C2 The Nature of Matter

Monday, November 13, 2023

Monday, 13 November 2023 LO: To describe the process of diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion is the natural spreading out of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
Eventually equilibrium will be reached in which there are the same number of particles
in both areas.
What factors can affect the rate of diffusion?
1. Temperature – at higher temperatures particles have more kinetic energy and
will diffuse faster.
2. Concentration gradient – the greater the difference in concentration between
two areas, the steeper the concentration gradient and the faster the rate of
diffusion.
3. Concentration - The greater the concentration, the more collisions there will be
between particles, reducing the rate of diffusion.
4. Mass of particles – The greater the mass of the particles, the heavier the particles
are. The heavier the particles are, the slower they will move and the rate of
diffusion will be reduced.
The States of Matter
• States of matter – draw and label
• Physical changes
• State properties
• Heating and cooling curves – draw and label
• Changes of state – energy goes into breaking or forming
intermolecular bonds
• Mixtures
Monday, November 13, 2023 LO: To describe the three states of matter

States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas

Starter: What can you remember about the

three states of matter?

• Fixed volume • Fixed volume • No fixed volume

• High density • Moderate to high • Low density
• Definite shape density • No definite shape
• Does not flow • No definite shape • Flows easily
• Generally flow easily
 LO: To describe the three states of matter

C2.01 The States of Matter

Physical State Volume Density Shape Fluidity
Solid Fixed High Definite shape Does not flow
No definite shape,
Generally flows
Liquid Fixed Moderate/High takes shape of
easily
container

No definite shape,
Not fixed – expands to
takes shape of
Gas fill container, can be Low Flows easily
container
compressed?

Link to p201
Monday, November 13, 2023 LO: To describe changes in physical state
Monday, November 13, 2023 LO: To describe the changes in physical state

Sublimation

Melting Evaporation/boiling

Freezing Condensing

Deposition
 Starter – Can you
remember the
names of the
changes of state?

(24) Changes of State | Matter | Physics | FuseSchool - YouTube

(24) Evaporation, Vapor Pressure and Boiling - YouTube

 LO: To distinguish between evaporation and boiling

Evaporation vs Boiling
Evaporation
• When a liquid is left with its surface exposed
to the air, particles with more kinetic energy
may overcome their intermolecular bonds
and escpae into the air as a gas.

What factors effect the rate of evaporation?

• Surface area of the liquid.
• The temperature of the liquid
 LO: To describe the terms melting point and boiling point

Evaporation vs Boiling
Boiling
• When the temperature of a liquid is high enough
for a gas to form within the liquid, not just at the
surface
• Takes place at a specific temperature known as
the boiling point (b.p.) for each pure liquid
• B.p. is effected by the volatility of the substance

A volatile liquid is one which evaporates easily

and has relatively low boiling point.
 LO: To describe the effect of pressure of boiling points
You need to rem
ember
Pressure this, no pressure
!

• The boiling point of a liquid can change if the

surrounding pressure changes.
• If the surrounding pressure falls, the b.p. falls
• If the surrounding pressure rises, the b.p. rises

Can you make a good cup of tea at the top of a A t the ocean depth
s,
mount Everest? water can boil at 4 o
00 C
No. The higher the altitude, the lower the because of the hig
her
atmospheric pressure. pressure.
The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling
point. At the top of Everest, water boils at 68oC,
too cold for the tea to infuse into the water
effectively.
 LO: To describe how purity affects melting and boiling points

Pure and Impure Substances

• A pure substance consists of only one substance and has specific
melting and boiling points (elements and compounds)

• The m.p. and b.p. determine whether a substance is solid, liquid or

gas at a specific temperature

• If a substance’s m.p. is below 20oC and its boiling point is above 20oC,
it will be a liquid at room temperature
 LO: To describe how purity affects melting and boiling points

Pure and Impure Substances

Task – Copy and complete the table to determine whether the substances
will be solid, liquid or gas at room temperature

State at room
Element Melting point (°C) Boiling Point (°C)
temperature (21°C)?
Chlorine -101 -34 Gas
Iodine 114 184 Solid
Fluorine -220 -188 Gas
Bromine -7 59 Liquid

How could M.p. and b.p. be used to determine the purity or identity of a
substance?
 LO: To describe how purity affects melting and boiling points

The effect of Impurities

The presence of an impurity in a substance:
• Lowers the melting point
• Raises the boiling point
• The m.p. and b.p. will also be spread over a range of temperatures
(rather than being definite and sharp)

• Sea water contains about 3.5% salt and freezes at -2oC

• A 10% salt solution freezes at -6oC
• A 20% solution freezes at -16oC
• Sea water boils at 102.5oC
Lab Safety
• Safety goggles
• Hair tied back
• No tripping hazards
• No running
• No eating
• If you are unsure, ask
• If you break something, tell me
• Sensible and responsible
LO: To investigate the affect of impurities on
boiling points Equipment:
50ml NaCl solution
• We are going to investigate the boiling points of two 50ml tap water
solutions Beaker
• Tap water Thermometers
• Saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution Safety goggles
• We will use distilled water as a control Measuring cylinder
Bunsen burner
• Record results in a table Gauze
Saturated NaCl Tripod
Distilled water Tap water
solution
 LO: To describe how purity affects melting and boiling points

The effect of Impurities

 LO: To explain changes of state in relation to heating and cooling curves

Heating and Cooling Curves

During a change of state,
Heating Curve
the supplied energy is not
used to increase the
kinetic energy of the
molecules, but to change
the binding energies
(creating or breaking
intermolecular bonds).
Therefore, the
temperature remains
constant.
What can you tell from this graph?
 LO: To explain changes of state in relation to heating and cooling curves

Heating Curve

What can you tell from this graph?

 LO: To explain changes of state in relation to heating and cooling curves

Heating and Cooling Curves

• When a pure substance changes state, the temperature stays the same
until all of the substance has changed state
• The heating or cooling curve for an impure substance would show the
change of state occurring over a range of temperatures.

Why does the temperature stay the same as the change of state occurs?
• During melting or boiling, the increasing energy of the substance is used
to overcome intermolecular bonds, rather than raising the temperature
of the substance
• The same is true during condensing and freezing
 LO: To describe how purity affects melting and boiling points

The effect of Impurities

 LO: To explain changes of state in relation to heating and cooling curves

Heating and Cooling Curves

• Investigating heating and cooling practical
 LO: To distinguish between mixtures and solutions

Mixtures and Solutions

• Read through ‘Types of mixture’ from p192 and try
to define the key terms below
Match the key Terms to their descriptions:
Mixture A solid that dissolves in a liquid (solvent)

Solution A material made up of two or more different chemical substances

Solute The liquid in which a solute dissolves

Solvent A liquid mixture in which one substance (solute) completely dissolves in another (solvent)

Suspension A type of mixture in which the states of the substances remain separate
 LO: To distinguish between mixtures and solutions

Mixtures and Solutions

• Read through ‘Types of mixture’ from p192 and try
to define the key terms below
Key Terms:
Mixture A material made up of two or more different chemical substances

Solution A liquid mixture in which one substance (solute) completely dissolves in another (solvent)

Solute A solid that dissolves in a liquid (solvent)

Solvent The liquid in which a solute dissolves

Suspension A type of mixture in which the states of the substances remain separate
 LO: To distinguish between mixtures and solutions

Solutions
• A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another
• Examples – seawater, alcoholic drinks
• Alcohol and water are completely miscible
 LO: To describe methods of separating and purifying substances

C2.02 Separating and Purifying Substances

• There are many physical techniques which can be used to separate
substances. These depend on the physical properties of the
substances.
Separating Techniques
• Solid and solid • Difference in properties (density,
• Suspension of a solid in a liquid solubility, sublimation,
magnetism)
• Immiscible liquids • Filtration or centrifugation
• Separating funnel or decantation
• Solution of solid in liquid • Evaporation (crystallisation)
• Miscible liquids • Distillation
• Fractional distillation
• Solution of more than one solid in liquid • Chromatography
 LO: To describe methods of separating and purifying substances

C2.02 Separating and Purifying Substances

 LO: To describe methods of separating and purifying substances

C2.03 Atoms and Molecules Key Terms

Atom
• Pure substances – elements and compounds Element
Compound
• Schematic representation of matter p198 Nucleus
• Decomposition and synthesis Proton
Neutron
• Recap physical and chemical changes Electron
Relative atomic mass
• Recap physical and chemical properties Atomic number (z)
Mass number (a)
• Kinetic model of matter and changes in physical Isotopes
state p201
• Diffusion
• Introduction to atoms and molecules
 LO: To distinguish between atoms, elements and compounds and describe the structure of an atom.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Starter – Write down what you can remember about atoms, elements
and compounds
Using p275-277, write definitions for the following key terms:
• Atom
• Element
• Compound
• Molecule
• Mixture
 LO: To distinguish between atoms, elements and compounds and describe the structure of an atom.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

• Atom – Smallest particle which shows the chemical characteristics of a
particular element
• Element – substance which cannot be further divided into simpler
substances by chemical methods and atoms contain same number of
protons
• Compound – Substance formed from chemical combination of two or
more elements in fixed proportions
• Molecule – Two or more atoms chemically bonded together
• Mixture – Two or more elements or molecules mixed together without
being chemically bonded
 LO: To distinguish between atoms, elements and compounds and describe the structure of an atom.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Copy the diagram and
use p277 to add the nucleus electron
definitions of the key
terms in the diagram
(nucleus, electron,
proton, neutron)

neutron proton
Google Classroom Class Codes
• Login – firstname.secondname@thebritishcollege.com
• Password – 12345678, you can then change your password.

•10G - smq6nky
•10P - dqoudwd
•10R - eghpiz5
•10Y - u5zlwgd
 LO: To distinguish between atoms, elements and compounds and describe the structure of an atom.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Properties of Subatomic Particles

Sub-atomic Location of
Relative mass Relative charge
particle atom
Proton 1 +1 In nucleus
Neutron 1 0 In nucleus

Electron 0 -1 Outside nucleus

(1/1840 negligible)
 LO: To describe how electron configuration relates to an element’s position in the periodic
table.
Extension: Answer
C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds Qs from p279

This is the mass number This is the

(nucleon number, A) 4 symbol for
He helium
2

This is the
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
atomic number
= number of electrons
(proton number,
Mass number (A) = number of protons + neutrons
Z)
Number of neutrons = A -Z
 LO: To describe how electron configuration relates to an element’s position in the periodic
table.
Extension: Answer
C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds Qs from p279

This is the mass number This is the

(nucleon number, A) 4 symbol for
He helium
This is the atomic 2
number (proton
number, Z) Atomic number (Z) = number of protons
= number of electrons
Mass number (A) = number of protons +
Change in number of protons = different element neutrons
Change in number of electrons = ion (+ve or -ve)
Change in number of neutrons = isotope
Number of neutrons = A -Z
LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.
 LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Bohr’s theory of the arrangement of electrons in an
atom;
1. Electrons are in orbit around the central nucleus of
an atom.
2. The electron orbits are called shells or energy levels
and have different energies.
3. The shells are filled starting with the one with the
lowest energy (closest to the nucleus).
4. The first shell can hold only two electrons.
Niels Bohr
5. The second and subsequent shells can hold eight Danish Physicist
electrons to give a stable (noble gas) arrangement of 1885 – 1962
electrons.
 LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

How reactive an element is, depends on its electron configuration (the number of
electrons in each of its electron shells).

The electron configuration of an element determines an elements group and period in

the periodic table.

E.g. an element with 1 electron in its outer shell will be in group 1.

And an element with 3 shells (energy levels) of electrons will be in period (row) 3 of the
periodic table.

This can all be determined by an element’s atomic (proton) number.

 LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.

C2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

Electron configurations are written with the number of electrons in each shell, starting
from the shell closest to the nucleus, and separated by a comma.

Potassium (K) Group 1, Period 4

Atomic number (Z) = 19

Electrons = 19

Electron configuration = 2, 8, 8, 1
LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.
LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.
P283 LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.
LO: To describe electron configuration relates to an elements position in the periodic table.
Monday, November 13, 2023 LO: To describe what an isotope is

Isotopes Task:

• Pure samples of many elements contain atoms with different masses. The
different masses are a result of a different number of neutrons. When this
happens, these atoms are known as isotopes.
• Isotopes are defined by their mass number. E.g. The isotopes of carbon
are carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14

Hydrogen has two naturally

occurring isotopes and one
which can be made artificially.
Chemical Bonding
LO:
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Chemical Bonding Starter: Write down what you can

remember about chemical bonding.
• Atoms with incomplete outer electron shells are unstable.

• By forming bonds, atoms completely fill their outer shells and become stable.

• All types of bonding involve changes in the number of electrons in the outer shells
of atoms.
Ionic bonding Metal and non-metal atoms

Covalent bonding Non-metal atoms only

Metallic bonding Metal atoms only

 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Ionic Bonding
A type of chemical bonding in which valence electrons are transferred from a metal to a
non-metal resulting in a strong electrostatic attraction between the oppositely charged ions.
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Ionic Bonding
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Ionic Bonding Past Paper Question

 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Ionic Bonding Past Paper Question

The group 2 element magnesium donates the 2 electrons from

its outer shell to become a positively charged cation. These two
electrons are received by the oxygen which requires 2 electrons
in order to have a stable electron configuration and becomes a
negatively charged anion. The oppositely charged ions create a
strong electrostatic force of attraction between them.
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Covalent Bonding
A type of chemical bond between non-metal
atoms that involves the sharing of electrons
to form electron pairs.
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Covalent Bonding
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Covalent Bonding
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Covalent Bonding
 LO: To be able to describe ionic, covalent and metallic bonding

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is a type of
chemical bonding that arises
from the electrostatic
attraction between a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons and
positively charged metal
ions.
Relative atomic mass
Atoms are so small that their mass is not measured in grams but in atomic
mass units.
The atoms of each type of element have a relative atomic mass (RAM).
The element carbon is the atom that the mass of all other atoms is
compared to. Carbon has a RAM of 12.

C Relative atomic mass = 12

Relative atomic mass – examples
The lightest atom is hydrogen. It has 1⁄12 the mass of carbon and so has a
RAM of 1.
12 atoms x 1 = 1 atom x 12
H H
H H HH
H
C
H H HH H
HHH H
H
H H
HH H
H H

Magnesium is twice as heavy as carbon. It has a RAM of 24.

1 atom x 24 = 2 atoms x 12
Mg C C
Mg
How many protons?
The atoms of any particular element always contain the same
number of protons. For example:
● hydrogen atoms always contain 1 proton;
● carbon atoms always contain 6 protons;
● magnesium atoms always contain 12 protons,
The number of protons in an atom is
known as its atomic number
or proton number.

It is the smaller of the two numbers shown in

most periodic tables.
What’s the atomic number?
What are the atomic numbers of these elements?

sodium iron tin fluorine

11 26 50 9
Mass number
Electrons have a mass of almost zero, which means that the mass of each atom
results almost entirely from the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom’s

nucleus is the mass number. It is the larger of the
two numbers shown in most periodic tables.

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass number

hydrogen 1 0 1
lithium 3 4 7
aluminium 13 14 27
What’s the mass number?
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

What is the mass number of these atoms?

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass number

helium 2 2 4

copper 29 35 64

cobalt 27 32 59

iodine 53 74 127

germanium 32 41 73
How many neutrons?
Number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons
= mass number - atomic number

How many neutrons are there in these atoms?

Mass Atomic Number of

Atom
number number neutrons
helium 4 2 2

fluorine 19 9 10

strontium 88 38 50

zirconium 91 40 51

uranium 238 92 146

 LO: To describe the structure of an atom

C2.04 The Structure of the Atom

• Table C2.08 p205 (copy into books)

• Change in number of protons element

• Change in number of neutrons isotope
• Change in number of electrons ion
 LO: To describe the structure of an atom

C2.04 The Structure of the Atom

 LO: To describe methods of separating and purifying substances
Extension: Look at yo
C2.05 Electron Arrangements in Atoms completed table. Wh
patterns can you ide
ur
at
ntify?
• Need to be able to work out the electron arrangements for the first 20
elements.
• Students draw table in books (8 columns and 21 rows in total)
Atomic Electron
Element Symbol 1st Shell 2nd Shell 3rd Shell 4th Shell
Number, Z configuration

• Each student gets 5 mins to study (memorise) the electron arrangement

of one particular element out of the first 20.
• Student then move around the room teaching each other about the
element they studied whilst completing the table in their books (they
should be able to reproduce table C2.10 from the textbook)