Reynolds number The region close to the wall where viscous effects dominate.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 917

 Mach number Dimensionless number equal to the flow velocity over the speed of
sound. Compressible effects because of the flow speed can be neglected for Mach
number less than 0.3.

multiphase flow Flow with more than one phase.

Navier-Stokes equations The momentum balance equation for a Newtonian fluid

coupled to the equation of continuity. The meaning of the term originally only referred
to the momentum balance but it is here used in the more general context.

Newtonian fluid A fluid for which the stress is proportional to the rate of strain. Many
common fluids such as water and air are Newtonian.

non-Newtonian fluid A fluid for which the stress is not proportional to the rate of
strain. Blood and suspensions of polymers are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

Poiseuille’s law Equation stating that the mass rate of flow in a tube is proportional to
the pressure difference per unit length and to the fourth power of the tube radius. The
law is valid for fully developed laminar flow.

pressure work Describes the reversible conversion of work, performed by the pressure
in a fluid, into heat.

RANS Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes; implying that a time-averaging operation

has been performed on the equations of motion. The Reynolds’ stresses (correlations
between fluctuating velocity components) obtained from this averaging operation
have to be obtained from an additional set of equations — a closure. Turbulence
models like the k-ε and Spalart-Allmaras models constitute closures to the RANS
equations.

Reynolds number A dimensionless number that describes the relative importance

between inertia and viscous effects. Flow at high Reynolds number have a tendency to
undergo transition to turbulence.

Soret effect Mass diffusion due to temperature gradients in multicomponent

mixtures.

Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model A one-equation turbulence model that solves for

the undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity, ν̃ T .

918 | CHAPTER 12: GLOSSARY

SST turbulence model The Shear Stress Transport model is a two-equation
turbulence model combining the k-ω model in the near-wall region with the k-ε model
in the free stream. The SST model is a low-Reynolds number model requiring high
resolution near walls. The dependent variables are the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and
the turbulent dissipation rate, ω.

Stokes flow See creeping flow.

streamline diffusion A numerical technique for stabilization of convection-dominated

PDEs by artificially adding upwinding in the streamline direction.

superficial volume averages The flow velocities, which correspond to a unit volume of
the medium including both pores and matrix. They are sometimes called Darcy
velocities, defined as volume flow rates per unit cross section of the medium.

thin-film flow Flow in very thin regions where the it can be assumed to always have a
fully developed profile.

viscous heating The heat irreversibly generated from work by viscous friction in a
fluid.

wall function Semi-empirical expression for the boundary-layer flow used in

turbulence models. Often based on the assumption of negligible variations in the
pressure gradient tangential to the surface.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS | 919

920 | CHAPTER 12: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 99, 358, 368, 380, 409, thin-film flow 826
448, 472, 502, 631 boundary nodes
added mass force 564 Brinkman equations 626
adding species 675 bubbly flow 407
adsorption 708 Darcy’s law interface 601
AKN model 224 Euler-Euler interface 470
algebraic yPlus turbulence model 77 free and porous media flow 635
Application Libraries window 32 hmnf interfaces 300
application library examples level set 874
convection and diffusion 687 mm interfaces 446
Darcy’s law 601 phase field 879
inlet (laminar flow) 113 rmspf interfaces 142
laminar flow 77 ternary phase field 890
laminar, two-phase flow, moving mesh tff interface 821, 859
383 tffs interfaces 821, 859
level set conservation 897 tpdl interface 644
migration in electric field 687 transport of concentrated species 723
mixture model, laminar flow 429 transport of diluted species 682
phase field 879 boundary stress (node) 118
rmspf interfaces 138 Boussinesq approximation 283, 289
shallow water equations, time explicit Brinkman equations 660
858 Brinkman equations interface 623
storage model 609 theory 660
thin-film flow, shell 819 bubble number density 546
transport of concentrated species 722 bubbly flow algebraic yplus (bf) interface
transport of diluted species 681 392
turbulent bubbly flow 397 bubbly flow k-epsilon (bf) interface 395
turbulent flow (hmnf) interface 299 bubbly flow k-omega (bf) interface 398
turbulent flow, k-epsilon (spf) 82 bubbly flow Low Re k-epsilon (bf) inter-
turbulent flow, k-omega (spf) 84 face 401
atmosphere/gauge (node) 619 bubbly flow L-VEL (bf) interface 393
automatic wall treatment 204, 207, 217, bubbly flow Realizable k-epsilon (bf) in-
222, 225, 229, 232 terface 397
average linear velocity 658 bubbly flow Spalart-Allmaras (bf) inter-

B Basset force 564 face 403

border (node) bubbly flow SST (bf) interface 400

INDEX| 921
 bubbly flow v2f (bf) interface 405 dispersed phase number density 553
dispersed phase particles 560
C Cahn-Hilliard equation 900, 906, 911
dispersed solid particles 563
cavitation, thin film flow 851
distance to cell center in viscous units
CFL number
variable 219, 222, 227, 234
high Mach number flow 332
documentation 30
pseudo time stepping, and 138
domain nodes
settings 76, 392, 429, 467, 626
Brinkman equations 626
chemical potential variable 904, 909
bubbly flow 407
common settings 59
Darcy’s law 601
compressible euler equations interface
Euler-Euler interface 470
316
free and porous media flow 635
concentration (node) 691
hmnf interfaces 300
concentration of species 675
level set 874
conjugate heat transfer multiphysics in-
mm interfaces 446
terface
phase field 879
theory 280
rmspf interfaces 142
contact angle (node) 145, 387
ternary phase field 890
continuity (node) 324, 496, 877, 883
tff interface 821, 859
hmnf interfaces 301
tffs interfaces 821, 859
continuity equation, multiphase flow 551
tpdl interface 644
convection 785
transport of concentrated species 723
convective terms, diluted species 777
transport of diluted species 682
Couette flow 837
domain properties (node) 859
creeping flow 383
domain source (node)
creeping flow (spf) interface 70
shallow water equations 860, 863
theory 150
drag force 564
D Damköhler number 811
drag law, Hadamard-Rybczynski 557, 587
damping, slide-film 832
Dusty gas model 719
damping, squeeze-film 832
E eddy dissipation concept (EDC) 812
Darcy velocity 615, 785
eddy viscosity 199
Darcy’s law interface 599
edge nodes
theory 655
Darcy’s law interface 601
defining species concentration 675
hmnf interfaces 300
dense flows 565
tff interface 821, 859
diffusion models 718
tffs interface 821, 859
dispersed liquid droplets 562
electrode-electrolyte interface coupling
dispersed phase boundary conditions
(node)
554

922 | I N D E X
 free and porous media flow 612 bf interfaces 408
transport of diluted species 701, 732 cee interface 319
elevation 611 free and porous media flow 636
emailing COMSOL 32 spf interfaces 98
entropy waves 330 fluid-film properties (node) 821
Eötvös number 547 fluid-fluid interface (node) 384
Equilibrium Reaction fluids and matrix properties (node) 645
theory for 775 fluid-solid mixtures 562
equilibrium reaction (node) 697, 742 flux (node)
Ergun packed bed expression 565 transport of concentrated species 736
Ettehadieh solid pressure model 569 transport of diluted species 691
Euler-Euler equations 569 flux discontinuity (node) 693
bubbly flow 543 Darcy’s law 616
Euler-Euler model, laminar flow (ee) in- transport of concentrated species 741
terface 465 transport of diluted species 693
theory 560 fracture flow (node) 622
Euler-Euler model, turbulent flow (ee) free and porous media flow interface 633
interface 468 theory 663
external fluid interface (node) 385 Freundlich exponent 791
frozen rotor 251
F fan (node) 123
Fukui and Kaneko 844
fan curves
fully developed flow 112
inlet boundary condition 124
Faraday’s law 782 G gas boundary conditions 423
Favre average 200, 282 gas constant 806
Fick’s law approximation diffusion 799 gaseous cavitation 851
Fick’s law diffusion model 720 general stress (boundary stress condi-
flow continuity (node) 131, 423, 484 tion) 118
flow rate in SCCMs 110 geometry frames 535
fluid (node) geometry, simplifying 39
hmnf interfaces 302 Gidaspow and Ettehadieh solid pressure
fluid flow model 569
approaches to analysis 38 Gidaspow model 565
Brinkman equations theory 660 Gidaspow solid pressure model 569
turbulent flow theory 197 Ginzburg-Landau equation 901, 907
two-phase flow moving mesh theory gravity 135
534 gravity (node)
fluid properties 39 bf interfaces 413
fluid properties (node) ee interfaces 477

INDEX| 923
 mm interfaces 453 tpdl interface 646
gravity, cee 324 transport of concentrated species 735
grille (node) 129 transport of diluted species 687
initializing functions 898, 903
H Hadamard-Rybczynski drag law 557, 587
inlet (boundary stress condition) 119
Haider-Levenspiel slip model 557, 587
inlet (node) 107
Heat source (node)
bf interfaces 416
cee interface 320
cee 321
Henry’s law 412
Darcy’s law 615
high Mach number flow (hmnf) interfaces
ee interface 479
theory 325
hmnf interfaces 305
high mach number flow, k-epsilon (hmnf)
mm interfaces 458
interface 296
shallow water equations 861
high mach number flow, laminar inter-
single-phase flow 107, 321
face 295
ternary phase field 892–893
high mach number flow, Spalart-Allmaras
thin-film flow 829
(hmnf) interface 298
tpdl interface 648
high Schmidt numbers 808
interface normal variable 899, 904, 909
hybrid outlet 331
interior fan 813
hydraulic head (node) 619
interior fan (node) 126
Hygroscopic Swelling 711
interior wall (node)
I implementing, Euler-Euler equations 569
bf interfaces 422
inflow (node) 690
cee interfaces 323
transport of concentrated species 737
ee interface 482
initial values (node)
mm interfaces 462
bf interfaces 413
shallow water equations 863
Brinkman equations 630
spf interfaces 128
cee interface 319
thin-film flow 830
Darcy’s law 609
interior wetted wall (node) 883, 888
ee interface 475
internet resources 30
free and porous media flow 639
interphase momentum transfer 564
hmnf interfaces 302
intrinsic volume averages 660
level set 875, 881
K Karman constant 287, 810
mm interfaces 453
Kays-Crawford models 285
phase field 892
k-epsilon turbulence model 80, 91, 93–94,
shallow water equations 860
207
single-phase, laminar flow 102
knowledge base, COMSOL 33
spf interfaces 102
Knudsen diffusion 719
thin-film flow 829

924 | I N D E X
 Knudsen number 844 L-VEL turbulence model 78
k-omega turbulence model 83
M mass action law, laminar flow 805
Krieger type model 563, 586
mass based concentrations (node) 687
Krieger type viscosity model 450, 504
mass conservation, level set equations
L laminar bubbly flow (bf) interface 389 521, 528
theory 543 mass flux (node)
laminar flow interface 70 Darcy’s law 613
laminar mixture model (mm) interface tpdl interface 647
theory 550 mass fraction (node) 735
laminar three-phase flow, phase field in- mass fractions 675
terface 378 mass source (node)
laminar two-phase flow Brinkman equations 629
moving mesh interface 382 Darcy’s law 608
laminar two-phase flow, level set (tpf) in- mass transfer (node)
terface 354, 365–366, 372–373 bf interfaces 411
Langmuir constant 791 ee interfaces 476
leaking wall, wall boundary condition mm interfaces 452
105, 642 mass transport 796
level set functions, initializing 898, 903 material frames 535
level set interface 872 mathematics, moving interfaces
theory 516, 525, 895 level set 872
level set model (node) 874 phase field 878, 884, 889
lift force 564 theory 895, 900, 906, 911
line mass source (node) Maxwell-Stefan diffusion model 719
fluid flow 132 mean value closure 811
species transport 695 MEMS Module 641
line source mesh frames 535
species transport 779 meshing 41
local microfluidic wall conditions (node) 640
CFL number 76, 392, 429, 467, 626 mixture continuity (node) 464
local CFL number 138, 241 mixture model, algebraic yPlus (mm) in-
high Mach number flow 332 terface 429
low re k-epsilon turbulence model 86, 90 mixture model, k-epsilon (mm) interface
low Reynolds number 433
k-epsilon turbulence theory 223 mixture model, k-omega (mm) interface
low Reynolds number wall treatment 436
204, 206, 219, 222, 226, 230, 234 mixture model, laminar flow (mm) inter-
lubrication 831 face 425

INDEX| 925
 mixture model, low Re k-epsilon (mm) no viscous stress (open boundary) 117
interface 440 nodes, common settings 59
mixture model, L-VEL (mm) interface nonconservative formulations 521, 528,
431 777
mixture model, realizable k-epsilon nonisothermal flow interface
(mm) interface 435 theory 280
mixture model, Spalart-Allmaras (mm) normal stress, normal flow (boundary
interface 442 stress condition) 118
mixture model, SST (mm) interface 438
O Ohm’s law 782
mixture model, v2-f (mm) interface 444
open boundary (boundary stress condi-
mixture properties (node) 447, 890
tion) 119
mixture viscosity 449
open boundary (node)
mixture-averaged diffusion model 719,
level set 876
797
single-phase flow 117
modeling strategy 38
spf interfaces 117
modified Reynolds equation, gas flow 843
transport of concentrated species 742
modified Reynolds equation, thin-film
transport of diluted species 696
flow 831
out (node)
momentum balance equations 561
cee 322
moving interfaces 900, 906, 911
outflow (node)
MPH-files 32
transport of concentrated species 740
multiphase flow
transport of diluted species 691
moving mesh theory 534
outlet (boundary stress condition) 119
multiphase flow theory 516, 525, 543,
outlet (node) 113
550, 895, 900, 906, 911
bf interfaces 419
N Navier-Stokes equations 516 cee interfaces 322
Nernst-Einstein relation 686, 703, 707, Darcy’s law 617
781 hmnf interfaces 306
Neumann condition 211 mm interfaces 460
no flow (node) 616 shallow water equations 862
Darcy’s law 616 single-phase flow 113
level set 876 spf interfaces 113
no flux (node) 689 ternary phase field 892
tpdl interface 647 thin-film flow 830
transport of concentrated species 738 tpdl interface 648
no slip, interior wall boundary condition
P pair nodes
128
Brinkman equations 626
no slip, wall boundary condition 103, 641
Darcy’s law interface 601

926 | I N D E X
 Euler-Euler interface 470 transport of diluted species 682
free and porous media flow 635 point source
hmnf interfaces 300 species transport 778
level set 874 Poiseuille flow 837
phase field 879 porous electrode coupling (node) 700
rmspf interfaces 142 free and porous media flow 612
ternary phase field 890 porous media and subsurface flow
tff interface 821, 859 Brinkman equations interface 623
tffs interfaces 821, 859 Darcy’s law interface 599
transport of concentrated species 723 free and porous media flow interface
transport of diluted species 682 633
partially saturated porous media (node) theory, Brinkman equations 660
705 theory, free and porous media flow
perfectly stirred reactor 811 663
perforations (node) 828 porous media transport properties
periodic condition (node) (node) 701, 705, 728
transport of diluted species 694 Porous Medium (node)
periodic flow condition (node) 122, 421, Brinkman equations 627, 637
461 Prandtl number 285
permeability models 606 pressure (node) 613, 615, 617
pervious layer (node) 620 pressure and saturation (node) 647
phase field interface 878 pressure head (node) 619
theory 516, 525, 900, 906, 911 pressure point constraint (node) 131
phase field model (node) 880, 886 pseudo time step 803
phase properties (node) 471 pseudo time stepping
physics interfaces, common settings 59 hmnf interfaces 332
point mass source (node) settings 76, 392, 429, 467, 626
fluid flow 132
R RANS
species transport 696
Euler-Euler interface 393–394, 396,
point nodes
398–399, 401–402, 404–405, 430,
Brinkman equations 626
432–433, 435, 437, 439–440, 442,
Darcy’s law interface 601
444
Euler-Euler interface 470
mixture model interface 469
free and porous media flow 635
theory, single-phase flow 198
hmnf interfaces 300
rarefied gas 844
rmspf interfaces 142
rarefied, general accommodation 825
tff interface 821, 859
rarefied, total accommodation 824
tffs interfaces 821, 859
rarefied-general accommodation 845

INDEX| 927
 rarefied-total accommodation 845 single-phase flow interfaces 62
Reacting Volume 688 SEMI standard E12-0303 109
reaction (node) 732 shallow water equations, time explicit
reaction coefficients (node) 700 (swe) interface 856
reaction rate, turbulence and 811 shallow water interfaces
reactions (node) theory 865
transport of concentrated species 734 single-phase flow
transport of diluted species 688 turbulent flow theory 197
Realizable k-epsilon turbulence model single-phase flow interface
82, 214 laminar flow 70
removing species 675 slide-film damping 832
retardation factor 791 sliding wall 106, 457, 479
Reynolds number 273, 753 slip length 844
extended Kays-Crawford 286 slip model
low, turbulence theory 223 Hadamard-Rybczynski 557, 587
slip velocity models 557, 588 Schiller-Naumann 557, 587
turbulent flow theory 197 slip model theory 546
Reynolds stress tensor 199, 208 Haider-Levenspiel 557, 587
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes. See Reynolds number 557, 588
RANS. slip velocity, wall boundary condition 104
rotating machinery (rmspf) interfaces slip, interior wall boundary condition 128
theory 249 slip, wall boundary condition 104, 641
rotating machinery, laminar flow (rmspf) solid pressure and particle interaction
interface 137 568
rotating machinery, turbulent flow (rm- Soret effect 800
spf) interface 139–141 sound waves 330
rough walls 211 Spalart-Allmaras turbulence model 88
spatial frames 535
S SCCM, flow rate in 110
squeeze-film damping 832
Schiller-Naumann slip model 557, 587
SST turbulence model 84
Schmidt number 556, 572, 574, 585, 807
standard cubic centimeters per minute
screen (node) 120
110
selecting
standard flow rate 110
heat transfer interfaces 260
standard settings 59
high Mach number flow (hmnf) inter-
static pressure curves 121, 124
faces 294
Stokes equations 70
multiphase flow interfaces 341
Stokes flow 70, 383
porous media and subsurface flow in-
stratified porous media 789
terfaces 594

928 | I N D E X
 superficial volume average, porous me- nonisothermal flow 280
dia 661 phase field 900, 906, 911
superficial volume averages, porous me- rmspf interfaces 249
dia 785 shallow water equations 865
supersonic inlet 331 spf interfaces 150
supersonic outlet 332 thin-film flow 831
Supporting Electrolytes 781 tpf interfaces 516, 525
surface equilibrium reaction (node) 699, transport of concentrated species in-
743 terface 796
surface tension force variable 904, 909 transport of diluted species in porous
Sutherland’s law 304, 327 media interface 774
swirl flow 209 transport of diluted species interface
symmetry (node) 116 773
bf interfaces 420 turbulent flow k-epsilon model 197
cee interface 323 turbulent flow low re k-epsilon model
cee interfaces 307 197
Darcy’s law 616 two-phase flow moving mesh 534
mm interfaces 461 thermal creep, wall boundary condition
shallow water equations 863 105
spf interfaces 116 thermal diffusion 800
thin-film flow 830 thickness
transport of concentrated species 741 fracture 714
transport of diluted species 693 out-of-plane 611
thin barrier (node)
T technical support, COMSOL 32
level set 877
tensors
thin diffusion barrier (node) 697
Reynolds stress 208
Thin Impermeable Barrier 697
ternary phase field interface 889
thin-film flow interfaces
theory
theory 831
bf interfaces 543
thin-film flow, domain (tffs) interface 819
Brinkman equations 660
thin-film flow, edge (tff) interface 820
conjugate heat transfer multiphysics
thin-film flow, shell (tffs) interface 816
interface 280
thin-film gas flows 843
Darcy’s law 655
TMAC, microfluidic wall conditions 641
Euler-Euler model, laminar flow 560
Torczynski and Gallis 846
free and porous media flow 663
tortuosity factors 787
hmnf interfaces 325
traction boundary conditions 118
level set 895
transport mechanisms 724, 731
mm interfaces 550

INDEX| 929
 transport of concentrated species in po- interface 82
rous media interface 722 turbulent flow Spalart-Allmaras (spf) in-
transport of concentrated species inter- terface 88
face 716 turbulent flow, SST (spf) interface 84
theory 796 turbulent kinetic energy theory
transport of diluted species in porous k-epsilon model 207
media interface 681 RANS 201
theory 774 turbulent length scale 236
transport of diluted species interface 677 turbulent mass transport flux 806
theory 773 turbulent mixing 795, 801
turbulence models turbulent mixture model (mm) interface
algebraic yPlus 77, 201 theory 550
k-epsilon 80, 91, 93–94, 207 turbulent non-isothermal flow interfaces
k-omega 83 theory 282
low re k-epsilon 86, 90 turbulent Prandtl number 273, 285, 753
L-VEL 78, 205 turbulent Schmidt number 795, 801
Realizable k-epsilon 82, 214 turbulent two-phase flow, level set (tpf)
Spalart-Allmaras 88, 228 interfaces 355
SST 84 two-fluid Euler-Euler model
turbulence models, reacting flow 806 bubbly flow 543
turbulent bubbly flow (bf) interface two-phase Darcy’s law (tpdl) interface
theory 543 643
turbulent compressible flow 200 two-phase flow
turbulent conjugate heat transfer moving mesh, theory 534
theory 282
U undamped turbulent kinematic viscosity
turbulent flow algebraic yPlus (spf) inter-
228
face 77
Ungarish 559
turbulent flow k-epsilon (spf) interface
V vacuum pump (node) 121
80, 91, 93–94
vapor cavitation 851
turbulent flow k-epsilon interface
variables
theory 197
distance to cell center in viscous units
turbulent flow k-omega interface 83
219, 222, 227, 234
turbulent flow low re k-epsilon (spf) in-
level set interface 899
terface 86, 90
phase field interface 904, 909
turbulent flow low re k-epsilon interface
viscous drag, coefficient 547
theory 197
viscous slip, wall boundary condition 104
turbulent flow L-VEL (spf) interface 78
volume averages 660
turbulent flow Realizable k-epsilon (spf)
volume force (node) 102

930 | I N D E X
 Brinkman equations 630
cee interface 320
ee interfaces 477
free and porous media flow 639
spf interfaces 102
vorticity waves 330

W wall (node)
bf interfaces 414
cee 320
ee interface 477
free and porous media flow 641
mm interfaces 454
shallow water equations 863
single-phase flow 103
thin-film flow 830
wall distance initialization study step 221,
225, 232
wall functions 210, 218
rough walls 211
wall functions, turbulent flow 210
wall roughness 104, 128
wall treatment
automatic 204, 207, 217, 222, 225, 229,
232
low Reynolds number 204, 206, 219,
222, 226, 230, 234
wall functions 210, 218
websites, COMSOL 33
well posedness 328
Wen and Yu fluidized state expression
565
wetted wall (boundary condition) 360
wetted wall (node) 882, 887, 893

INDEX| 931
932 | I N D E X